A Seminar Paper On “St Thomas Tradition of Christianity in India”

Submitted to: Rev Dr Rajeevan M Thomas

Submitted by: Prince Thomas, M.Th – 1, F.T.S

1.1 Introduction
As far as the Christianity of India is concerned, the Saint Thomas Christians can be perceived as an
ancient body of Christians on the east and west coasts of India who owe their origin to the rich heritage and
spiritual descent from Thomas the Apostle. An enigmatic question that has been prevalent since time
immemorial is the place of the initial arrival of Apostle Thomas in India which remains to be still a
debatable question1 Though the Indian Christian community at large believes that St. Thomas, one of the
twelve apostles of Lord Jesus Christ had brought Christianity to India this strongly held belief by the
Christians has been widely discussed by the scholars in the past on several grounds. The pivotal idea one
needs to remember while doing a historical inquiry is that the lack of historical evidence does not
necessarily imply lack of historical validity rather it may simply be the case of lack of ‘accessibility to the
extant sources’ or ‘of complete destruction/no further existence’ of the relevant historical proofs. In
relation to such a context the study of the traditions already existing proves renders one a foundation to
explore and also proves to be quintessential in the historical scholarship. Considering the arguments posted
above, in this paper the presenter makes an attempt to look at the different traditions of St Thomas
Christianity in India.
1.1.1 The historical quest of the Indian Christians
The antiquity of Christian communities in India, along with the origin of Christian institutions, is not
easy to identify, trace or understand, questions of historicity and antiquity are matters of profound
complexity with answers coming from the south and north, east and west. Even as one keeps, these things in
mind, the present writer would like to appreciate how peoples of India have themselves produced, preserved
and even come up with their own unique kinds of historical interpretation in the light of the different
resources available at hand which shows that Indians portray a historical quest and longing.
The Christians of India have tended to fashion their own historical understandings in ways
comparable to those of other people. They have preserved their own itihasa-puranas and their own
genealogies (vamshavalis) Family members have told and retold their own stories about how the lineages in
their own communities first came into being, settled in their own places and developed their own
institutions. Their own traditions have indicated that the Apostle Thomas came by sea from Arabia and
landed on the Malabar coast. Alternatively, they have shown that he came overland, down from the north.
Details of arrival and subsequent events have been celebrated in song and verse for generations untold.
Lyrical sagas, such as the Margam Kali Pattu, the Ramban Pattu, the Thomma Parvam and so on.2
1.2 Syrian Christians of Kerala
The original Christian tradition, followed by the Syrian Christians of Kerala, is described as the path
of St. Thomas. In order to establish their distinct identity, they reiterated that the tradition of St. Thomas,
which they followed, was different from that of St. Peter, which was introduced by the Portuguese at the
Synod of Diamper in 1599, by which most of the Christians of Kerala were brought under Rome. The Syrian
Christians of Kerala were known by that name because Syriac was the language they used for their holy
rites. They were also called Nasrani Mappilahs. In North Malabar, Muslims were also known as Mappilah
Muslims. ‘Nasrani’ means those who follow Nazarene, a name of Christ who was born in Nazareth.3
1
Leslie, Brown, The Indian Christian of St. Thomas (London: Cambridge University Press), 195.
2
Roger E. Hedlund, Christianity Is Indian: The Emergence Of An Indigenous Community (Mylapore: MIIS, 2004), 18.
3
E. Tisserant, Eastern Christianity in India (London: Orient Longman, 1957),10.
1
Thomas Christians were also called St. Thomas Christians, Mar Thoma Christians, or Malabar Christians
who were the indigenous Indian Christian groups who have traditionally lived in Kerala, a state on the
Malabar Coast, in southwestern India. Claiming to have been evangelized by St. Thomas the Apostle,
Thomas Christians ecclesiastically, liturgically, and linguistically represent one of the oldest Christian
traditions in the world, particularly in Christianity outside the West. Although they no longer form a single
institutional church, Thomas Christians altogether constitutes a vibrant religious community. In the early
21st century there were about four million Thomas Christians in India, mainly within Kerala, and a small
worldwide diaspora.4
1.2.1 Existence of Trade
Kerala had foreign trade links even before the age of Christ. Prominent among the traders were
Jews, Arabs, Babylonians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Greeks, Chinese, and Romans. Such trade links existed
even during the time of the Israeli ruler Solomon (BCE 977- 937). The Old Testament, 1 Kings 10: 21-22
says that during those days, Hiram, the King of Tyre, sent ships to the East for trade, and these ships
returned with gold, silver, ivory, monkeys and peacocks once every three years. The merchandise brought
by the ships of Tyre reached Palestine and made King Solomon the richest of all the rulers of the world. 5The
ships of King Hiram that brought gold from Ophir brought sandalwood and precious stones too. King
Solomon used the sandalwood for constructing pillars of the temple of Jehovah and of his palace, and for
making harps and psalteries for his singers. It is said that such high-quality sandalwood was never seen
again. This trade was carried out from the port of Ophir. There is an argument that Ophir might have been a
town in the southern coast of Arabia and South India did not have direct trade links with foreign countries.
In that case the Arabs must have been the intermediaries for the distant trade with Kerala. However, The
Malabar Manual written by William Logan says that Ophir was near Beypore in Kozhikode, Muziris
(Muriyakode), Purakkad, and Nelki were the main port cities of Kerala. There were also smaller ports like
Kollam, Ponnani, Kadalundy, and Udayamperoor on the western coast, on the basis of the writings of
Ptolemy and Pliny.6
1.2.2 Exploration of the Indian Soil.
Phoenicians had reached the coast of Kerala in BCE 2000. Since then, Arabs, Persians, and
Egyptians started concentrating on the ports in Kerala for trade. Yachts used to reach Kerala from various
destinations in 40 days. Arabs monopoly over the trade which came to an end with Hippalus, a Greek
mariner, detecting the course of the south-western wind on a sea route, which was kept a secret by the
Arabs. He was able to reach Kodungalloor from Galla Bay in 40 days along this sea route. Detection of the
course of monsoon winds revolutionized sea journey and Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Arabs, and Persians
joined the distant trade. However, until the arrival of Vasco da Gama, Arab traders maintained their
supremacy in the trade with Kerala.7
1.2.3 Instances of Local Records
Among the chief local sources are a few songs of which the Thomas Rambban Pattu and Margam
Kali Pattu are the best known. Many other songs associated with important churches and often used at
wedding feasts and other ceremonies are still preserved in Kerala and some of them are being rendered by
Hindu singers as well, for example, the Veeradian Pattu. It is likely that a few of these songs were taken
from manuscripts handed down from family to family. In the 16th century the Portuguese came to know that
The word `Mappilah’ was used only for those from abroad. Jews were known as Mappilah Jews.
4
R.E. Frykenberg, Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 43.
5
Michael Geddes, The History of the Church of Malabar: From the time of Its Being First Discovered by the Portuguese in the
Year 1501, trans., Michael Geddes (London: Sam. Smith & Benj. Walford, 1694), 36-42.
6
William, Logan. Malabar Manual (New Delhi: Asian Education Services, 2004),27.
7
Wilhelm Baum and Dietmar W. Winkler, The Church of the East: A Concise History (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003), 78.
2
the Christians of St Thomas had in their possession not only songs but also written records which
commemorated the life, work and death of St Thomas. But most of these records were destroyed after the
synod of Diamper. Some of the Hindu accounts such as the Keralolpathies, and even a Tamil account about
Kandappa Raja, also contain allusions to St Thomas and his works.8
1.2.4 Oral Tradition
Quite a few families claim to have been converted from the Namputhiri brahmins of Kerala. Even
though in course of time they emigrated from their original locations, they are said to remember many
details about their origins and can still point out their original compounds and localities in one of the places
visited by St Thomas, and some of them still use namputhiri names. A few families have a number of palm-
leaf documents (ola) in their private archives which, they think, contain all the details about their origin.
Placid Podipara, a veteran historian of the St Thomas Christians, who has taken great pains to explore their
traditions. He says:
“Again, the Christian families of one locality in Malabar which traditionally trace their origin from
the Apostle, do not contradict the same traditional claims of other families found in the same or other
localities of Malabar. The tenacity with which these family traditions have been held and the fact that
they existed certainly before the coming of the Portuguese, make it difficult to discredit them
completely. The Thomas Christians gave great honor to these families, and for many centuries the
prelacy and priesthood were confined to some of them.9
1.2.5 The Presence of Spices
Pepper was the main commodity exported from Kerala. It was the Greeks and Romans who
popularized the use of pepper in Europe. They used pepper for preserving food and also as a medicine.
Though in Kerala, it was a crop used only for medicinal purposes, it had a much more important place in
Europe. People of Europe needed the help of pepper to survive the winter. It was used with salt for
preserving meat for consumption during the four winter months. Pepper trade was almost as important as
gold trade. It is no exaggeration to say that Europeans started colonization for procuring pepper from Kerala.
Pepper was mainly exported from Muziris. Both Pliny and Ptolemy have written about it. Kodungalloor and
Kollam were important ports during those days.
Many Jewish colonies existed in the precincts of the present Kodungalloor during those days. Later
the Jews got converted to Christianity. Most of the trade relations were established with those who
embraced Christianity. The religious ties between West Asia and South India gave more energy to the trade.
Documents say that during the first century there was a church of Augustus in Muziris and about a thousand
Roman soldiers were posted there for the protection of trade. This was at a time when Christianity was
gaining ground in the State. Trade groups were constituted by merchants, missionaries, and soldiers.
Religion too was spread along with the trade.10
1.2.6 Migration of Jews
It is widely believed that when Romans destroyed the Jerusalem Church in CE 68, a band of Jews
migrated to Kerala.11 Certain historic documents confirm the presence of Jews in Kerala even before that.
Frankincense, cinnamon and other spices used as offerings in Jewish synagogues were produced in Kerala.

8
L.W. Brown, The Indian Christians of St.Thomas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1956) 16.
9
Some of the most important of these families are: Pakalomattam, Sankarapuri, Kalli, Kalikav, Koykkam, Madeipur, Muttodal,
Nedumpally, Panakkamattam, Kottakali etc. Certain of these families have a succession of priests and each of the priests regards
himself as the son or the 61st and soon, of his family, counting from the first who is believed to have been ordained by St
Thomas.” (See, K.M. Panikkar, A History of Kerala (Annamalai Nagar: Annamalai University, 1959), 7-11.)
10
R.E. Frykenberg, Christianity in India…, 46.
11
Placid J. Podippara, The Thomas Christians (London: Longman and Todd, 1970),81.
3
The destruction of the Jerusalem Church and religious persecutions had prompted them to migrate to Kerala
in large numbers. It must have been from Palestine that thousands of Jews migrated to Kerala, set up
markets, and started living here. The first propagation of Christianity might have taken place among them.
As historians the present writer feels that it won’t be wrong to believe that St. Thomas preached among his
own people whom he had felt, were lost.
The copper plates presented by King Bhaskara Ravi Varman I (CE 962-1020) are the oldest
documents regarding the Jews of Kerala. It is believed to have taken place in CE 1000. Rabi Benjamin of
Tudela who visited Kerala during CE 1167 has described the Israelites of Kollam. He refers to the thousands
of moderately complexioned Jews who lived there and their sound knowledge of the teachings of Moses and
the prophets. This is quoted by Hendry Lord in Jews in India and the Far East. Italian traveller Marco Polo
has made a mention of the Jewish colonies that existed during the 13th century. S. Koder establishes that,
following the destruction of the second church in Palestine, more than 1,000 Jews reached Kodungalloor in
CE 70.This migration has historical backing since Malabar had trade links with the Jews even during the
time of King Solomon12
1.2.7 Discovery of artifacts
The faith in the religion that was handed down by generations of Christians, gives stronger support to
the fact of the missionary activities of St. Thomas, than any historical evidence. Evidence regarding the
existence of a large Christian community in South India during the early centuries has been recovered from
Arthat, Palayoor, Muttuchira, and Neelamperoor. The inscription of a cross, on a stone that was found under
a huge stone cross at Arthat in 1991, and statue of a king wearing a rosary and wielding a scepter, secured
from the premises of the Neelamperoor temple, are considered as evidence from the first century.13
1.2.8 Early Christian migrants
Among waves of Christian refugees who later settled on the Malabar Coast was a community of 400
Syriac-speaking Jewish-Christian families from Uruhu, near Babylon. This community traditionally said to
have been led by Thomas Knayi (also called Thomas of Cana), a merchant-warrior, Uruhu Mar Yusuf, a
bishop; and four priests settled on the south bank of the Periyar River. That arrival of the Malankara
Nazarani, as they are referred to in Malayalam (Nazarani is derived from a Syriac term for Nazarene,
indicating a Christian), in the 4th century is celebrated in their epics, such as the Muraroruvant Kalpanayala
and the Nallororsilam and in the song “Kottayam Valiyapally.” The exclusive “Southists” (Tekkumbhagar),
as distinct from the older “Northists” (Vatakkumbhagar), blended Christian faith and Hindu culture with
Syriac doctrine, ecclesiology, and ritual. The local social status of the Southists paralleled that of elite
Brahman and Nayar castes in Kerala. Other Christian refugees, fleeing Islamic oppression in Arab and
Persian lands, came to Kerala beginning in the 7th and 8th centuries.14
1.3 The Thomas Tradition
By ancient belief and canonical doctrine, Thomas Christians trace their origins to the arrival of
St. Thomas at Malankara, on a pond near present-day Kodungallur (Cranganore) in 52 CE and to
congregations he established in seven villages. The historicity of this advent cannot be verified which does
not oppose evidence such as extant inscriptions on stone crosses and on copper plates that Christians have
been on the Malabar Coast since the 2nd or 3rd century. The Thomas tradition of India is embellished by the
epic fantasy Acts of Thomas, which links Thomas to Gondophernes (reigned : 19–55 CE), the Indo-Parthian
king who ruled in Punjab rather than on the Malabar Coast; by oral traditions contained in such works as the
Thomma Parvam (“Song of Thomas”) and such other songs as the “Margam Kali Pattu” and the
12
L.W.Brown, The Indian Christians of St. Thomas…,171.
13
Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 47
14
Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity in India…,65
4
“Ramban Pattu,” all composed in the native Malayalam language and by epigraphic remains.
Tradition holds that Thomas was martyred in or near Mylapore (within present-day Chennai) in 72
CE.15
1.3.1 Malabar Tradition
This tradition is also known as Indian tradition. This tradition has been handed down from generation
to generation orally among the Malabar Christians of St. Thomas and to some extent among their non-
Christian neighbors also. According to this tradition St. Thomas after visiting Socotra, came by sea and
landed at Cranganore in about 52 A.D. He is said to have preached the gospel to the Jewish colony settled
over there and also to their neighbours. He converted a few high-caste hindu families and established
churches in Malankara (near Cranganore), Palayur, Parur, Gokamangalam, Niranam, Chayal and Quilon. In
four of these places the church exists even today. He is also said to have ordained presbyters for the
churches from some leading Brahmin families. After that he moved to Coromandel coast making
conversions to Christian faith and then crossed over to China and preached the gospel. Then he returned to
India to Coromandal coast in Mylapore. His preaching aroused the hostility of the Brahmins who raised a
riot against him during which he was speared to death in 72 A.D. He suffered martyrdom near the little
mount, on what is now known as the St. Thomas mount. His body was brought to the town of Mylapore and
was buried in a holy shrine he had built.16
1.3.2 Western Tradition
Western Tradition does not mean European Tradition because when Christianity came to India, they
did not have Christianity. So Western Tradition means Middle East Tradition or Mesopotamian
Tradition. According to the western tradition St. Thomas following the well-established trade routes
reached India sometime in the middle of the first century. He preached the gospel in Parthia and India and
converted many to Christianity including members of Royal families, suffered martyrdom in India and was
buried there. Later his mortal remains were taken or transferred to the west (Edessa) where they were
deposited. The basis for the Western Tradition is a book named “Acts of Judas Thomas” written in syriac
language at Edessa in the middle of the third century. This work has been counted among the apocryphal
books of the New Testament. According to the book, the twelve disciples at Jerusalem cast lots to determine
which countries each of them would go. The country that falls for Thomas was India, but Thomas refuses to
go there but he is convinced by the Lord Jesus himself in a dream. Then with the help of merchant arrives in
the kingdom of Gundaphorus and thus his ministry starts in Parthia. King Gundaphorous asks St. Thomas to
build him a palace. But the apostle spends all the money on poor and the angry king puts him in prison.
Thereafter, the king’s brother Gad dies and when he is brought back to life narrates the beauty of the palace
Thomas built for the King in heaven. Following that the king and Gad receives baptism and the apostle is
allowed to preach the Christian faith throughout the county. He then passes on to another kingdom at the
invitation of its king, Mazdai but the king gets furious with Thomas and stabs him to death. After a while
when Mazdai opens the tomb of St. Thomas, the grave is found empty and he learns that his body was stolen
and taken to Mesopotamia its final resting place.17
1.3.3 Mylapore Tradition
This tradition is also known as Coromandal tradition. This tradition was given much prominence
by the Portuguese. In 1517, the Portuguese visited Mylapore for the first time, though they had heard about
the place and the tomb earlier. They spent considerable time in gathering the local traditions concerning the
Indian apostolate of St. Thomas. In 1533, at the order of the Portuguese king an official inquiry was
15
A Jayakumar, History of Christianity In India: Major Themes ( Kolkatta : SCEPTRE,2013),11
16
Socotra is an Island in the Arabian Sea off the north - east coast of Africa
(See A Jayakumar, History of Christianity in India: Major Themes…,8).
17
A Jayakumar, History of Christianity in India: Major Themes…,9.
5
conducted which brought to light and put on record whatever the people of the locality had to say about St.
Thomas. The main source for the Mylapore tradition was the oral tradition prevalent among the people
mainly among the Coromandel coast. According to Barros, the witness in the 1533 report, inquiry included
the Hindu Brahmins, Muslims, Indians and foreigners mostly aged 80 -90 years.
According to this tradition, St. Thomas after his fruitful ministry in the Malabar coast, he crossed over to
Coromandal coast and preached the gospel there. One of the main characteristics of Mylapore tradition is the
miracles performed by the apostle and especially building a house or church, which later came to be known
as “house of the holy man”. He is said to have converted many from high caste Brahmins. But some of the
Brahmins who were very orthodox hated a new religion being preached to them. They started persecuting
and finally killed St. Thomas in the shrine he had built on the St. Thomas mount. They used a spear to kill
him and later his followers took his body and buried him in Mylapore. The advocates of this tradition point
out a palm print (foot print) as evidence that is ascribed to St. Thomas.18
1.3.4 St. Bartholomew Tradition
Eusebius of Caesarea and St. Jerome discuss about apostolate of St. Bartholomew in India. Both the
writers refer to the visit of Pantaenus to India in the second century. According to Eusebius, Pantaenus is
said to have gone among the Indians, where he discovered the gospel of Matthew. According to the
tradition, Bartholomew one of the disciples of Jesus Christ had preached to them and left the writings of
Matthew in Hebrew language. According to St. Jerome, Demetrius, Bishop of Alexandria sent Pantaenus to
India at the request of legates of that nation. In India, Pantaenus found that Bartholomew one of the twelve
apostles of Jesus Christ, had preached and left the copy of Matthew’s gospel. Pantaenus carried the gospel of
Matthew with him when he returned to Alexandria. Most of the scholars do not give any importance to this
tradition. But Fr. Perumalil and G.M. Moraes have tried to prove that this argument is untenable and point
out to the Bombay region on the Konkan coast, a region known after the ancient town Kalyan was the field
of activity of Bartholomew. He maintains that the Bartholomew Christians got intermingled with the St.
Thomas Christians who came under the control of Persian Church. But Fr. Perumalil maintains that the
Bartholomew Christians got intermingled with the Christians of Bombay after the coming of Portuguese.19
1.3.5 A Triple Tradition
The tradition as it is recorded in the Portuguese reports, letters and accounts may be considered as an
amalgamation of three as it draws on three distinct sources, namely, the Malabar (what the people of Kerala
told the Portuguese), the East Syrian (information from East Syrian people or books) and Mylapore (what
the people of Mylapore told the Portuguese). However, it is often difficult to distinguish it purely as
‘Malabar tradition from the East Syrian one. Many of the traditions which the Jesuits found among the
Thomas Christians were available in books of Syriac origin. An East-Syrian ‘Abuna’ (bishop) who gave
testimony in 1533 openly declared that what he attested was heard both in his own country and in Malabar.20
1.4 The Relics of St Thomas
The obvious assumption in all this tradition is that the relics of St Thomas were never transferred
from the place of his burial. This belief seems to have arisen not so much from the contents of the tradition
itself as from the view propagated by the Portuguese interpreters who for some time took care to record that
the relics, they founded on the tomb were entire and genuine. The Malabar tradition itself has nothing to say
about what happened to the relics after the alleged persecution or war during which the Christians left the
place. However, it is interesting to note that the Abuna testified that he had never heard of any transfer of the

18
C.V. Cheriyan, A History of Christianity in Kerala (Kottayam: Kerala Historical Society, 1973) ,153.
19
A Jayakumar, History of Christianity in India: Major Themes…,11.
20
A.M Mundadan, History of Christianity in India. From Beginning Upto Middle of 16 century (Bangalore: CHAI,1989),38-44.
6
relics from Mylapore to any other place. This shows that he did not have much Knowledge about the early
Syrian tradition which definitely knew about the transfer of the relics to Edessa.21
The Coromandel people reported that the body was never taken out of the tomb and his relics were
not tampered with except by the Portuguese. Barzaeus who knew the tradition that the Apostle’s body had
been taken to Edessa, wrote in 1553 that the people of the land held an opinion to the contrary. And their
opinion seemed to have been confirmed by the discovery of a big body which sent forth odour. Barreto
records the reply of the people of the place to the alleged tradition of the body being transferred to Edessa, it
was true that in olden times people came from Armenia asking for the body of the Apostle, but the people of
the place gave them the body of a disciple of the Apostle and thus deceived them. Lucena solves the
difficulty arising from the existence of the body of the Apostle once in Edessa and later in Ortona by
offering the suggestion that the East-Syrian prelates who were the superiors of the Christians of St Thomas
might have taken a portion of the relics to Edessa.22
1.4.1 The feast of 3 July
The feast of 3 July is known among the Thomas Christians as Thorana, a Corruption of the Syriac
word Dukhrana meaning commemoration. The interesting thing about it is that till very recently, if not even
today, the day was celebrated in some places as chatham (from srardham), that is an annual funeral meal in
honour of a deceased ancestor definitely a Hindu custom followed by the Christians. The office of
Dukhrana, that is 3 July, the traditional anniversary of St Thomas has a striking parallel to the Rabban Song
and expresses almost the same tradition, though in a more poetical form. It does seem definitely to go back
to the pre-Diamper period. The East Syrian office which is celebrated on the same day supports the Indian
apostolate of St Thomas. It may be remembered that the East-Syrian Church does not make any serious
claim to St Thomas as the founder of their Church. It is the Apostle Thaddeus and the disciple Mari whom
they cherish as the founders of the Church whether in Edessa or Seleucia.23
1.4.2 Archeological Vestiges
Very little has been done in the field of archeology. A few of the findings, however, seem to
corroborate the local traditions. The remains of old temples found at Palayur and near the other traditional
churches are proofs of this. The discovery of old crosses at Alangad, Arthad etc. is worth mentioning. So too
the effigies of a king discovered at Nilamperurand at Kilirur are important as pieces of evidence. The
findings are cited in support of the tradition that St Thomas converted kings also. The effigy of Nilamperur
discovered in 1889 is a bronze statuette of a noble personage represented as wearing a pectoral cross and
holding a staff surmounted by a cross. These archeological discoveries have yet to be scientifically assessed
as to the era to which they belong. Tradition has assigned to them a meaning by relating them to St Thomas.
1.4.3 Inscriptions Discovered and Tradition
The Portuguese, who explored the tomb and the neighboring areas in the early sixteenth century,
give information about a number of inscriptions they discovered in Mylapore, on the Big Mount, the Little
Mount etc. Some of these inscriptions are said to have been title deeds of properties of the church The
Portuguese sought help from ‘experts’ to read and interpret these inscriptions Often the interpretations given
are highly imaginative and wild.
The importance of the inscriptions does not lie in their historical value, which is slight. Perhaps the
interpretations given to them by the ‘experts’, definitely at the suggestion of the Portuguese, convey certain
elements of the traditions prevalent in the locality. There is no doubt that these interpretations are very
21
K.M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1974),280.
22
Xavier Koodapuzha, Faith and Communion of the Indian Church of the Saint Thomas (Vadavathur : Institute of Religious
Studies,1982),144.
23
K.M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance…,250.
7
fantastic and sometimes absurd; it is difficult to ascertain what actually the ‘experts’ told the Portuguese and
what the later Portuguese commentators added as product of their own imagination. There is difficulty also
in determining how much the original interpretation was influenced by the local oral tradition and how much
of it, maybe, by the suggestions of the Portuguese themselves who knew at this time much of the western
tradition about the Apostle.24
1.5 Evidence from outside India
1.5.1 Acts of Thomas
Acts of Thomas, a non-canonical book consists of thirteen Acts, which was written around 200-225
A.D. It renders some important insights regarding the presence of St. Thomas in India. The oldest literary
account of the Apostle’s missionary work in India is found in the Acts of Thomas. This document is of
unknown origin, language or provenance. Its earliest surviving versions, which are in Syriac, have enabled
scholars to trace it at least to fourth-century Edessa. These clearly show, from their content and contextual
detail, that the document itself could have originated in the second century. This colourful narrative, while
mingling allegory and romance, also depicts actual people and places. The story itself, which is repeated in
various forms and venues, commences in the Upper Room, with apostolic responses to the Great
Commission, ‘Go into all the world and preach the Gospel.’25
1.5.2 The story narrative as seen in Acts of Thomas
The account records in Acts of Thomas 1:1, “According to the lot, therefore, India fell unto Judas
Thomas, which is also the twin: but he would not go, saying that by reason of the weakness of the flesh he
could not travel, and 'I am an Hebrew man; how can I go amongst the Indians and preach the truth?” 26 The
AT continues to talk about how Jesus appears to Thomas by night and says, “Fear not, Thomas, go you to
India and preach the word there, for my grace is with you.” But the Apostle would not obey, saying: “Where
you would send me, send me, but elsewhere, for to the Indians I will not go.” It is evident that the Apostle
had very fixed ideas and liked clear-cut definitions and very compelling evidence, in order to move him to
any action. However, once he was convinced it had led him to serious action in line with his conviction.27
One of the famous historians, A Mathias Mundadan in relation to this says, “the tradition (of St.
Thomas coming to India), as it is found in the Acts of Thomas and in the witness of various authors and
churches make this possibility highly probable.”
1.6 Witness from Early Christian Writings
The Didascalia Apostolorum (Teaching of the Apostles) was written around 225 to 250 A.D. and is
perhaps the first known document that mentions about Apostle Thomas. It was produced in Syriac and is a
compilation of ethical and legal regulations, which was widely used for Christian missionary education in
Ancient Persia. Mentioned in here is how the apostles of Jesus Christ had gone to spread the gospel to the
world:
“India and all its own countries and those bordering on it, even to the farther sea, received the
Apostles’ Hand of the Priesthood from Judas Thomas, who was Guide and Ruler in the church, which he
built and ministered.”28

24
A.M Mundadan, History of Christianity in India. From beginning upto middle of 16 century (Bangalore : Chai,1989), 47.
25
A.E, Medlycott, India and the Apostle: An Inquiry with a critical analysis of the Acta Thomas (New Jersey: Gorgias Press,
2005),31.
26
George Milne, Rae, The Syrian Church in India (London: William Blackwood & Sons.1892), 56-58.
27
Benedict, Vadakkekara. Origin of India’s St. Thomas Christians: A Historiographical Critique. (Delhi: Media House,1995),35-
37.
8
 Since Didascalia has been considered part of the writings knowns as the ‘Church Orders’ and which
also became the basis of first six books of the ‘Apostolic Creed it is reasonable to believe that its testimony
concerning Apostle Thomas was also accepted by the contemporary ecclesiastical authorities, which again
points to the genuineness of the St. Thomas tradition.29

1.6.1 St. Gregory of Nazianzus

He served as a bishop of Constantinople (379 - 383 A.D), who was also popular as the most
accomplished rhetorical stylist of the patristic age. He refers to Thomas, the Apostle, in a Homily number
33, where it is written:
“What? were not the Apostles strangers amidst the many nations and countries over which they
spread themselves, that the Gospel might penetrate into all parts, that no place might be void of the triple
light or deprived of that truth, so that the cloud of ignorance among them even who sit in darkness and the
shadow of death might be lifted? Peter indeed may have belonged to Judea; but what had Paul in common
with the gentiles, Luke with Achaia, Andrew with Epirus, John with Ephesus, Thomas with India, Mark
with Italy?”30
1.6.2 St. Ambrose of Milan (c.340-397 A.D.)
He was born in 340 A.D. and was chosen to serve as the Bishop of Milan 374; who is also known as
one of the four original doctors of the Roman Catholic Church. In his own words,
“The Apostles being sent without delay, according to the saying of our Lord Jesus: Going therefore,
teach ye all nations (Mat 28:19). Even those kingdoms which were shut out by rugged mountains became
accessible to them, as India to Thomas, Persia to Matthew. This also expanded the power of the empire of
Rome over the whole world, and appeased dissensions and divisions among the peoples by securing peace,
thus enabling the Apostles, at the beginning of the church, to travel over many regions of the earth.”31
1.6.3 St. Jerome (c.345-420 A.D.)

He was a born in Italy and is known as Christian abbot, scholar and translator of the bible. Being
invited by St. Gregory of Nazianzus, he went to Constantinople before the close of 379 and there he also
acted as Pope’s secretary. In his writing, called the ‘Epistle of St. Jerome’, he says,
“He (Jesus) was indeed at one and the same time with the apostles and with the angels….so,
afterwards He was with Thomas in India, with Peter in Rome, with Paul with Titus in Crete, with
Andrew in Achaia.32
Considering the depth of Jerome’s knowledge about various aspects of the Church life and the fact he was
well-travelled in the regions of both of the Eastern as well as Western Church, it is quite reasonable to
believe upon the authenticity of this information regarding Apostle Thomas’ coming to India

1.6.4 St. Paulinus of Nola (354-431 A.D.)

28
“Witness for An Apostle: The Evidence for St. Thomas in India’ in Road to Emmaus,” in Journal of Orthodox Faith and
Culture. Vol. VI/2, (2006): 47- 61.
29
D.C.Parker, The Living Texts of the Gospels, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 58.
30
D.C.Parker, The Living Texts of the Gospels…,65.
31
John Dominic Crossan, The Cross that Spoke: The Origins of the Passion Narrative, (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers,
1988), 73.
32
James Hough, The History of Christianity in India: From the Commencement of the Christian Era (London: Church Missionary
House,1839), 44-46.
9
He was a Latin poet, a letter-writer and a convert to the Christian faith. He served as a Bishop of Nola in
Italy, starting with 49 A.D. He was also contemporary of St. Augustine of Hippo as well as St. Jerome.
Regarding St. Thomas tradition he said in 431 A.D. the following words,
“So God, bestowing His holy gifts in all lands, sent His apostles to the great cities of the world. To
Patrians, He sent Andrew, to John the charge of Ephesus he gave of Europe and Asia, their errors to
repel with effulgence of light. Parthia receives Matthew, India Thomas, Libya Thaddeus and Phrygia
Philip.”33
1.6.5 Ephrem of Edessa
A deacon saint and a poet, who lived in Edessa in the last decade of his life from 363 to 373 A.D. and
composed a hymn in honour of St. Thomas, whose relics were venerated in a shrine there.
In one of his Stanzas, he writes,

“Blessed art thou, like unto the solar ray from the great orb; thy grateful dawn India’s painful
darkness doth dispel. Thou the great lamp, one among the Twelve with oil from the Cross
replenished, India’s dark night flooded with light.”

Similarly, in 42nd of his hymns called ‘Carmina Nisibina’, Ephrem talks about how the Apostle was put to
death in India and his remains brought to Edessa subsequently. Medlycott calls him a prolific writer of the
era of the Church Fathers, who wrote numerous works.34 This leads us to take his witness regarding St.
Thomas with serious consideration that point to St. Thomas apostolate in India.
1.6.6 International Travellers
Panteneus visit to India is of great importance as it informs one of the presence of the Christian
community in South India and how they took the task of preaching the Gospel to Brahmans and
philosophers in India as a serious responsibility. It also points out that within the Christian community in
India, there were Christians from the Jewish origin, who could have followed the Gospel of Matthew, left
with them in the first century during the visit of St. Bartholomew. This fact, corroborates with the fact
mentioned in Acts of Thomas that among the first converts made by Thomas in the kingdom of
Gondaphorus in North West India was also a Jewish flute girl who knew the hebrew language.35 In this
way, the story of Panteneus visiting India is a strong independent witness both to the fact of St. Thomas
tradition in India as well as to the history of Christian community right from the First Century A.D, as
opposed to the idea argued by some, who relate the Christian presence in India with the arrival of Thomas
of Cana in the Fourth Century (345 A.D.).36
1.6.7 Marco Polo
He was another very important source of historically reliable information, who visited India during
the thirteenth century A.D. He gives a vivid description of his visit to the tomb of St. Thomas, the Apostle.
According to him,

33
Istvan Perczel, “Some New Documents on the Struggle of the Saint Thomas Christians to Maintain the Chaldaean Rite and
Jurisdiction,” in Orientalia Christiane Journal, Vol 12/1 (2008):18-21.
34
Medlycott, India and the Apostle: An Inquiry with a critical analysis of the Acta Thomas (London: Ballantyne, Hanson and Co.,
1905), 27-28.
35
Samuel Moffett, History of Christianity in Asia, Vol. 1: Beginnings to 1500 ( New York: Harper Collins,1992), 56-59.
36
Harold W. Attridge, “Acts of Thomas,” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary Vol. 6, edited by David Noel Freedman (New York:
Doubleday, 1992), 558.
10
“The body of Saint Thomas, the Apostle lies in this province of Malabar at a certain little town having no
great population; ‘tis place, where few traders go, because there is very little merchandise to be get there,
and it is a place not very accessible. Both Christians and Saracens, however, greatly frequent it with
pilgrimage the Christians, who go tither in pilgrimage take the earth from place, where the Saint was killed,
and give a portion to anyone who is sick of a quartan or tertian fever; and by the power of God and of Saint
Thomas, the sick man in incontinently cured.37
The above picturesque description, as is also visible in the rest of his writings, makes it a compelling case
that supports St. Thomas tradition in South India, even as he writes about the details as an eye witness
account and not just by getting information from someone else. This again points to the St. Thomas
Christianity in India
1.6.8 Friar Odoric, Amr, John of Monte Corvino
He visited India and in reference to Malabar he wrote,
“In this realm is laid the body of Blessed Thomas the Apostle.”
Also, Amr, a Nestorian writer of the early part of the 14th century, speaks of St Thomas as follows:
“His tomb is in Mylapore in India on the right side of the altar in his monastery.”
A letter from four Nestorian bishops from the Malabar coast to their Patriarch (dated 1504) says:
“The house of St Thomas the Apostle has commenced to be occupied by some of the Christians who
are looking after the repairs. they are situated at a distance from our aforesaid Christians (of Malabar
on the West Coast) of about 25 days and stand in a city on the sea named Mylapore.”
Also there came to Mylapore Friar John of Monte Corvino, who writes as follows:
“I ... departed from Touris, a city of the Persians, in the year of the Lord 1291 and proceeded to
India. And I remained in the country of India, wherein stands the Church of St. Thomas the Apostle,
for thirteen months and in that region baptized in different places about one hundred persons.”38
1.7 Witness from Indian Tradition
There are several traditions in India regarding the coming of St. Thomas. These traditions include
oral, living communities and written documents about the work of St. Thomas in India. As mentioned
earlier, the commonly held tradition by Indian Christians differs in the details regarding how the Apostle
Thomas arrived in India. According to this tradition which is prevalent mostly in South India, Apostle
Thomas first landed in South India, in the ancient port of Muziris, in circa 50 or 52 A.D., where as it is
claimed, he founded seven churches. Without looking at the evidence from India itself, the search for the
validity of St. Thomas tradition in India will not be complete. We therefore turn to explore the evidence
available locally in India. These evidences are both oral and traditional as well as historical.39
1.7.1 Ancient Songs
Mundadan gives the chief local sources in which the best known are ‘Rambban Pattu’ and ‘Margam
Kali Pattu’.‘Rabban Pattu’ is a wedding song, popular in Kerala, which dates Thomas’ arrival to India to 50
A.D. Samuel Moffett says that this song has been traced in writing as early as 1601 (or 1101) and beyond
that date to an oral tradition handed down in one family line for 48 generations. Regarding this, Mundadan
37
Hugh Murray, The Travels of Marco Polo (Edinburgh: Tweeddale Court, and Simpkin, Marshall & Co.,1865), 302.
38
C.P. Mathew and MM Thomas, The Indian Churches of St Thomas (Delhi: ISPCK, 2005), 9-10
39
“St. Thomas Christians,” in The New Encyclopedia Britannica (NEB) Vol. 3 15th edition (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Inc.,1997), 281.
11
says that the modern redactor of ‘Rabban Pattu’ regards himself to be the 48th successor of the first priest of
his family, who was allegedly ordained by Thomas, the apostle himself.40
‘Margam Kali Pattu’ (or The Song of the Way), which also accompanied a sacred dance, described to have
introduced into Kerala of the ‘marga’ or the path of Christian way of worship. Apart from this, we have
other sources such as Veeradian Pattu, some of the Hindu accounts such as the Keralopathies and a Tamil
account about Kandappa Raju also have mentions about Apostle Thomas.41 Regarding the validity of these
evidences, Moffett rightly says that though these are not tangible and datable evidence as preferred by the
Historians, but songs and poetry of a living community handed down from generation to generation,
sometimes offer deeper insights behind the truth of ethnic and religious origins than manuscripts and
damaged inscriptions.
1.7.2 Living Communities
R.E. Frykenberg says that India has peculiar forms of historical understanding tproduced, preserved
and perpetuated by themselves who claimed their descent from the Brahmins and Nayar lineages, they have
preserved oral tradition and Palm-leaf documents, which supplies the details regarding their immigration,
habitation and interestingly the places visited by Apostle Thomas. Frykenberg says that the Vamshavalies
(historical lineages) of many St Thomas Christians show that these families have a succession of priests
back to Apostle Thomas.
Some of the oral traditions have been in circulation in the form of proverbs. Podipara, a notable historian of
the St. Thomas tradition, says that both Christian and Hindu tradition affirm that when St. Thomas
converted some Brahmins from Palayur, the rest of the community left to Vemmanat, a place located near
Palayur. While leaving, they said ‘the next bath at Vemmanat’, which has become a proverb.42 Even today
the Brahmins in the neighbourhood of Palayur do not eat or drink, nor do they bath in the Palayur locality.
All these traditions that trace their origin to ministry of St. Thomas in India, are again very strong evidence
to the St. Thomas tradition in India, which cannot be denied.
1.7.3 Presence of St. Thomas Stone Crosses
Stone bas-relief crosses such as the one found in the Church in Mylapore (Church of the St. Thomas
Mount) and another one in a church in Kottayam in addition to few others, are considered to belong to the
St. Thomas Christianity in India. They bear the inscription
“In the punishment of the cross was the suffering of this one, who is the true Christ, God above and

Guide ever pure.”

These crosses represent resurrection through its various symbolisms. The language used in the
inscription is Pahlavi tracing to the Sixth or Seventh Century A.D. However, this is just one of the scholarly
views. The association of these crosses with St. Thomas was attested and documented in ‘Jornada’, written
by Gouvea, which is a sixteenth century document. Interestingly, Gouvea writes about the veneration of the
Cross at Cranganore and mentions it as "Cross of Christians". He also writes about the tradition that this
"Cross of Christians" was placed at Cranganore by St. Thomas the Apostle.
Similarly, crosses have been also found on gravestones in Nanjing in China. According to Baum, this
may be because of the missionary outreach to the East made possible by the ‘Silk Route’. As these crosses
have been venerated by all St. Thomas Christians from ancient times and since the palaeographical dating of
40
Mundadan, History of Christianity in India…,30.
41
Mundadan, History of Christianity in India…,53.
42
Françoise Briquel Chatonnet, “Syriac Manuscripts in India, Syriac Manuscripts from India,” in Journal of Syriac Studies Vol.
XV/2 (2012): 281-291.
12
ancient inscription is not a fool proof method, their connection with the Apostle Thomas cannot be
completely ignored as a myth.43
1.7.4 Ancient Manuscripts and Documents
In the recent years, historical manuscripts and other documents of historical correspondence written
in Malayalam and Syrian, have been re-discovered from the five key manuscript libraries located in Kerala,
South India. The key historical documents such as Thrissur Syr. 22, Thrissur Syr. 64, Piramadam Syriac 14,
MS Trivandrum Syr. 18, Mannanam Syr 28 and other documents of historical correspondences such as
‘Letters related to the Chaldean movement under the governorship of Thomas Prammackal’ (1787-1799)
and MS Mannanam Mal. 3, in addition to few others, all testify to a very strong link that existed between
the Syrian44
1.8 Other Witnesses
In addition to Christian writers, historians and churchmen of the early Church, there are several
others, who testify to the St. Thomas tradition in India. Some among them are:
Passio Thomae (6th Cent. A.D.) - This document records that the body of St.Thomas after his martyrdom
was buried with honour. And at the request of the Syrians, the Roman emperor Alexander (who defeated the
King Zeresh of Persia in 233 A.D.), ordered the body to be brought from India to Edessa.

Suleiman (9th Cent. A.D.) – He was a Muslim traveller, who mentions ‘Bethuma’ (house of Thomas), which
can be reached in 10 days from Quilon.

Amr ibn Matta (14th Cent. A.D.) – He wrote in 1340, “Thomas tomb is on the island of Meilan in India, on
the right hand of the altar in his monastery.” It appears that the Hindu rulers of Viyajanagar also honored
the grave.45
1.8.1 Thondacchan and the four silver coins
The worship of Thondachan, a Hindu family deity, by a particular lineage of Nairs (native martial
clan) of Malabar, Kerala, and especially the manner and ritual of this worship is noteworthy. Though a
family deity, Thondachan is never worshipped within the Nair household. Nor has this deity been ever given
a berth among the pantheon of Hindu gods at any of the Hindu temples presided over by the Brahman priests
(called Namboodiris). Thondachan has a special altar built outside the Nair family compound, where non-
Brahmin priests perform rituals. Thondachan has an even smaller following among a select Nair clan. It is
believed, that up to the present day, altars for Thondachan’s worship exists in the Cherukunnu area in
Kannur (Cannanore) district, especially in the lands surrounding old tharavad houses (ancestral mansions) of
the Nairs.
When St Thomas came ashore, landing at Maliankara near Moothakunnam village in Paravoor Thaluk in
AD 52, some of his followers as well as other sailors and merchants were suffering from a severe form of
scurvy. It is said that at the time of Thomas arrival at the Nair tharavad, the Nair karnavar (landlord or head
of family) lay injured from a grievous wound that had been inflicted upon him in a feudal duel. Upon seeing
this, he sat beside the injured man and meditated, laying his hands on the man’s head, his throat, his chest
and his groin. Immediately the karnavar felt relieved from pain, and his healing was hastened. Within a day
he was up and about, his wounds nearly healed. In an act of gratitude, Thomas is said to have blessed them,

43
A. C. Burnell, On Pahlavi Inscription in South India (Mangalore: Stolz & Hirner, 1873), 6.
44
Gudrum Lowner, “Christian Art and Architecture in Asia in Felix Wilfred,” in The Oxford Handbook of Christianity in Asia
(Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2014), 458-474.
45
Stephen Neill, The Story of the Christian Church in India and Pakistan, (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1970), 17.
13
and gave them four silver coins saying, ‘May these coins bestow my guru’s blessings upon you and your
household, for take heed when I tell you that the money I pay you today is anointed with the blood of my
guru’46
1.8.2 Contemporary Writers Opinion
Three Western writers who have made studies during the second half of the 20th century in this
aspect that is being discussed in this paper are E R Hambye (1952), the writer of Saint Thomas and India
(1952), L W Brown, The Indian Christians of St Thomas (1956), and C B Firth, An Introduction to Indian
Church History (1960). Although Hambye has critically examined most of the Western tradition, and
particularly those belonging to the Thomas Christians in communion with Rome, it appears that he was not
quite committed to any view when he summed up his arguments. Brown who had lived in Kerala for many
years and was quite familiar with the traditions of St Thomas Christians not in communion with Rome, was
extremely cautious when he comes to the conclusion. Firth, who does not seem to have been directly
connected with the traditions of Kerala, seems to have paid attention to them all the same using the books of
E M Philip and K N Daniel. However, he too, like the other two, was very cautious. The present writer feels
that these writers gave more weightage to the story that the origin of Christianity in India is from the mission
of Apostle Thomas which stands sufficiently justified.47
1.9 Conclusion
In the light of this paper one could see that irrespective of the apparent differences which prevails
over the point of Apostle’s first arrival in India, there are plethora of evidences which bears ample of
testimony to the fact that St. Thomas indeed came to India. Ironically the very existence of so many
traditions which was explored in this paper itself complements the argument posted. Based on all the
available evidences, it is quite plausible to believe that St. Thomas arrival is in one way or the other
reflected in all of these traditions which are rich heritage of the antiquity of the Christian community which
existed back then. There is no doubt that the ancient Christian community did possess a rich oral and living
tradition. But due to the records available only from the time of the Portuguese, they are not enough to prove
the St. Thomas tradition without doubt. But in the present writer’s opinion, there is no other country in the
world other than India which claims to have the tomb of St Thomas and no other country other than India
claims that Christianity was established by St. Thomas. So based on the traditions prevalent and the
circumstantial evidence available at hand one can assert that St Thomas did come to India and subsequently
the fact that that Christianity in India undoubtedly has apostolic origin.

Bibliography
Brown, Leslie. The Indian Christian of St. Thomas. London, Cambridge University Press, 1956.
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England, John C. The Hidden History of Christianity in Asia: The Churches of the East before 1500. New
Delhi: ISPCK, 1996.
Cheriyan, C.V. A History of Christianity in Kerala. Kottayam: Kerala Historical Society, 1973.
Frykenberg, R.E. Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
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Frykenberg, R.E. ‘India’ in A World History of Christianity. Edited by Adrian Hastings. Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans, 1999.
Geddes, Michael. The History of the Church of Malabar: From the time of Its Being First Discovered by
the Portuguese in the Year 1501. Translated by Michael Geddes. London: Sam. Smith & Benj. Walford,
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“Hindu Traditions of St. Thomas – Mike Aquilina” in fathersofthechurch, accessed on November 30, 2021,
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K M George, Christianity in India through Centuries (Andhra Pradesh: Authentic Books, 2007), 91.

14
1694.
George, K M. Christianity in India through Centuries. Andhra Pradesh: Authentic Books, 2007.
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Hough, James. The History of Christianity in India: From the Commencement of the Christian Era.
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Mathew, C.P and MM Thomas, The Indian Churches of St Thomas. Delhi: ISPCK, 2005.
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Sixteenth Century (up to 1542). Bangalore: Theological Publications in India. 1984.
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Parker, D.C. The Living Texts of the Gospels. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
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Articles
Lowner, Gudrum. Christian Art and Architecture in Asia in Felix Wilfred. (Ed.) The Oxford Handbook of
Christianity in Asia. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2014.
Spinks, Bryan D. ‘Eastern Christian Liturgical Traditions’ in Ken Parry. Ed. The Blackwell Companion to
Eastern Christianity. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2010.

Journals
‘Witness for An Apostle: The Evidence for St. Thomas in India’ in Road to Emmaus, Journal of Orthodox
Faith and Culture. OR, Portland. Vol. VI, No. 2.
Françoise Briquel Chatonnet, ‘Syriac Manuscripts in India, Syriac Manuscripts from India’ in Hugoye:
Journal of Syriac Studies. XV.2, 2012), vol. 15.1.
Perczel, Istvan. ‘Some New Documents on the Struggle of the Saint Thomas Christians to Maintain the
Chaldaean Rite and Jurisdiction’ in Orientalia Christiane Journal, Vol 12. No 1 (2008).

Nationalism is a

15
Inian nationalism was the chil of british an britush authority blesse its cralse.

rwason for the rise of nationalism

1, B L Grower an S Grower (2006, 292 FF)
British colonial rule
Political unification of inia uner the brotish ruke
evelopmet of transpoert an communication system in inia- railway an ostal system
inro of moern education
rise of mile class integentia
Infulence of the European movts.
Partition of Bengal
Economic exploitation
eevelopmet of print an press
socio religios movt

CHRISTIAN INVOLVEMENT
What Bible says- love your country, neighbour
Ramabhai
C F Anrews
Akkama Cheriyan
Amritha Rajakumari

Rise of communal powrs

Quit Inia movt. – Christian participate. But their name not mentione.

LW Brown
E M Philip
A M Munaan
Xavier koosappuzha
Placi J Poippara complete works
16
Thomapeia
Hambey
M K Kuriakose
Stephen Neil
Beneict vaakkekara
S H Moffett
C B Firth
K V Eapen
C P Mathew an M M Thomas

Iniginisation
roger Healan
Frankhuma
Xavier kooappuzha

Prostant
J W Glason
SH Moffet
K V Eapen
Stepehen Neil
James Hogh
Oxfor ictionary of south Asian Christianity
Jacob T harmaraj

RC Majum
BL Gower
Rajeev ahir
hansraj
picket
jhn c Webster
17
Arthur jayakumar
chai series
huge

preportuguese culture-acc to placi poippara, christian in religion, hinu in culture oriental in worship
roger healan sai- nobili prove that it is possible to be an inian without being a hinu; an Christian without
being a western.

cultural iniginisation
functional

18