processes

Article
Numerical Simulation of Axial Vortex in a Centrifugal
Pump as Turbine with S-Blade Impeller
Xiaohui Wang *, Kailin Kuang, Zanxiu Wu and Junhu Yang
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou 730050, China;
kuangkailin@163.com (K.K.); wzx19960512@163.com (Z.W.); lzyangjh@lut.cn (J.Y.)
* Correspondence: wangxh@lut.edu.cn




Received: 18 August 2020; Accepted: 11 September 2020; Published: 20 September 2020


Abstract: Pump as turbines (PATs) are widely applied for recovering the dissipated energy of
high-pressure fluids in several hydraulic energy resources. When a centrifugal pump operates as
turbine, the large axial vortex occurs usually within the impeller flow passages. In view of the
structure and evolution of the vortex, and its effect on pressure fluctuation and energy conversion
of the machine, a PAT with specific-speed 9.1 was analyzed based on detached eddy simulation
(DES), and the results showed that vortices generated at the impeller inlet region, and the size and
position of detected vortices, were fixed as the impeller rotated. However, the swirling strength
of vortex cores changed periodically with double rotational frequency. The influence of vortices
on pressure fluctuation of PAT was relatively obvious, deteriorating the operating stability of the
machine evidently. In addition, the power loss near impeller inlet region was obviously heavy as the
impact of large axial vortices, which was much more serious in low flow rate conditions. The results
are helpful to realize the flow field of PAT and are instructive for blade optimization design.

Keywords: energy recovery; pump as turbine; vortex; hydraulic losses; pressure fluctuation

1. Introduction
In recent decades, pump as turbine (PAT) has drawn increasing attention in energy recovery
systems where a high-pressure water source exists. With a pump operating as turbine, the direction
of flow and rotation are opposite. For pump, energy is supplied to the fluid via a rotating shaft, as
shown in Figure 1a, it is a energy absorbing device. For PAT, energy is extracted from the fluid and
output via the rotating shaft, as shown in Figure 1b, it is a energy producing device. Compared
with a conventional hydraulic turbine, PAT is simple, inexpensive, easy to maintain, readily available
worldwide, and has a short capital payback period. It is an attractive solution for micro-hydro power
with capacity below 100 kW [1]. It would be economical to use PAT, recovering the dissipated energy
of high-pressure fluids in several hydraulic energy resources, such as water distribution network
(WDN) [2–5], sea water reverse osmosis (SWRO) [6], chemical processes [7], nature falls [8], etc.
Although there is a wide application of PAT, the selection of a proper pump operating as turbine is
particularly challenging. Many selection techniques have been published so far, while researchers have
tested their models on few pumps and recorded deviations in the order of ±10~20% [9]. PAT may not
have optimum or favorable flow behavior since pumps are usually not designed for turbine operation.
The mismatch between turbine flow parameters and pump geometry may affect the stability of flow
performance [10]. In addition, PATs have poor part-load performances [11,12]. Many researchers
have presented the optimization of the turbine mode performance for overcoming these challenges.
All mentioned issues above require a detailed understanding of the internal flow mechanism of PAT,
which is important and imperative to predict the performances of PAT, as well as improve its efficiency
and operating stability.

Processes 2020, 8, 1192; doi:10.3390/pr8091192 www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2020,
Processes 2020, 8,
8, 1192
x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Directions of flow and rotation in pump and pump as turbine (PAT). (a) Pump; (b) PAT.
Figure 1. Directions of flow and rotation in pump and pump as turbine (PAT). (a) Pump; (b) PAT.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFDs) were adopted extensively in many earlier research studies
Althoughthe
to investigate there is a behavior
flow wide application
of PAT. of A PAT, the selection
detailed analysis of of athe
proper pump operating
turbulence as turbine
flow structure of a
is particularly challenging. Many selection techniques have been published
pump and its reverse mode were performed by Pascoa et al. [13]. Singh and Nestmann [14] revealed so far, while researchers
havewakes
the testedandtheir models
the on few pumps
corresponding lossesand (flowrecorded
separation)deviations
at the in theand
inlet order of of
exit ±10~20% [9]. PAT
a PAT impeller.
may not have optimum or favorable flow behavior since pumps are usually
Yang et al. [15] discussed the velocity distribution and hydraulic losses of PAT with different blade not designed for turbine
wrap
operation. The mismatch between turbine flow parameters and pump
angles. Ardizzon and Pavesi [11] researched the effect of relative through-flow and eddy vortex on flow geometry may affect the
stability of flow performance [10]. In addition, PATs have poor part-load
behavior in PAT impellers and established the optimum incidence angle in outward- and inward-flow performances [11,12]. Many
researchersZhang
impellers. have et presented the optimization
al. [16] presented a numericalof the turbine mode
simulation studyperformance
that the reverse forflow
overcoming
causes a these
great
challenges.
deal of vortexAll mentionedStanbli
in impellers. issueset above
al. [17] require
studied the a detailed
instabilityunderstanding of the internal
of PAT during start-up flow
process using
mechanism of PAT, which is important and imperative to predict the performances
numerical-based method. Zobeiri et al. [18] investigated the rotor–stator interactions in turbine mode of PAT, as well
as aimprove
of pump and its efficiency
presentedand theoperating stability. in stator flow channels. Singh and Nestmann [9]
pressure fluctuation
analyzed the flow condition
Computational in different
fluid dynamics flow zones
(CFDs) were of PAT andextensively
adopted concluded in themany
hydraulic lossresearch
earlier of each
flow zone. Simão et al. [19,20] investigated the hydrodynamic flow behavior
studies to investigate the flow behavior of PAT. A detailed analysis of the turbulence flow structure of centrifugal PAT to
better
of a pumpunderstand
and its the energy
reverse moderecovery
were system
performed behavior
by Pascoaand toet reach
al. [13].theSingh
best efficiency
and Nestmann operation
[14]
conditions. Additionally, collaborative design of rotor and stator of
revealed the wakes and the corresponding losses (flow separation) at the inlet and exit of a PAT PAT have been concerned to
improve
impeller.its efficiency
Yang et al. recently [21,22]. the velocity distribution and hydraulic losses of PAT with
[15] discussed
The PATs have poor hydraulic
different blade wrap angles. Ardizzon performances
and Pavesi [11] usually as thethe
researched pump manufactures
effect do not pay
of relative through-flow
attention to the performances of a pump in reverse operation. As a
and eddy vortex on flow behavior in PAT impellers and established the optimum incidence angle consequence, low efficiency and
in
instability
outward- and haveinward-flow
been found generally
impellers.due to the
Zhang et poor flow
al. [16] conditions
presented of vortices,
a numerical secondarystudy
simulation flow, that
and
pressure
the reverse fluctuation.
flow causes Inathis
greatresearch,
deal of the flow
vortex inbehavior
impellers.ofStanbli
PAT was simulated
et al. by the
[17] studied theCFD method.
instability of
The
PAT during start-up process using numerical-based method. Zobeiri et al. [18] investigated theimpact
structure and evolution of the large axial vortex in impeller channels were revealed, and its rotor–
on pressure
stator fluctuation
interactions and power
in turbine mode losses was observed.
of a pump and presented The results can be fluctuation
the pressure expected toinbestator
a support
flow
for the optimization design of PAT.
channels. Singh and Nestmann [9] analyzed the flow condition in different flow zones of PAT and
concluded the hydraulic loss of each flow zone. Simão et al. [19,20] investigated the hydrodynamic
2. Theoretical Model of Vortex
flow behavior of centrifugal PAT to better understand the energy recovery system behavior and
For PAT,
to reach the slip
the best phenomenon
efficiency occurs
operation inevitably Additionally,
conditions. in flow passages caused by finite
collaborative designblades. Due
of rotor to
and
the finite blades with certain thickness of PAT, the fluid in the flow passages
stator of PAT have been concerned to improve its efficiency recently [21,22]. is guided weakly, and
subsequently a slip velocity ∆cu is generated, as shown in Figure 2 (where u is the peripheral velocity
The PATs
of impeller, w ishave poorvelocity,
relative hydraulicc isperformances usually
absolute velocity, as the
cm and pump
cu are themanufactures
meridian anddo not pay
peripheral
attention to the
components performances
of absolute of respectively,
velocity, a pump in reverse
∆cu is operation. Asβaisconsequence,
slip velocity, relative flow low
angleefficiency
and βb isand
the
instability have been found generally due to the poor flow conditions of vortices, secondary
blade angle, the subscript ∞ represents infinite blades). As a consequence, the large axial vortices flow,
and pressure
induced fluctuation.
reasonably. In thisoperation,
In part-load research, this
the phenomenon
flow behavior of PAT
is much wasserious
more simulated by theofCFD
on account the
method. The structure
non-optimum incoming flow.and evolution of the large axial vortex in impeller channels were revealed, and
its impact on pressure fluctuation and power losses was observed. The results can be expected to be
a support for the optimization design of PAT.

2. Theoretical Model of Vortex

peripheral components of absolute velocity, respectively, Δcu is slip velocity, β is relative flow angle
and βb is the blade angle, the subscript ∞ represents infinite blades). As a consequence, the large axial
vortices induced reasonably. In part-load operation, this phenomenon is much more serious on
account Processes
of the 2020,
non-optimum
8, 1192 incoming flow. 3 of 15

Figure 2. The model of the large axial vortex in PAT.

Figure 2. The model of the large axial vortex in PAT.
In recent decades, various vortex identification methods, including closed or spiral path lines,
minimum local pressure,
In recent decades, various vorticity
vortex magnitude, etc., have
identification been used
methods, to interpretclosed
including vorticalor
structures in
spiral path lines,
instantaneous flow fields [23]. The vorticity magnitude is widely applied in qualifying the intensity of
minimum local pressure, vorticity magnitude, etc., have been used to interpret vortical structures in
vortices, and the swirling strength has been adopted—usually to qualify the vorticity magnitude.
instantaneous Forflow fields
a random [23]. The
element vorticity
of vortex magnitude
flow, the is widely
velocity gradient tensorapplied
dij can bein qualifying
described as the intensity
of vortices, and the swirling strength has been adopted—usually to qualify the vorticity magnitude.
 λr
 
0 0 
−1
h i
For a random element of vortex
dij =flow,
[vr vcr vthe  velocity
λcr gradient
λci [vr vcr vtensor dij can be described(1)
as
 
ci ] 0 ci ]

0 −λci λcr
 

r 0 0
respectively. The velocity       0 onereal eigenvalue
  v vλvand1two
where vr , vcr , and vci represent the axial, radial, and tangential components
 
of the element velocity,
 ij 
d
gradient v v
tensorvd
r cr ciij

exists cr ci
 r cr r ci conjugated complex (1)
eigenvalues λcr ± λci . The swirling strength is the imaginary part of the complex eigenvalues of the
 0   
velocity gradient tensor, λci ; it is positive ifand onlyciif thecrdiscriminant is positive and its value
represents the strength of swirling motion around local centers. The greater the absolute value of the
where vrswirling
, vcr, and vci represent
strength, the the
the stronger axial, radial,
internal and tangential
circulation of fluid. components of the element velocity,
respectively. The velocity gradient tensor dij exists one real eigenvalue λr and two conjugated complex
3. Numerical Simulation
eigenvalues λcr ± λci. The swirling strength is the imaginary part of the complex eigenvalues of the
velocity 3.1.
gradient tensor,
Numerical Methodλci; it is positive if and only if the discriminant is positive and its value
represents the strengthPAT
A modified of with
swirling motion
specific around
speed (nQ 1/2 /H3/4local centers.
, where The greater
n is rotational speed, Qthe absolute
is flow value
rate, and H of the
swirlingisstrength, the selected
head) 9.1 was stronger forthe internal
numerical circulation
simulation, and of
thefluid.
hydraulic parameters were 50 m for head
and 50 m3 /h for flow rate with the rotational speed 1500 r/min. The flow zones consisted of volute,
3. impeller,
Numerical and draft tube as shown in Figure 3. The main geometrical parameters were shown in Table 1.
Simulation

3.1. Numerical Method

A modified PAT with specific speed (nQ1/2/H3/4, where n is rotational speed, Q is flow rate, and
H is head ) 9.1 was selected for numerical simulation, and the hydraulic parameters were 50 m for
head and 50 m3/h for flow rate with the rotational speed 1500 r/min. The flow zones consisted of
volute, impeller, and draft tube as shown in Figure 3. The main geometrical parameters were shown
in Table 1.
Processes 2020, 8, 1192 4 of 15
Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15

(a) (b)

Figure 3. Structure of modified PAT. (a) Structure of selected PAT; (b) modified impeller of PAT.
Figure 3. Structure of modified PAT. (a) Structure of selected PAT; (b) modified impeller of PAT.
Table 1. Geometrical parameters of pump as turbine (PAT).
Table 1. Geometrical parameters of pump as turbine (PAT).
Categories Parameters
Categories Parameters
Inlet diameter D1 (mm) 312
Outlet diameter
Inlet diameterD2 D(mm)
1 (mm)
80 312
Hub diameter dh (mm) 0
Impeller Inlet width
Outlet b1 (mm)2 (mm)
diameterD 10 80
Blade inlet angle β1 (◦ ) 120
Hub diameter
Blade number Z dh (mm) 10 0
Blade outlet angle β1 (◦ ) 30
Impeller Inlet width b1 (mm) 10
Inlet diameter Ds (mm) 50
Volute Outlet
Blade inletbangle
width 0 (mm) β1 (°) 24 120
Basic circle diameter D0 (mm) 320
Blade number Z 10
Length Ld (mm) 120
Draft tube
ExitBlade
diameter Ddangle
outlet (mm) β1 (°) 80 30

Inlet diameter Ds (mm) 50

The numerical simulation was performed by means of the Navier–Stokes equation with an
appropriate turbulenceVolute model. The Reynolds Outlet width b0Navier-Stokes
Averaged (mm) (RANS) turbulence 24 model
is not appropriate for the unsteady flow prediction, while a fully-resolved Large Eddy Simulation
Basic circle diameter D0 (mm) 320
(LES) is almost unfeasible nowadays [24]. Recently, the Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) showed the
superiority of the prediction of unsteady flow phenomenon Length Ld (mm) in studies by Magnoli and Schilling
120 [25].
Draft tube
DES can be described as a hybrid RANS-LES turbulence modeling approach and can be applied in
Exit diameter Dd (mm) 80
a numerical simulation of rotor–stator interaction, inter-blade vortices and vortex rope successfully.
It is acting as a Sub-Grid-Scale (SGS) model of LES in regions where the grid resolution is fine enough
to resolve The numerical
turbulent simulation
structures, while was performed
in other regions bythe means
model of the Navier–Stokes
is used as a pure RANS equation with an
model [26].
appropriate
It features turbulence
the advantages of amodel. The Reynolds
less refined grid near Averaged
the wall, asNavier-Stokes (RANS)
well as the memory turbulence of
requirements model
a is
not appropriate
computer. DES can be forexplicitly
the unsteady flow prediction,
presented while a fully-resolved
in the Spalart–Allmaras (SA) k–εLarge
modelEddy Simulation
or Shear Stress(LES)
is almost
Transport (SST)unfeasible
model. nowadays [24]. Recently, the Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) showed the
superiority
In the presentof the prediction
work, the CFXof(17.0,
unsteady flowPittsburgh,
ANSYS, phenomenon PA,inUSA,
studies by Magnoli
2016) and Schilling
was adopted for the [25].
DESofcan
solution 3Dbe described as aequations
Navier–Stokes hybrid RANS-LES turbulence modeling
due to its characteristics of robustapproach
and fastand can be applied
convergence [15]. in a
Steady numerical
simulationssimulation of rotor–stator
were achieved using theinteraction,
RNG k–ε modelinter-blade
and thevortices
resultsand
werevortex rope
applied as successfully.
the initial It
valueisofacting as a analysis,
transient Sub-Grid-Scale (SGS)turbulence
the SA-DES model of LES in regions
model wherefor
was applied the grid resolution
transient is fine enough
simulations.
to resolve
The turbulent
one equation structures,
SA-DES modelwhile in described
can be other regions as the model is used as a pure RANS model [26].
It features the advantages of a less refined grid near the wall, as well as the memory requirements of
2
a computer. ∂evDES can be explicitly
1 cw1 f(SA) v
[∇ · ((presented in the Spalart–Allmaras
( k–ε)model or Shear Stress
2 w e
+ u · ∇e
v= v+e v)∇e v) + cb2 ∇ev ] + cb1 eSe
v− (2)
∂t model. σRe
Transport (SST) Re dDES
 v 1 c f v 2
 u v  [  ((v  v )v )  cb 2 v ]  cb1Sv  w1 w (
2
) (2)
t  Re Re d DES

v / d 
Processes 2020, 2
where v is8,a1192
destruction term for the eddy viscosity, which is proportional to , where5 of 15
d is
the distance to the closest wall, Re is Reynolds number. The second and last terms on the right side
of the equation
where are the product
v is a destruction
e term forterm and destruction
the eddy term,isrespectively.
viscosity, which proportionalWhen
to (e
v/d )2 , wherewith
balanced d is the
the
production
distance to term, the eddy
the closest wall,viscosity is adjusted
Re is Reynolds to scale
number. Thewith the and
second locallast
deformation
terms on therateright
S and d:
side
v  Sd 2
. In the Smagorinsky model, the sub-grid-scale (SGS) eddy viscosity scales with
of the equation are the product term and destruction term, respectively. When balanced with the S and the
Δ:  SGSthe
 Seddy
 . Thus,
2
grid spacingterm,
production the SA
viscosity model turns
is adjusted intowith
to scale the SGS modeldeformation
the local rate S and
when d is replaced by ad:
2
v ∝ Sd proportional
. In the Smagorinsky model, the sub-grid-scale (SGS) eddy viscosity scales with S and the grid
length
e to Δ.
spacing ∆:µSGS ∝ S∆2 . Thus, the SA model turns into the SGS model when d is replaced by a length
to ∆. d in the SA destruction term with d , described as
If we replace
proportional
If we replace d in the SA destruction term with d, e described as
d  min( d , CDES ) (3)
de= min(d, CDES ∆) (3)
then the model is an SA turbulence model when d  , while an SGS model when d .
then the model is an SA turbulence model when d  ∆, while an SGS model when d  ∆.
Since the
Since the SA-DES
SA-DES model
model doesdoes not
not require
require any
any wall
wall functions,
functions, thethe mesh
mesh that
that is
is close
close to
to the
the wall
wall
surface must
surface must be
be designed
designed to to accurately
accurately predict
predict the
the hydrodynamic
hydrodynamic force; force; hence,
hence, the
the high-aspect-ratio
high-aspect-ratio
cells near the wall
cells near the wall have been generated
generated [27]. The mesh of the fluid domain
The mesh of the fluid domain was generatedwas generated using
using
ICEM-CFD (17.0,
ICEM-CFD (17.0, ANSYS,
ANSYS, Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, PA,PA, USA, 2016) as as its
its advantage
advantage of of aa well-adapted
well-adapted and and efficient
efficient
hexahedral grid
hexahedral grid was
wasapplied
appliedfor formeshing,
meshing, asas
shown
shown in Figure
in Figure 4. The length
4. The of the
length ofinlet and outlet
the inlet pipes
and outlet
was extended to eliminate the influence of back flow. The grid convergence
pipes was extended to eliminate the influence of back flow. The grid convergence and grid and grid independence
tests were performed,
independence tests wereand the results
performed, showed
and that the
the results head–flow
showed that therate curve became
head–flow stablebecame
rate curve as the
elements
stable of mesh
as the over of
elements 3,612,548,
mesh over as shown in Figure
3,612,548, as shown5. Therefore,
in Figurethe 5. final element
Therefore, thenumbers of the
final element
volute, impeller, and draft tube were 865,260, 3,007,154, and 243,200, respectively.
numbers of the volute, impeller, and draft tube were 865,260, 3,007,154, and 243,200, respectively.

(a) (b)
Processes 2020, 8,Figure
x FOR PEER REVIEW
4. Computational domain and mesh. (a) Computational domain; (b) mesh. 6 of 15
Figure 4. Computational domain and mesh. (a) Computational domain; (b) mesh.

Figure 5. Grid
Figure 5. Grid independent
independent test.
test.

The boundary condition of the inlet was the total pressure with an initial value of 0.5 MPa, and the
outlet was the flow rate with an initial value of 50 m3/h for design condition; the rotational speed of the
impeller was fixed with 1500 r/min. The fluid was the normal water with a temperature of 20 °C, all the
wall surfaces were adiabatic, and the roughness was set to 50 μm. To obtain reasonable results, the
proper selection of time steps is of great importance. It is suggested that time steps for a runner rotation
 Figure 5. Grid independent test.
Processes 2020, 8, 1192 6 of 15
The boundary condition of the inlet was the total pressure with an initial value of 0.5 MPa, and the
outlet was the flow rate with an initial value of 50 m3/h for design condition; the rotational speed of the
The boundary condition of the inlet was the total pressure with an initial value of 0.5 MPa, and the
impeller
outletwaswas fixed with
the flow 1500
rate withr/min. Thevalue
an initial fluidofwas
50 mthe
3 /hnormal water
for design with athe
condition; temperature of 20of°C,
rotational speed theall the
wallimpeller
surfaces waswere
fixedadiabatic,
with 1500 and
r/min.theTheroughness was
fluid was the set towater
normal 50 μm.
withTo obtain reasonable
a temperature of 20 ◦ C, results,
all the the
proper
wallselection
surfaces of time
were steps is and
adiabatic, of great importance.
the roughness was It set
is suggested that
to 50 µm. To time reasonable
obtain steps for a results,
runner therotation
of 0.5–5°
proper could provide
selection useful
of time stepsinformation for the flow
is of great importance. It isfield underthat
suggested transients
time steps[28].
forHence,
a runnerthe time steps
rotation
◦ could provide−4
in this study
of 0.5–5 were 3.3 × 10 useful
s, corresponding
information for to 3°
theofflow
the field
impeller
underrotational
transientsangle. The max
[28]. Hence, thecoefficient
time
steps in this study were 3.3 × 10 −4 s, corresponding to 3◦ of the impeller rotational angle. The max
loop of convergence control was 40, and the residual target of the convergence criteria was 10−5. The
totalcoefficient
time of loop of convergence
the duration data control
was 0.4 was s 40, and the residual
corresponding to target of the
10 rotor convergence
revolutions andcriteria
the was
last four
10 −5 . The total time of the duration data was 0.4 s corresponding to 10 rotor revolutions and the last
revolution data were analyzed.
four revolution data were analyzed.
ForFor revealing
revealing thethe vortexstructure
vortex structureand
and pressure
pressure fluctuation
fluctuation ininPAT
PATflow channels,
flow 17 monitoring
channels, 17 monitoring
points were set in the middle plane of PAT, as shown in Figure 6. Point 1 was set in the between
points were set in the middle plane of PAT, as shown in Figure 6. Point 1 was set in the gap gap between
volute
volute andand impeller,
impeller, point2 2and
point and33next
next to
to the
the inlet
inletand
andoutlet
outletofofimpeller,
impeller,respectively, pointpoint
respectively, 4 was4in
was in
center of impeller outlet, points 5, 7, 9 were on the suction profile of the short blade, while 6, 8, 10 were
center of impeller outlet, points 5, 7, 9 were on the suction profile of the short blade, while 6, 8, 10
on the pressure side, points 11, 13, 15 were on the suction profile of the long blade, while 12, 14, 16
were on the pressure side, points 11, 13, 15 were on the suction profile of the long blade, while 12, 14,
were on the pressure profile, point 17 was set in the flow channel.
16 were on the pressure profile, point 17 was set in the flow channel.

.
Figure 6. Monitoring sites of PAT.
Figure 6. Monitoring sites of PAT.
3.2. Verification of Numerical Method
3.2. Verification of Numerical
In this section, Method method was validated by the experimental results. A test rig was
the numerical
established for the hydraulic performance experiment of PAT. The test rig was composed by water
In this section, the numerical method was validated by the experimental results. A test rig was
supply, PAT, and energy dissipation sections as shown in Figure 7. A feed pump was installed to
established for the hydraulic performance experiment of PAT. The test rig was composed by water
provide the head and flow rate for PAT. A magnetic power brake was equipped to balance the output
supply, PAT,
power, andand energy
a loop dissipation
control system wassections
used to as shown
adjust in Figure
the torque 7. A feed
of output shaft.pump
A flowwas installed
meter was to
provide the head
equipped at theand flow
inlet rate
pipe of for
PATPAT. A magnetic
for measuring thepower brake
flow rate, andwas
twoequipped to balance the
pressure transducers output
were
installed at the PAT inlet and outlet for measuring pressure. For measuring the torque and rotational
speed of PAT, a torque meter was set at shaft. The head, flow rate, power and efficiency of PAT could
be obtained after all parameters were measured.
power, and a loop control system was used to adjust the torque of output shaft. A flow meter was
power,
equipped andatatheloop control
inlet pipe system
of PAT was used to adjust
for measuring the torque
the flow of output
rate, and shaft. Atransducers
two pressure flow meterwere
was
equipped
installed atatthe thePAT
inletinlet
pipe of outlet
and PAT forformeasuring
measuringthe flow rate,
pressure. and two pressure
For measuring transducers
the torque were
and rotational
installed at the PAT inlet and outlet for measuring pressure. For measuring the torque
speed of PAT, a torque meter was set at shaft. The head, flow rate, power and efficiency of PAT couldand rotational
speed of PAT,
be obtained a torque
after meter waswere
all parameters set at shaft. The head, flow rate, power and efficiency of PAT could
measured.
Processes 2020, 8, 1192 7 of 15
be obtained after all parameters were measured.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Experimental
Experimental equipment
equipment of
of PAT. (a) Schematic
PAT. (a) Schematic diagram
diagramof
ofexperiment;
experiment;(b)
(b)test
testrig.
rig.
Figure 7. Experimental equipment of PAT. (a) Schematic diagram of experiment; (b) test rig.
The selected
The selectedPAT
PATwaswas tested
tested andhydraulic
and the the hydraulic performance
performance curves by curves by experimental
experimental and numericaland
The were
numerical
methods selected
methods PAT
werewas
illustrated in tested8.and
illustrated
Figure in the
can behydraulic
It Figure 8. It can
found beperformance
that found
the curves
that the
numerical isbyin experimental
numerical
head head
good and
is in good
coincidence
numerical
coincidence
with methods
with the
the experimental were illustrated
experimental
results. in FigureIn
results.
In consequence, it8.isconsequence,
Itreasonable
can be found that the
to itbelieve numerical
is reasonable
that head numerical
to believe
the employed is that
in good
the
coincidence
employed
method with the
numericaland
is accurate, experimental
method
it can is results.
beaccurate,
applied inand In consequence,
it can be applied
performance it is reasonable
in performance
predictions to believe
of PAT. predictions of PAT. that the
employed numerical method is accurate, and it can be applied in performance predictions of PAT.

Figure 8. Comparison
Figure 8. Comparison between
between experimental
experimental and
and numerical
numerical results.
results.
Figure 8. Comparison between experimental and numerical results.
4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Vortex Information in Flow Channels

For PAT, large axial vortices were derived in impeller flow channels even at the best efficiency
point (BEP), as shown in Figure 9. It can be seen that the streamline was disordered near the suction
surfaces of the impeller inlet where the large axial vortices were induced. It can be clearly observed
4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Vortex Information in Flow Channels

For2020,
Processes PAT, large
axial vortices were derived in impeller flow channels even at the best efficiency
8, 1192 8 of 15
point (BEP), as shown in Figure 9. It can be seen that the streamline was disordered near the suction
surfaces of the impeller inlet where the large axial vortices were induced. It can be clearly observed
that the vortices were more legible on short blade surfaces. Furthermore,
that Furthermore, the
the size
size and
and position
position of
detected vortices were invariant with rotor rotating, and apparently, these were stable.
apparently, these were stable.

Figure 9. Streamline and swirling strength contour of impeller.

Figure 9. Streamline and swirling strength contour of impeller.
The swirling strength contour of detected vortices during one rotating cycle was displayed in
Figure 9. swirling
The It can bestrength
seen thatcontour
although of the
detected
vortexvortices
size andduring onewere
position rotating
stable,cycle
the was displayed
swirling in
strength
Figure 9. It can be seen that although the vortex size and position were stable,
changed with rotation of the impeller. In the first half of the rotating cycle, the swirling strength was the swirling strength
changed
minimumwith rotation
(0~50 s−1 ) atof the impeller.
0.122011 In the first
s, intensified half of the(450~500
to maximum rotating scycle,
−1 ) at the swirling
0.133891 strength
s, and weakenedwas
minimum
to minimum (0~50
(0~50s )s−1
−1 at)0.122011 s, intensified
again at 0.142141 s. Thetorevolution
maximumof(450~500 s swirling
the vortex
−1 ) at 0.133891 s, and
strength in weakened
the second
to minimum (0~50 s −1) again at 0.142141 s. The revolution of the vortex swirling strength in the second
half of the cycle was the same as the first half. The vortices information was extremely similar at
half of the
0.122011 cycle0.142141
s and was thes,same as the
0.127951 first0.148081
s and half. Thes, vortices
as well asinformation
0.133891 s was and extremely
0.154021 s.similar at
It can be
0.122011 s and 0.142141 s, 0.127951 s and 0.148081 s, as well as 0.133891 s and
found that the time steps of each working point are 0.2 s approximately for the three groups (group a, 0.154021 s. It can be
found
b, and that
c, as the
showntimeinsteps
Figure of 9),
each working
that point
is half the areof0.2
time pers rotating
approximately
cycle (0.4 fors)the
forthree
PAT. groups
In other(group
words,
a,
the swirling strength of the vortex develops periodically with two times the rotating frequency.other
b, and c, as shown in Figure 9), that is half the time of per rotating cycle (0.4 s) for PAT. In
words, the swirling strength of the vortex develops periodically with two times the rotating
frequency.
4.2. Pressure Fluctuation of Vortex
The pressure fluctuation could be produced due to the vortices with twofold rotating frequency.
4.2. Pressure Fluctuation of Vortex
In order to reveal the pressure fluctuation characteristics of PAT, transient numerical simulation
was The pressureand
performed, fluctuation could
results of be monitoring
the 17 produced due to the
points vortices
are given with twofold
in Figure 10. rotating frequency.
Where the vertical
In order to reveal the pressure fluctuation characteristics
coordinates Cp is pressure coefficient, it can be described as of PAT, transient numerical simulation was
performed, and results of the 17 monitoring points are given in Figure 10. Where the vertical
pi − p as
coordinates Cp is pressure coefficient, it can be described
Cp = (4)
0.5ρu21

where pi denotes the transient pressure of monitoring point (Pa), p is the average pressure (Pa), ρ is the
density of fluid (kg/m3 ), and u1 is the peripheral velocity of impeller inlet (m/s).
 pi  p
Cp  (4)
0.5  u12

where p2020,
Processes i denotes transient pressure of monitoring point (Pa), p is the average pressure (Pa),9 of
8, 1192 the ρ 15
is
the density of fluid (kg/m ), and u1 is the peripheral velocity of impeller inlet (m/s).
3

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 10. Pressure fluctuation coefficient with time. (a) Points 1, 2, 3; (b)Points 5, 7, 9; (c)Points 4, 6, 8;
Figure 10. Pressure fluctuation coefficient with time. (a) Points 1, 2, 3; (b)Points 5, 7, 9; (c)Points 4, 6,
(d)Points 11, 13, 15; (e)Points 12, 14, 16; (f)Points 4, 17.
8; (d)Points 11, 13, 15; (e)Points 12, 14, 16; (f)Points 4, 17.
The pressure of point 1 fluctuated 10 times in a rotating cycle visibly, which was caused by the
The pressure
blade–volute of pointas
interaction; 1 fluctuated 10 times
the point was set ininthe
a rotating cycle visibly,
gap between which
the rotor and was caused
volute, by not
it was the
blade–volute interaction; as the point was set in the gap between the rotor and volute, it
related to the axial vortex obviously. Point 4 could not be related to the axial vortex as well because was not
related to the
it was set axial
in the vortex
draft tubeobviously. Point
that was far 4 could
away fromnot
thebe related
vortex to the axial
regions. vortex asfluctuation
The pressure well because at
it waspoints
other set in showed
the draftthat
tubethe
that was far
leading away from
periodical the vortex
impulse regions.
was related to The pressure fluctuation
the rotor–stator at
interaction.
other points showed that the leading periodical impulse was related to the rotor–stator
However, it was no reason to neglect the correlation between the subordinate periodical impulse and interaction.
However, it was no reason to neglect the correlation between the subordinate periodical impulse and
axial vortex.
axial Figure
vortex.11 showed the pressure fluctuation images with frequency range, which was received by
fast Fourier
Figure 11transform
showed(FFT) from Figure
the pressure 9. For easily
fluctuation images understanding,
with frequencythe horizontal
range, whichaxis
waswas the ratio
received by
of frequency
fast Fourier (f/fn), where fn denoted the rotating frequency of the rotor.
It can be seen that the leading pressure fluctuation of the monitoring points occurred at 1 f/fn, 5
f/fn, 10 f/fn, and 20 f/fn. Obviously, this related to the rotor–stator interaction. Pressure fluctuation at 1
f/fn caused by the rotor–tongue interaction, at 5 f/fn, 10 f/fn, 20 f/fn caused by blade–tongue interaction
(the impeller equipped with 5 long blades and 5 short blades). Therefore, the main factor of pressure
fluctuation was the rotor–stator interaction.
However, the subordinate pressure fluctuation at 2 f/fn was found in points 2, 5, 6, 11, 12, and 17.
It was obvious, especially in points 5 and 11 as marked with dashed circle in Figure 10, as mentioned
earlier, that the large axial vortices were derived in these regions usually. Consequently, it was
reasonable to declare that the subordinate pressure fluctuation was related to axial vortices in impeller
channels, which deteriorated the operating stability of the machine evidently.
(a) (b) (c)
other points showed that the leading periodical impulse was related to the rotor–stator interaction.
However, it was no reason to neglect the correlation between the subordinate periodical impulse and
axial vortex.

Figure
Processes 111192
2020, 8, showed the pressure fluctuation images with frequency range, which was received
10 ofby
15
fast Fourier

Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 11. Pressure fluctuation coefficient with frequency. (a) Points 1, 2, 3; (b)Points 5, 7, 9; (c)Points 4,
Figure 11. Pressure fluctuation coefficient with frequency. (a) Points 1, 2, 3; (b)Points 5, 7, 9; (c)Points
6, 8; (d)Points 11, 13, 15; (e)Points 12, 14, 16; (f)Points 4, 17.
4, 6, 8; (d)Points 11, 13, 15; (e)Points 12, 14, 16; (f)Points 4, 17.
4.3. Power Losses Caused by Vortex
It can be seen that the leading pressure fluctuation of the monitoring points occurred at 1 f/fn, 5
The large axial vortices provide subordinate contribution to the pressure fluctuation of PAT. More
f/fn, 10 f/fn, and 20 f/fn. Obviously, this related to the rotor–stator interaction. Pressure fluctuation at
importantly, this might cause entropy generation in the flow field, and therefore, the power loss
1 f/fn caused by the rotor–tongue interaction, at 5 f/fn, 10 f/fn, 20 f/fn caused by blade–tongue
produced inevitably. In this section, the power losses caused by axial vortices were analyzed.
interaction (the impeller equipped with 5 long blades and 5 short blades). Therefore, the main factor
Flow distortion have been detected in the impeller that was caused by axial vortices, where a
of pressure fluctuation was the rotor–stator interaction.
wake region has been found near the impeller inlet, it was significant especially for 0.6 Qd and 1.0
Qd (QHowever,
d is designthe flowsubordinate pressure
rate), as shown fluctuation
in Figure 12. Asata2consequence,
f/fn was found in points 2, 5,zone
a low-pressure 6, 11, 12, and
appeared
17.
nearItthe
was obvious,
impeller especially
inlet, and the in pointsvelocity
relative 5 and 11
no as marked
longer with dashed
distributed circlethe
alongside inblade
Figure 10, as
surfaces.
mentioned
In order to earlier, thateffect
reveal the the large axialvortices
of axial vorticesonwere derived incharacteristics
performance these regions usually.
of PAT, sixConsequently,
monitoring
it was reasonable
cylindrical surfaces toin
declare that the
the impeller subordinate
were created aspressure
shown in fluctuation
Figure 13.was related
Figure 14 wasto axial vortices in
the distribution
impeller channels,
of the average which
relative deteriorated
velocity (radialthe operating stability
component) of the machine
in the impeller, and Figure evidently.
15 was the average
pressure at each cylindrical surface. It can be seen that the average relative velocity (radial component)
4.3.
and Power Losses
pressure Caused
curves by Vortex
decreased gradually along the flow direction in the impeller channels for 1.6 Qd ;
however,
The large axial vortices provide appeared
a local decline of the curves subordinateat surface 1 and 2tofor
contribution Qd and 1.0
the0.6pressure Qd . As shown
fluctuation of PAT.in
Figure 12, the streamline of
More importantly, this might cause 1.6 Q d was uniform, and very tiny axial vortices were detected
entropy generation in the flow field, and therefore, the power in the flow
loss produced inevitably. In this section,can
channels. However, large axial vortices thebe foundlosses
power near caused
the impeller
by axialinlet at 0.6 Qwere
vortices d and 1.0 Qd ; this
analyzed.
was much more serious for low flow rates. It can be seen from Figure 12 that the region from surface 1
Flow 3distortion
to surface was worse have been by
affected detected in the impeller
axial vortices thatflow
for the low wasrates
causedthatby axial vortices,
reasonably whereto
responded a
wake region
the local has of
decline beenthefound
average near the impeller
relative velocityinlet,
and it was significant especially for 0.6 Qd and 1.0 Qd
pressure.
(Qd is design flow rate), as shown in Figure 12. As a consequence, a low-pressure zone appeared near
the impeller inlet, and the relative velocity no longer distributed alongside the blade surfaces. In
order to reveal the effect of axial vortices on performance characteristics of PAT, six monitoring
cylindrical surfaces in the impeller were created as shown in Figure 13. Figure 14 was the distribution
of the average relative velocity (radial component) in the impeller, and Figure 15 was the average
pressure at each cylindrical surface. It can be seen that the average relative velocity (radial component)
and pressure curves decreased gradually along the flow direction in the impeller channels for 1.6 Qd;
however, a local decline of the curves appeared at surface 1 and 2 for 0.6 Qd and 1.0 Qd. As shown in
Figure 12, the streamline of 1.6 Qd was uniform, and very tiny axial vortices were detected in the flow
channels. However, large axial vortices can be found near the impeller inlet at 0.6 Qd and 1.0 Qd; this
was much more serious for low flow rates. It can be seen from Figure 12 that the region from surface
1 to surface 3 was worse affected by axial vortices for the low flow rates that reasonably responded
to the local decline of the average relative velocity and pressure.
Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

Processes 2020, 8, 1192 11 of 15

Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 12. Streamline at radial plane of impeller. (a) 0.6 Qd; (b) 1.0 Qd; (c) 1.6 Qd.
Figure 12. Streamline at radial plane of impeller. (a) 0.6 Qd; (b) 1.0 Qd; (c) 1.6 Qd.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 12. Streamline at radial plane of impeller. (a) 0.6 Qd ; (b) 1.0 Qd ; (c) 1.6 Qd .
Figure 12. Streamline at radial plane of impeller. (a) 0.6 Qd; (b) 1.0 Qd; (c) 1.6 Qd.

Figure 13. Monitoring surfaces of the impeller.

Figure 13. Monitoring surfaces of the impeller.
Figure 13. Monitoring surfaces of the impeller.

Figure 13. Monitoring surfaces of the impeller.

Processes 2020, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

Figure 14. Average relative velocity of monitoring surfaces.
Figure 14. Average relative velocity of monitoring surfaces.
Figure 14. Average relative velocity of monitoring surfaces.

Figure 14. Average relative velocity of monitoring surfaces.

Figure 15. Average pressure of monitoring surfaces.

Figure 15. Average pressure of monitoring surfaces.

As the axial vortices were generated, power losses were raised inevitably. To study the power
losses caused by vortices, the flow domain in the impeller was divided into six zones (Figure 16), and
power losses of each zone were calculated.
 Figure 15. Average pressure of monitoring surfaces.
Processes 2020, 8, 1192 12 of 15
As the axial vortices were generated, power losses were raised inevitably. To study the power
losses caused by vortices, the flow domain in the impeller was divided into six zones (Figure 16), and
As the axial vortices were generated, power losses were raised inevitably. To study the power
power losses of each zone were calculated.
losses caused by vortices, the flow domain in the impeller was divided into six zones (Figure 16), and
power losses of each zone were calculated.

Figure 16.
Figure Zones of
16. Zones of the
the impeller.
impeller.

For any
For zone i,i, when
any zone when the
the boundary
boundary condition
condition with
with aapressure
pressure inlet
inlet and
andflow
flow rate
rateoutlet
outletare
aregiven,
given,
while rotating speed is fixed, the theoretical power (fluid power) and actual power (shaft
while rotating speed is fixed, the theoretical power (fluid power) and actual power (shaft power of power of
PAT) can
PAT) can be
be obtained
obtained by by numerical
numerical simulation.
simulation. The
The theoretical
theoretical power
power can
can be
be described
described as
as
p0(i,i = ρgQH(i,i+1)
p(i ,i 1)   gQH（i ,i 1)
'
+1) (5)
(5)

where ρ is the fluid density, g is the gravitational acceleration, H(i„i+1) is the fluid head of zone i, and Q
where ρ is the fluid density, g is the gravitational acceleration, H(i,,i+1) is the fluid head of zone i, and
is the flow rate. The shaft power of PAT is
Q is the flow rate. The shaft power of PAT is
p(i,i+1) = M(i,i+1) · ω (6)
p（i ,i 1)  M（i ,i 1)   (6)
where M(i,i+1) is the torque of zone i, while ω is the angular speed of the impeller. Then, the relative
where
power M (i,i+1) is
losses ofthe torque
zone i are of zone i, while ω is the angular speed of the impeller. Then, the relative
power losses of zone i are p(i,i+1)
f(i,i+1) = 1 − 0 (7)
p(i,i+1)
p（i ,i 1)
f（i ,i 1)  1the
As the numerical simulation did not consider  leakage
' and frictional losses of PAT, Equation
(7)(7)
can be considered as relative power losses of zone i. p( i ,i 1)
Figure 17 presented the power losses of each zone for 0.6 Qd , 1.0 Qd , 1.6 Qd , respectively. It can be
seen that the power losses of zone 1 and 2 (the inlet region of the impeller) were higher distinctly than
zone 3 and 4. As mentioned earlier, the large axial vortices occurred in this region usually, and caused
the reduction in energy conversion of PAT. What calls for special attention was that the power losses of
zone 5 and 6 were higher than zone 3 and 4 as well, which was related to the vortices in the draft tube
to a great extent, and it deserved further research in the future.
It can be concluded also that the power losses were heaved significantly in low flow rates, which
was related to the large axial vortices. As mentioned above, large axial vortices can be found near
impeller inlets usually and are much more serious for low flow rates. Thus, it was believed that power
losses would be induced by the large axial vortices within flow passages, and it should be considered
in the design and optimization process, especially in low flow rates.
 It can be concluded also that the power losses were heaved significantly in low flow rates, which
was related to the large axial vortices. As mentioned above, large axial vortices can be found near
impeller inlets usually and are much more serious for low flow rates. Thus, it was believed that power
losses would
Processes be induced by the large axial vortices within flow passages, and it should be considered
2020, 8, 1192 13 of 15
in the design and optimization process, especially in low flow rates.

Figure 17. Hydraulic losses of different zones.

Figure 17. Hydraulic losses of different zones.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this study, the flow behavior of a centrifugal PAT with specific speed 9.1 was researched by a
In this
verified CFDstudy, the The
method. flowlarge
behavior
axial of a centrifugal
vortices PAT with
were derived specific flow
in impeller speedchannels
9.1 was due
researched by
to the slip
a verified
and CFD method.
poor match between Theflowlarge axial vortices
and blades. The sizewere
and derived
position in impeller
of the flow
vortices channels
were due to the
stable apparently.
slip and poor
However, match between
the swirling strength flow and blades.
developed The size
periodically withand2fn position
(fn is the of the vortices
rotating were
frequency stable
of PAT).
apparently.
The pressureHowever, the swirling
fluctuation strength
can be found developed
in PAT. periodically
The leading pressure with 2fn (fn is
fluctuation wasthe rotating
caused by
frequency of PAT).
the rotor–stator interaction, while the subordinate fluctuation was related to axial vortices in impeller
channels, which deteriorated the operating stability of the machine evidently.
The pressure fluctuation can be found in PAT. The leading pressure fluctuation was caused by
The power losses were induced by the large axial vortices in the impeller flow channels, and this
the rotor–stator interaction, while the subordinate fluctuation was related to axial vortices in impeller
phenomenon was much more serious in the low flow rate operation. This should be considered in the
channels, which deteriorated the operating stability of the machine evidently.
design and optimization process, especially in low flow rates.
Nevertheless,
The power losses the were
feature of large
induced byaxial vortices
the large axialwithin PAT
vortices in impeller channels
the impeller deservedand
flow channels, further
this
research
phenomenonin detail
wasbased
muchon moreserious
more PATs. The
in theinfluence
low flow of rate
the rotation,
operation. geometry of thebe
This should blades, entropy
considered in
variation of the large axial vortex and efficiency of the
the design and optimization process, especially in low flow rates. PAT should be discussed deeply, especially in
the pump–turbine transition processes.
Nevertheless, the feature of large axial vortices within PAT impeller channels deserved further
research
Author in detail based
Contributions: on Conceptualization,
X.W.: more PATs. The influence of theFormal
Methodology, rotation, geometry
Analysis, of the blades,
Investigation, entropy
Writing. K.K.:
Software,
variation of the large axial vortex and efficiency of the PAT should be discussed deeply, especially to
Data Curation. Z.W.: Resources, Data Curation. J.Y.: Validation. All authors have read and agreed in
the published version of the manuscript.
the pump–turbine transition processes.
Funding: This research was funded by the Nature Science Foundation of China (51569013), Industry Support
and Guidance Plan of Colleges in Gansu (2020C-20), and the Article Processing Charge (APC) was funded by
Author Contributions:
Outstanding X.W.: Support
Young Scientists Conceptualization,
Program of Methodology,
Lanzhou UniversityFormalofAnalysis,
TechnologyInvestigation,
(LUT). Writing. K.K.:
Software, Data Curation. Z.W.: Resources, Data Curation. J.Y.: Validation. All authors have read and agreed to
Conflicts versionThe
of Interest:
the published authors
of the declare no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the research, authorship,
manuscript.
and/or publication of this article.

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