Module 3.

Sales Organization

What is Sales Organization?

Sales organization is a part of the total business organization of a firm.
This unit of the firm is concerned with the distribution of goods. These
products may either be produced by the organization itself or may be
purchased from manufacturers for resale.

The sales organization is concerned with planning, controlling of

activities such of recruitment of employee, training the employees,
equipping, assigning, rating, supervising, paying and motivating the sales
force.
In short, sales organization is concerned with profitable and efficient
distribution of goods and services to the ultimate consumer.

Importance of Sales Organization

“Sales are the life blood of business”. So, every business undertaking must
have an efficient sales organization for selling its products.

In case of small firms, the proprietor does this exercise himself or with
the help of a few salesmen under his direct supervision and control, and
so, the need for sales organization does not arise. But as the business
expands and the market to be covered becomes wider, it becomes too
difficult for the proprietor to undertake and control the sales activities
personally. So, there arises the need for an efficient sales organization.

Need for a Sales Organization

The need for a sales organization arises due to following reasons—

1. Demand for the goods has to be created through efficient salesmen.

2. Effective advertising campaign has to be undertaken to inform the
consumers about the availability of the products and their special
attributes.
3. Arrangements have to be made for the prompt execution of the orders
received from the customers.

4. Complaints or grievances of the customers have to be attended to and

redressed quickly.

5. Outstanding bills have to be collected.

6. Production or purchase of goods has to be planned and adjusted in

accordance with the marketing conditions.
7. Marketing conditions have to be studied so as to adjust the business
according to the changing market conditions.

Functions of Sales Organization

A sales organization performs a number of functions. The main functions
of a sales organization are given below:

1. It has to collect marketing information through market research and

other sources.
2. It has to undertake product planning i.e., decide about the
package, brand and trademarks, etc. for the products.
3. It has to forecast the sales and plan the sales campaign accordingly.
4. It has to undertake sales budgeting i.e., estimate the probable gross
revenue from sales and the selling and distribution costs so as to regulate
and control the selling and distribution expenses.

5. It has to lay down a clear and sound selling policy, i.e., policy relating
to the methods or channels of distribution, terms and conditions of sale,
prices of the products, the rate of trade and cash discounts, conditions
regarding the return of goods, the period of credit, the mode of payments,
etc.
6. It has to undertake the work of recruitment and selection of salesmen.

7. It has to undertake the task of training salesmen.

8. It has to perform the task of supervision and control of salesmen.

9. It has to devise suitable plans for remunerating the salesmen.
10. It has to arrange for advertising and publicity.
11. It has to undertake sales promotion activities.

12. It is also concerned with the selling routine i.e, it has to do the routing
work relating to the sale of goods, such as answering the inquiries,
accepting the orders, execution of the orders, sanctioning of credit,
preparation of invoices and bills. Sending of statement of accounts,
collection of outstanding amount, etc.

Types Of Sales Organization

The grouping of activities into positions and the charting of

relationships of positions causes the organization to take on structural
form. When sales department is set up in an organization it follows
one of these general structures – Line, Line and Staff, Functional and
Committee.
The line sales organization:
 This is the oldest type used in smaller firms and in firms where
there is a small selling force. This limitation restricts them to
narrow product line in limited geographical area.
 All executives have line authority and each subordinate is
responsible only to one higherup.
 They have fixed responsibilities and sales personnel reports
directly to the chief sales executive
 Lines of authority and responsibility are clear and logical, and it
is difficult for individuals to shift or evade responsibilities
 Not appropriate when there is a large sales staff
The line and staff sales organization
 Found in large and medium sized firms selling diversified
product lines over a wide geographical area
 Provides the top sales executive with a group of specialists and
experts in dealer and distributors relations, sales analysis , sales
organization, sales personnel, sales planning, sales promotion,
sales training, service, traffic and warehousing
 Staff sales executives do not have authority to issue orders or
directives.
 Staff recommendations are submitted to the top sales executives
and after approval, transmit necessary instructions to the line
organization
 Gives time to the staff executives time to study problems before
recommendations
Functional sales organization
 Based upon the concept that each individual in an organization,
executive and employee, should have as few distinct duties as
possible
 Salespeople receive instructions from several executives but on
different aspects of their work
 All specialists have line authority and they have a function
authority
 There is a great improved performance
 Not feasible for small and medium sized firms
Committee sales organization
 The executive group plans policy formulation while
implementation of plans and policies is done by individual
executives
 Many firms have a sales training committee
 Before policies are made and action is taken, important problems
are deliberated by committee members and are measured against
varied viewpoints.
Divisional Structures
This is the kind of structure that is based on the different divisions in
the organization.
 A sales organisation may be classified on the basis of product, market
or customer territory, product cum territory and function. They are
1. Product type
2. Market or customer type
3. Territorial type
4. Product-cum-territorial type
5. Functional type

Types of Sales Organization

An organization is designed in a manner where we can identify the work

or activity performed by an individual or group. The roles and
responsibilities are defined, which helps in building relationships to
enable people to work effectively and efficiently. This helps in achieving
the goals of the organization. The following are the four types of sales
organizations −
Functional Type
Functional type of organization is divided and classified on the basis of
the functions performed. The following illustration shows a functional
type organization.
This depicts the functional type organization. We will now discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of this type.
Advantages of functional type
The following are the advantages of a functional type of organization −
 Specialization − In the figure, we can see the division has been
made according to the functions. By this, we can expect each
function is specialized in its activity.
 Flexibility − The number of departments can be added or removed
as per the requirements.
 Decision making − Decisions can be made quickly as the person
would be an expert in his department and will be aware of the
impact of his decision.
 Co-ordination − The co-ordination between functions can be done
easily
Disadvantages of functional type
Let us now understand the disadvantages associated with functional type
of organization −
 Due Attention − Each department is only specialized in their own
activity; hence there is no attention focused on the product.
 Delay − There is delay in making decisions because of co-
ordination between all the departments.
 Co-ordination − From the figure, we can see that all departments
report to the General Manager. Therefore, .in peak times, it may
become difficult for the General Manager to maintain co-ordination
between the departments.
 Conflicts − There is always conflict between departments due to
being specialized only in one core area and lack of cross training.
In general, functional type of organization is suitable where the
organization structure is small having limited products.
Product Type
This type of division is made according to the products. The organization
divides the departments based on the products.
The following illustration shows the layout of the product type.

Advantages of Product Type

 Due Attention − Due to the division according to the product, each
product gets required attention.
 Specialization − The salesperson is specialized in specific
products; hence he/she has an advantage in handling the
department.
 Responsibility − The responsibility can be easily assigned to a
salesperson because all the salespersons are specialized in their
product/ department and are well acquainted with the product,
which helps them to handle customers smoothly.
Disadvantages of Product Type
 Co-ordination − There would be problem of co-ordination between
two product departments.
 Selling Cost − The selling cost of product may increase due to the
division according to the products.
  Operational Cost − Operational cost may also increase due to each
product being treated differently.
 Freedom − There is no cap on the freedom enjoyed by employees
because the salesperson is specialized only on his/her
product/department and will not be able to handle other
product/department.
Suitability of Product Type
Product type is suitable in the following cases −
 Where the organization has many products and it can divide the
departments according to the products.
 For organizations selling highly priced products.
 When the products of an organization are more technical oriented,
the organization can divide the departments according to the
products as the salesperson will be efficient and effective to discuss
the product with the customer in an effective way.
Consumer Specialization Type
According to consumer specialization, the departments are divided on the
basis of the costumers to whom the products are offered. Most of the
time, market appearance plays an important role in knowing the
consumer needs and to divide the departments accordingly.
The following illustration shows the layout of the consumer
specialization type.
Advantages of Consumer Specialization Type
 Consumer − Here the division is according to consumers, so each
consumer gets due attention.
 Consumer satisfaction − Consumer satisfaction is the first priority;
as maximum services are provided to the consumer.
 Planning and policies − The sales planning is done in a proper way
and policies are designed keeping each category in focus to achieve
the goal.
 Brand − The organization is able to fulfil consumer needs and
wants and create its own brand to gain market share.
Disadvantages of the Consumer Specialization Type
 Expenses − The expenses for the company to build and plan
according to consumer and develop the market are huge.
 Sales activities − It becomes difficult for the sales manager to co-
ordinate the sales activities of salesperson.
 Investments − In this case of specialization, the investments are
high and sometimes repeated, which in turn, is loss to the company.
Suitability of the Consumer Specialization Type
Consumer type is suitable in the following cases −

 When there is a large number of consumers who are looking out for
special services.
 The costumer is ready to pay for the services offered. Here, the
target is mostly premier customers.
Area Type
In this type of organization, departments are divided accord ing to the
attributes of areas. They can also be divided geographically. The
following illustration shows the layout of the area type organization.
Advantages of Area Type
 Products − Customers can be served with the latest products and
customized products.
 Transport cost − Transport cost can be reduced because the
division has been made according to areas.
 Customer service − Company can provide better customer services
as the division is made according to area. Thus, the company can
understand the customer psychology and perception better.
 Sales performance − The sales performance can be compared
according to zones and steps can be taken to improve.
Disadvantages of Area Type
 Costly − It is costly as compared to other types and increases
expenses of the company.
 Markets − It becomes difficult for co-ordination for the General
Manager for different markets.
 Conflicts − There may be conflicts regarding resource allocation
between zones.
Suitability of Area Type
The area type of organization is suitable in the following cases −
  When the area or the territory for market is very large.
 Where the market is different based on zone.
 Where the product is differentiated depending on zone.
 Where the sales volumes are high and generate more revenues.

Learning, Motivation and Perception |

Essay | Processes | Psychology
1. Needs and Drives:
The behaviour of the newborn child is due to internal needs or drives.
The term “need” refers to a condition of “lack” or deficiency in the
organism. There may be a lack of food or water or air or optimum
temperature etc. These needs produce in the body a physiological
“state” demanding “satisfaction.” Hunger, thirst, etc. are such states of
the organism demanding satisfaction.

The states provide the incitement to action on the part of the organism.
Another way of expressing the same situation and the consequences is
by using the term “drive.” The food need in the organism precipitates
the hunger drive. There is thus close association between the two
concepts need and drive.

Some lack in the organism leads to an activity and this activity ceases
when there is some “satisfaction,” when a new condition is produced in
the organism by the intake of food, water, etc., that is, when there is
“drive-reduction” or “need satisfaction.” Often these two terms are used
as equivalents. But there is some difference between the two terms. For
example, a person who has been without food for about ten or twelve
hours, reports that feelings of hunger tend to come and go in spite of
the fact that the lack of food (need) continued.

However, both the terms need and drive refer to bodily states that
initiate tendencies to general activity. The states are frequently
experienced as feelings of tension or restlessness. They are not learned.
They are aroused when the condition of the organism departs
considerably from a desirable or optimum condition.

The hunger drive develops when the organism is deprived of food for
many hours; the resulting restlessness also emerges without any
learning. In the new-born infant the hunger drive leads to general
activity. But in the adult the energy state associated with hunger drive
becomes associated with a goal (food) and leads to highly specific
activity; this comes about through the learning process.

2. Drives and the Learning Process:

Drives are thus the sources of energy. During infancy the mother’s
efforts lead to drive-reduction. The tension and the restlessness
increase the general activity; when there is feeding of the infant by the
mother the drive tension is reduced. Drive reduction becomes
associated with the mother and milk. Observations of this kind led to
the formulation of the “tension-reduction theory of learning.”

According to this theory the individual learns those activities that are
immediately followed by tension reduction. This view asserts that we
learn to eat because eating is followed by reduction of the hunger drive.
Because of the instrumental nature of such drive-reducing acts, this
kind of learning has been called by Skinner (1953) “instrumental
learning” or “instrumental conditioning.”

This is how through learning the general activity of the innate drive is
linked with the goal; that is, the hunger drive is linked with the goal,
milk, through learning. The activity is now centred around a goal. Thus,
a goal may be defined as a state of affairs toward which learned
behaviour is directed.

3. Motivation as Goal-Orientation:
When the hunger drive is there, tension or restlessness exists and the
infant exhibits general activity. After a period of learning the infant
associates hunger with milk, because milk leads to drive reduction. As
a result the infant seeks milk; there is a link between the drive and the
specific goal. The infant has now acquired a motive through learning.
The infant for several weeks after birth exhibits behaviour that appears
to be random; the infant behaviour is essentially unorganized. When
the child is five years old there is a great change in behaviour. It has
become modified so that what the child does at one moment is related
to some behaviour of a moment later and in its turn that is related to
the next behaviour and so on.

He may spend quite a long time manipulating the materials in an

attempt to construct a toy. A few years later the same child will spend
hours, either alone or with other persons, doing a number of things
which contribute to the attainment of a goal.

In other words, his activities are all organized in order to reach a goal;
thus with growth, the random general activities of the infant become
organized into a series of specific activities which lead the child of six or
eight to attain a goal and he cooperates with other children in his play
activities. With further growth as an adult he cooperates with others in
the world of work.

How has this drastic change in behaviour come about? It is important

to comprehend this so that we can understand how we take our place in
a society of interacting persons.

“Motivated behaviour” is the behaviour in which a person engages in as

he strives to reach a goal. Motivated behaviour is goal-directed and
goal-oriented behaviour. The behaviour continues till the goal is
reached, or some other motivated behaviour intervenes. It is organized
around a goal. Motive is a state of the organism in which the bodily
energy is mobilized and directed to attain a goal.

Motivation implies a state of energy mobilization and a direction

toward a goal. Thus, motive is a concept that joins together a state of
energy mobilization and a goal. As seen above, energy and goal are
linked by learning. In the drive the energy is not goal directed; the
restlessness of the infant persists till there is a drive reduction.
Gradually the child learns through instrumental learning to associate
the drive with a goal. When this is learnt, there is motivated activity in
the child.

However, Harlow (1953) reports that he has repeatedly observed that

monkeys learn to solve mechanical puzzles even without a reward which
reduces an organic drive state. Since he was unable to identify any
internal drive in this activity he has used the term “curiosity-manipu-
lation” to account for it.

Harlow says that this can be observed even in a child; when the child
has had a meal, he may be led by his “curiosity” to go out and learn some
things. Such a behaviour then is goal- directed but the behaviour is not
initiated by a drive; in other words, the drive-reduction principle cannot
be applied to learning situations of this kind.

Leuba (1955) put forth the hypothesis that we tend to learn those
responses that produce an “optimum” level of stimulation (or tension).
If a person is hungry, his drive state is very high and he tends to learn
those responses which ‘reduce’ the hunger drive. But if a person has
satisfied all his drives, the total level of stimulation is “below” the
optimal level and he seeks to “raise” it by actively seeking contacts with
the environment.

It is a familiar fact that human behaviour can be highly organized and

directed toward goals in the areas of invention, creativity and group
action. In other words, motives are acquired in these areas where drive-
reduction principles are difficult to apply. So all motives cannot be
explained on the basis of drive-reduction principles. Secondary motives
arise as a result of experience, social pressures and aspirations of the
emerging self.

4. Variety of Human Motives:

The primary drives must be fulfilled if the organism has to survive. The
familiar examples are hunger, thirst, pain, fatigue, etc. These primary
drives are shared by man with the animals. However, among the human
beings these drives lead to many different kinds of activities. Though
hunger leads to food-getting behaviour, it may also instigate behaviour
toward injuring others (aggressiveness) who obstruct, toward hoarding
(acquisitiveness) or toward competing with others or toward
cooperating with others.

Thus, there are no simple connections between human motives and the
primary drives. This is because of the fact of learning. Human beings
can acquire a number of motives. This is what gives human behaviour a
considerable amount of flexibility. Though as far as primary drives are
concerned there is hardly any difference between man and animals, it
is the fact of acquisition of motives that makes human behaviour very
complex.

Further, man has learned through interaction with his fellow human
beings how to achieve goals through collective efforts. He acquires
motives of being concerned with what happens to other human beings;
he also learns to look at himself as others see him. In all this language
helps very greatly.

Thus, human motives are quite distinctive in their number; they are
based on the primary drives; but there are many possibilities of learning
so that the links between human motives and the underlying primary
drives in complex, organized, societies are difficult to trace.

5. Social-Personal Motives:
Maslow (1943) proposed a theory of specific order of development of
motives. The most primary and basic needs are the physiological needs
like hunger, thirst, etc. When these are adequately satisfied the safety
needs arise; for example, security and order. When these are satisfied
the need for belongingness and love, the desire for affection and
identification emerge; the child wants to be accepted by his parents,
teachers, friends, etc.

With the satisfaction of these needs, the esteem needs arise; there is
self-esteem from mastery and confidence in one’s worth, adequacy and
abilities; there is also the need for social approval. Finally emerges the
need for self-actualization through creative self-expression in personal
and social achievements; it also involves the need to satisfy one’s
curiosity and to understand one’s world and the society in which one
lives.

Thus, Maslow has arranged the needs in a hierarchic order from the
physiological needs at the base to the self-actualization need at the top.
According to Maslow, an individual’s lower needs must be satisfied
before the higher needs can operate.

However, it is obvious that a lower need does not have to be completely

satisfied before the next higher need arises. For example, there is the
physiological need, the sex need; it can be satisfied with self-esteem and
social esteem only when a man or woman is more than twenty or
twenty-five years, after the completion of education and when one is
working to earn his livelihood.

Although the urge to sex activity is physiological and organic, its

fulfilment is to a considerable degree socially and psychologically
determined. In the Indian society, marriage of the young man or the
young woman has to be arranged by the parents. All the relatives from
various distances have to come and bless the young couple.

Thus, the cultural values and norms determine whom an individual

marries and when the marriage takes place. Similarly the satisfaction of
hunger need is also socially determined; what one eats, when he eats his
food, and how he eats his food, are all socially determined. The
physiological need of hunger can find its satisfaction only within the
limits prescribed by the social norms.

Further, the safety need and love need emerge very early in life within
the first three years but they persist, like the physiological needs,
throughout life. However, it must be realized that when the
physiological needs are not adequately satisfied, the esteem needs and
the need for self-actualization cannot emerge. In fact this is one of the
basic obstacles to social and national development in India.

The basic needs of hunger, thirst, clothing and housing have not been
adequately satisfied for more than 75 per cent of the people. It is
obviously futile to expect the Indian peasant and workman who does
not possess adequate nutrition etc., to have self- esteem and become
highly productive to improve the economic condition of the country. It
is from this point of view that one should look at the hierarchic structure
of motives.

6. Deficit Motives and Growth Motives:

Another distinction drawn by Maslow (1970) is very useful. He looks
upon the basic needs referred to above as deficiency needs. Whether it
is hunger or affection or security or self-esteem, there is some
deficiency. The individual strives to obtain food or affection, to have a
sense of well-being. They are adaptive. The individual makes
adjustments.

On the other hand, there are the growth needs. They are also inherent
in human beings like the basic needs. Their aim, however, is not to make
good a deficiency. Their aim rather is to grow up psychologically and
socially. There is here an aim beyond mere survival. There are the
cognitive needs, to know and understand.

They are there right from early childhood days. The child of three or
four asks any number of questions about objects and events. Our
experiences leave traces in the mind. Memories are stored up. But mere
storage of information is of no use in our social or intellectual life. They
have to be organised so that the past memories help us to understand
the various problems which arise as one grows up.

The desire to know and understand is very useful, not for mere survival,
but for the growth of the individual personality and the culture and
civilization to which the individual belongs. The need for self-
actualization belongs to this group of growth need. Also this need
generates values like social justice, goodness beauty, order, unity and
so on. They become very important motives in the development of the
individual and society.

The ancient Indians spoke of four Purusharthas, the four ends of man,
namely, dharma, artha, kama and moksha. Kama refers to pleasure and
sex. Artha refers to wealth and power. Dharma refers to righteous
dealings with other human beings. Moksha refers to self-realisation or
self-actualization. It is obvious that kama and artha may be classed as
deficit motives which help in survival. But dharma and moksha pertain
to the development of the individual and the society.

The need for self-actualization may be so strong that even a person like
Buddha long ago left his wife, child and the princely mansion and went
in search of growth, peace and tranquility. Similarly in the 20th century,
there is the case of Shri Aurobindo Ghosh and Shri Ramana Maharshi
who abandoned everything in search of self-actualization. The two
Ashrams established by them in Pondichery and Tiruvannamalai have
been places of pilgrimage like Varanasi and Ramesvaram. People go
there, not to worship the images but to breath the atmosphere.

Among the most powerful social motives are those for affiliation,
independence, and achievement.

7. Need for Cognitive Structure:

Before we conclude this section we may refer briefly to the need for
cognition or cognitive structure. Cohen et al (1955) defined the need for
cognition as a need to structure relevant situations in meaningful and
integrated ways. The person needs to understand his world as he
experiences it; he needs to make his world reasonable. Cohen and
others devised two independent measures of cognitive need which
yielded consistent results.

Two groups of subjects were differentiated on the basis of high or low

need for cognition. They were presented with either an ambiguous or
structured situation. It was found that the ambiguous situation
produced more frustration than the structured one. It was also found
that the frustration was greater among those with high need for
cognition than among those with a low need.

The most ambitious attempt to formulate a cognitive theory of social

psychology is that by Krech and Crutchfield (1948), who set up a series
of propositions regarding motivation and perception. They asserted
that the behaviour of an individual occurring at a given time can be
understood only by the complex effects of motivational factors as well
as of perceptions.

They postulated that instabilities in the psychological field produce

‘tensions’ whose effects on perception, cognition and action are such as
to tend to change the field in the direction of a more stable structure; in
other words, the feelings of restlessness persist until there is a cognitive
reorganization and general restructuring of the field so that actions
become goal-directed.

Frustration arises when the person cannot achieve the goal. These frus-
trations may result from physical or social forces or from personal
factors. The person may respond to the frustration with adaptive be-
haviours such as intensification of effort to achieve the goal, reorganiza-
tion of the perceptual field or substitution of a goal that is attainable; or
his behaviour may be maladaptive so that there is aggression,
regression, withdrawal, rationalization etc., which interfere with the
healthy functioning of the individual.

As regards the cognitive side, they said that the perceptual and cognitive
field is normally organized and meaningful. This is illustrated by the
tendency of people to form integrated impressions of others, to jump to
conclusions, and to resist changes in attitudes. When an individual
becomes a member of a group his cognitive structure, his conception of
the world, of the fellow human beings and the society, are all affected
by the characteristics of the group.

As a result the person perception is determined by the group

perception. Secondly, since these cognitive structures are strong, they
are the least susceptible to disruptive influences; even contradictory
evidence will not make him change his attitude and outlook towards the
group and its members; by the same token, he will not easily change his
attitude and outlook towards himself and his group.

However, with changing experiences the individual also tends to change

his cognitive structure, his outlook, and attitudes, when the new
experiences set up tensions in him. In order to reduce the tension he
will make efforts to reorganize his cognitive structure; he may learn new
ways of looking at the problem and develop new ways of problem
solving. However, as noted above, it is also possible that a high level
tension may lead to maladaptive reorganization and interfere with the
healthy functioning of the individual.

Essay # 8. Perception:
By the time the infant is one year old he has developed considerable
acquaintance with his world. Observing and identifying objects and
happenings is an important part of his life. This is perception. It is a
process of becoming aware of objects or events or characteristics by
means of sensory operations; previous experiences influence present
perceptions. Thus, perception is a highly complex process.

The newborn infant has eyes, ears and skin which are quite sensitive to
the various stimuli; he has the necessary equipment to receive sensa-
tions of cold, of warmth, and of pain or pressure; warm milk when
swallowed is satisfying to him; a well-filled stomach changes his be-
haviour from crying and restlessness to quietness and sleepiness.

In the midst of the confusion of stimuli, the ‘infant establishes contacts

that bring gratification. It is possible that the stimuli arising from the
areas of his mouth and stomach are the first to be differentiated
somewhat. In addition, among the earliest of his satisfactions may be
those he derives from the warm and soft contact with his mother.

All these various sensations affect the infant’s neurophysiological

structure and eventually gives rise to meaningful awareness.
Developmental studies show that the infant can recognize the mother’s
face in the third or fourth month. It is the general experience that the
infant perceives the difference between the familiar and unfamiliar
faces by the end of six months.

However, person-awareness is not a sudden emergence in the infant’s

development. It gradually emerges on the basis of the satisfactions of
being fed, warmed, fondled, sung to. The infant’s discovery that there
are enduring objects in his world is the beginning of perceptual order
and stability. Through manipulation of various objects he becomes
aware of objects. It is in this way he becomes aware of persons and
objects.

He has “expectations” about objects and persons. An individual’s

expectations control his attention and determine what he will notice
and respond to. With further learning, that is, with modification of his
responses on the basis of his experiences, his expectations become more
expanded and refined.

It must, however, be borne in mind that the child is in no sense passive

in his role as perceiver. He perceives his environment in terms of his
needs and his learning. The perceiver is an active organizer. A person
tends to identify a given situation or object in terms of what is familiar
to him; in other words, perception depends not only on the pattern of
the stimuli but also on the individual’s past experiences and his needs.