Complex Analysis

Chapter Ⅲ
Elementary Functions
In this chapter, we will generalize various elementary functions to
corresponding functions of a complex variable. To be specific, we define
analytic functions of a complex variable z that reduce to the elementary
functions in calculus when z  x  i0 . We start by defining the complex
exponential function and then use it to develop the others.
Teaching Outlines ： Exponential functions, logarithmic functions and
related identities, branches and derivatives of logarithms, complex power
functions, trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions,
hyperbolic functions and inverse hyperbolic functions.
 Chapter Ⅲ Elementary Functions

Teaching Periods：2 Periods

Teaching Contents：
1．Definitions of Exponential functions and their basic properties;
2．Concepts and basic properties and related identities of logarithmic functions;
3．Complex power functions and related properties;
4．Concepts and related identities of trigonometric functions;
5．Hyperbolic functions and related identities;
6．Inverse functions of trigonometric functions and hyperbolic functions.
§3.1. The Exponential Function

1. Properties of exponential functions

If we write
z1  x1  iy1 and z 2  x2  iy 2
then
e z1 e z 2  (e x1 eiy1 )(e x2 eiy2 )  (e x1 e x2 )(eiy1 eiy2 )  e x1  x2 ei ( y1  y2 )  e z1  z 2 .
z1  z2 e z1 z z
e e or z  e 1 2 .
z2 z1
e
e2
d z
e  ez
dz
i
If e  e   e x and   y ,then | e z | e x and
z
where
Arg(e z )  y  2n (n  0,1,2, ) .
2. Example

Example 1. There are values of z such that

e z  1 . (3.1.9)
i
To find them, we write equation (3.1.9) as e e  1e . Then, by
x iy

Proposition 1.8.1, we have

e x  1 and y    2n (n  0,1,2, ) .
Thus, x  0 , and we find that
z  (2n  1)i (n  0,1,2, ) . (3.1.10)
§3.2. The Logarithmic Function

1.Definition of logarithm of a complex number

If w satisfied
ew  z (3.2.1)
where z is any nonzero complex number,then w is called a logarithm
of the number z .
2. Definition of a logarithmic function
The set

Logz  ln | z | i(arg z  2n ) : n  Z  ln z  iArgz, z  C \ {0}

(3.2.2)
is called the logarithm of z . Usually, we write
Logz  ln | z | i(arg z  2n ) (n  0,  1,  2,) ,
and then get a simple relation
eLogz  {z} ( z  0) . (3.2.3)
Thus, we get a multi-valued function
Log : C \ {0}  C ,
called the logarithmic function.
3. Examples
Example 1. If z  1 3i , then r  2 and   2 / 3 .
Hence
 2   1
Log(1  3i)  ln 2  i   2n   ln 2  2 n  i
 3   3
(n  0,  1,  2,) .
Equality (3.2.3) is valid for all nonzero complex number, but the
equality Loge  z is not true. To find Loge  z , we use the
z z

z
definition of e (Sec. 3.1) and see that
e z  e x and Arg(e z )  y  2n (n  0,  1,  2,)
when z  x  iy .
Hence, we know that
Log(e z )  ln e z  iArg(e z )  ln(e x )  i( y  2n )  ( x  iy )  2ni
(n  0,  1,  2,) . Therefore,
Log(e z )  z  2ni (n  0,  1,  2,) . (3.2.4)
The principal value of Logz is the value obtained from equation
(3.2.2) when n  0 there and is denoted by log z . Thus
log z  ln r  i arg z . (3.2.5)
Note that log z is well defined and single-valued when z  0 and that
Logz  log z  2ni (n  0,  1  2,) . (3.2.6)
Clearly, log z reduces to the usual logarithm in calculus when z is a
positive real number z  r . To see this, one need only write z  re ,
i0

in which case equation (3.2.5) becomes log z  ln r . That is,

log r  ln r .
 Example 2. From expression (3.2.2), we find that
Log1  ln1  i(0  2n )  2ni (n  0,  1,  2,) .
As expected, log1  0 .
Our final example here reminds us that, although we were unable to
find logarithms of negative real numbers in calculus, we can now do so.
Example 3. Observe that
Log(1)  ln1  i(  2n )  (2n  1)i (n  0,  1,  2,)
and that log( 1)  i .
§3.3. Branches and Derivatives of Logarithms

1. Properties of the branche L ( z )

i
Put D  {re : r  0,      2 } , a function L : D  C
defined by
L ( z )  ln r  i ( z  rei , r  0,       2 ) . (3.3.2)
From this definition, we can prove that the function L (z ) has the
following properties.
(1) e   z (z  D ) ;
L (z)

(2) f n ( z )  L( 2 n 1) ( z ), n  Z , whenever    arg z   ;

(3) Logz  {L ( z ) :   R}(z  C \ {0}) ;
 (4) L ( D )  {(u, v) : u  R,  v    2 } ;
d 1
(5) L  ( z )  ( z  rei , r  0,       2 ) .
dz z
2. Definition of a branch of a multi-valued function
A branch of a multi-valued function F defined on D is any
single-valued function f : E  C such that
(1) f is analytic on the domain E ;
(2) E  D ; and
(3) z  E , f ( z )  F ( z ) .
§3.4. Some Identities on Logarithms

As suggested by relations (3.2.3) in Sec. 3.2 with Sec. 3.3, some identities
involving logarithms in calculus carry over to complex analysis and others
do not. In this section, we derive a few that do carry over, sometimes with
qualifications as to how they are to be interpreted. A reader who wishes to
pass to Sec. 3.2 can simply refer to results here when needed.
1.Operations of Logz
If z1 and z 2 denote any two nonzero complex numbers, then
Log( z1z2 )  Logz1  Logz2 , z1z2  0 . (3.4.2)
z
Log 1  Logz1  Logz2 , (3.4.3)
z2
2. Properties of Logz
We include two other properties of Logz that will be of special
interest in
z n  enLogz (n  0,  1,  2,) . (3.4.4)
When n  1 , this reduces, of course, to relation (3.2.3), Sec. 3.2.
i
Equation (3.4.4) is readily verified by writing z  re and noting that
n in
each side becomes r e . Also,
1
z1 / n  exp( Logz ) (n  1, 2,) (3.4.5)
n
That is, the term on the right here has n distinct values, and those
valuesare the nth roots of z . To prove this, we write z  r exp(i ) ,
where  is the principal value of Argz .
Then, in view of definition (3.2.2), Sec. 3.2, of Logz ,
1  1 i(  2k )  
exp( Logz )  exp  ln r   : k  Z .
n  n n  
Thus, from the definition of the exponential function, we obtain that
1     2k   1/ n
exp( Logz )  n r exp  i  : k  Z  z . (3.4.6)
n   n  
This establishes property (3.4.5), which is also valid for every negative
integer n too (see Exercise 5).
§3.5. Complex Power Functions

1.Definition of a complex power function

c
When c is any complex number, the complex power z of a nonzero
complex number z is defined by means of the equation
z c  ecLogz , z  0 . (3.5.1)
Thus, we obtain a multiple-valued function w  z ( z  0) , called a
c

complex power function.

2. Examples
Example 1. Powers of z are, in general, multiple-valued, as
illustrated by writing
i 2i  exp( 2iLogi)
and then
   1
Logi  ln 1  i  2n   i 2n   (n  0,  1,  2,) .
2   2
This shows that
i 2i  exp[(4n  1) ](n  0,  1,  2,) . (3.5.2)
2 i
Note that these values of i are all real numbers.
 Since the exponential function has the property 1 / e z  e  z , one can
see that
1 1 c
  exp(  cLog z )  z
z c exp(cLogz )
2i
and, in particular, that 1 / i  i . According to expression (3.5.2), then,
2i

1
 exp[(4n  1) ](n  0,  1,  2,). (3.5.3)
i 2i
c
The principal value of z occurs when Logz is replaced by
log z in definition (3.5.1):
P.V. z c  ec log z  ( z c ) . (3.5.5)
 Example 2. The principal value of (i) i is
   
exp[i log( i)]  exp i ln 1  i   exp .
 2  2
That is,

P.V. ( i ) i  exp
. (3.5.6)
2
2/3
Example 3. The principal branch of z can be written

2  2 2   2 arg z 
exp  log z   exp  ln r  i arg z   3 r 2 exp  i .
3  3 3   3 
Thus
2 arg z 3 2 2 arg z
P.V. z 2 / 3  3 r 2 cos  i r sin . (3.5.7)
3 3
This function is analytic in the domain D  , as one can see directly from
Theorem 2.12.1.
§3.6. Trigonometric Functions

1.Definition of sine and cosine functions of a complex variable

The sine and cosine functions of a complex variable z as follows:
e iz  e iz e iz  e iz
sin z  , cos z  , z  C . (3.6.1)
2i 2
These functions are entire since they are linear combinations of the entire
iz  iz
functions e and e . Knowing the derivatives of those exponential
functions, we find from equations (3.6.1) that
d d
sin z  cos z , cos z   sin z , z  C . (3.6.2)
dz dz
It is easy to see that
sin( z)   sin z and cos( z)  cos z , z  C ; (3.6.3)
and a variety of other identities from trigonometry are valid with complex
variable.
 Example. In order to show that
2 sin z1 cos z 2  sin( z1  z 2 )  sin( z1  z 2 ) , z1, z2  C ,
(3.6.4)
using definitions (3.6.1) and properties of the exponential function, we
first write
 eiz1  eiz1  eiz 2  eiz 2 
2 sin z1 cos z2  2   .
 2i  2 
Multiplication then reduces the right-hand side here to

ei ( z1  z 2 )  ei ( z1  z 2 ) ei ( z1  z 2 )  ei ( z1  z 2 )

2i 2i
that is, sin( z1  z 2 )  sin( z1  z 2 ) ; and identity (3.6.4) is established.
2.Useful eqautions
sin( z1  z 2 )  sin z1 cos z 2  cos z1 sin z 2 , (3.6.5)
cos( z1  z 2 )  cos z1 cos z 2  sin z1 sin z 2 (3.6.6)
sin 2 z  cos 2 z  1 , (3.6.7)
sin 2 z  2 sin z cos z , cos 2 z  cos 2 z  sin 2 z , (3.6.8)
   
sin z    cos z , sin z     cos z . (3.6.9)
 2  2
sin(iy )  i sinh y and cos(iy )  cosh y , (3.6.10)
e y  e y e y  e y
where sinh y  , cosh y 
2 2
sin z  sin x cosh y  i cos x sinh y , (3.6.11)
cos z  cos x cosh y  i sin x sinh y , (3.6.12)
where z  x  iy .
 sin( z  2 )  sin z , sin( z   )   sin z , (3.6.13)
cos( z  2 )  cos z , cos( z   )   cos z . (3.6.14
sin z  sin 2 x  sinh 2 y ,
2
(3.6.15)

cos z  cos 2 x  sinh 2 y .

2
(3.6.16)
3.Definition of zero of an analytic function

A zero of an analytic function f is a number z 0 such that f ( z 0 )  0 .

sin z  0 if and only if z  n (n  0,  1,  2,) ,

cos z  0 if and only if z   n (n  0,  1,  2,) .
2
4.Definitions of other trigonometric functions
sin z cos z
tan z  , cot z  . (3.6.17)
cos z sin z
1 1
sec z  , csc z  . (3.6.18)
cos z sin z
5. Derivatives of other trigonometric functions

d d
tan z  sec2 z , cot z   csc2 z , (3.6.19)
dz dz
d d
sec z  sec z tan z , csc z   csc z cot z . (3.6.20)
dz dz
§3.7. Hyperbolic Functions

1.Definitions of hyperbolic functions

The hyperbolic sine and the hyperbolic cosine of a complex variable are
defined as t
e z  ez e z  ez
sinh z  , cosh z  . (3.7.1)
2 2
2. Derivatives of hyperbolic functions

d d
sinh z  cosh z , cosh z  sinh z , (3.7.2)
dz dz
3.Useful equations

 i sinh(iz )  sin z , cosh(iz )  cos z , (3.7.3)

 i sin(iz )  sinh z , cos(iz )  cosh z . (3.7.4)
 sinh( z)   sinh z , cosh( z)  cosh z . (3.7.5)
cosh 2 z  sinh 2 z  1 , (3.7.6)
sinh( z1  z2 )  sinh z1 cosh z2  cosh z1 sinh z2 , (3.7.7)
cosh( z1  z2 )  cosh z1 cosh z2  sinh z1 sinh z2 (3.7.8)
sinh z  sinh x cos y  i cosh x sin y , (3.7.9)
cosh z  cosh x cos y  i sinh x sin y , (3.7.10)
sinh z  sinh 2 x  sin 2 y ,
2
(3.7.11)

cosh z  sinh 2 x  cos 2 y ,

2
(3.7.12)
where z  x  iy .
sinh z  sin( y  ix ) ,
2 2
(3.7.13)
where z  x  iy .
sin( x  iy )  sin 2 x  sinh 2 y .
2
 sinh z  0 if and only if z  ni(n  0,  1,  2,)

cosh z  0 if and only if z  (  n )i (n  0,  1,  2,) .
2
4.Definition of other hyperbolic function
sinh z
tanh z  (3.7.16)
cosh z
d d
tanh z  sech 2 z , cosh z  csch 2 z , (3.7.17)
dz dz
d d
sechz  sechz tanh z , cschz  cschz coth z . (3.7.18)
dz dz
§3.8. Inverse Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
1.Definitions of inverse trigonometric functions
sin 1 z  iLog[iz  (1  z 2 )1 / 2 ] . (3.8.2)

Example. Expression (3.8.2) tells us that

sin 1 (i)  iLog(1  2 ) .
But
Log(1  2 )  ln(1  2 )  2ni
(n  0,  1,  2,)
and
Log(1  2 )  ln( 2  1)  (2n  1)i (n  0,  1,  2,)
 1
Since ln( 2  1)  ln   ln(1  2 ) ,
1 2
Then, the numbers
(1)n ln(1  2 )  ni (n  0,  1,  2,)
constitute the values of Log(1  2 ) . Thus, in rectangular form,
sin 1 (i)  n  i(1)n 1 ln(1  2 ) (n  0,  1,  2,) .
cos 1 z  iLog[ z  i(1  z 2 )1 / 2 ] (3.8.3)
i iz
tan 1 z  Log .
2 iz
2. Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

d 1
sin 1 z  ,
dz (1  z 2 )1/ 2
d 1
cos 1 z  ,
dz (1  z 2 )1 / 2
d 1
tan 1 z  ,
dz 1 z 2
3. Derivatives of inverse hyperbolic functions

sinh 1 z  Log[ z  ( z 2  1)1 / 2 ] ,

cosh 1 z  Log[ z  ( z 2  1)1 / 2 ]
1 1 z
tanh 1 z  Log .
2 1 z