1.
3 Reacting masses and volumes
1.3 Reacting Masses
and Volumes:
Part 3:
Liquids
Solutions
– ___________ - A homogenous
mixture of two or more substances
(e.g. salt water)
• Only one phase (homogeneous)
• Can be solid, liquid, or gas
– ___________ – a visible part
– ___________ – a substance that
dissolves in a solution (e.g. NaCl)
– ___________ – the substance in
which a solute dissolves (e.g. water)
– ___________ – a solution in which
water is the solvent
OBJECTIVES
• Reactants can be either limiting or excess.
• The experimental yield can be different from the theoretical yield.
• Avogadro’s law enables the mole ratio of reacting gases to be determined from volumes of the gases.
• The molar volume of an ideal gas is a constant at specified temperature and pressure.
• The molar concentration of a solution is determined by the amount of solute and the volume of
solution.
• A standard solution is one of known concentration.
• Solution of problems relating to reacting quantities, limiting and excess reactants, theoretical,
experimental and percentage yields.
• Calculation of reacting volumes of gases using Avogadro’s law.
• Solution of problems and analysis of graphs involving the relationship between temperature, pressure
and volume for a fixed mass of an ideal gas.
• Solution of problems relating to the ideal gas equation.
• Explanation of the deviation of real gases from ideal behaviour at low temperature and high pressure.
• Obtaining and using experimental values to calculate the molar mass of a gas from the ideal gas
equation.
• Solution of problems involving molar concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution.
• Use of the experimental method of titration to calculate the concentration of a solution by reference to
a standard solution.
Heterogeneous Mixtures
• Have more than one phase
• Liquid and gaseous heterogeneous mixtures will
be either translucent (semi-transparent) or
opaque (not transparent)

Some liquid
heterogeneous
mixtures may appear
homogeneous,
however, its particles
are large enough to
scatter light
– ___________ – means substances, such as liquids, that are
able to mix together to form a homogeneous solution (think
“mixible”).
– ___________ – the amount of solute that dissolves in a
certain amount of solvent (at a given Temperature)
– __________________ - a solution with a relatively large
quantity of solute dissolved per unit volume of solution

can be saturated
– __________________ - a solution with a relatively small
quantity of solute dissolved per unit volume of solutioin

will be unsaturated
– _________________– contains the maximum amount of
solute (at a given temperature and pressure)
– ________________– has ‘room’ to dissolve more solute (i.e.
not fully saturated)
The Dissolving Process – Ionic Compounds
• The process of dissolving an ionic compound
occurs in 2 steps:
1) Ionic bonds are broken, ions dissociate from each other. The attractive
force between the water and the ions is greater than the attractive
forces within the ionic compound and the intermolecular forces within
water.
2) Attraction occurs between ions and water molecules, ions become
“hydrated”, or surrounded by water molecules
1
2
Dissociation Equations
• When the ions of ionic compounds dissociate in water,
it is possible to show the result by writing a
dissociation equation.
• The dissociation equation for NaCl would be:
______________________________
• For ionic compounds that contain polyatomic ions,
remember that the polyatomic ion stays together. For
ex:
Mg3(PO4)2(s)
3 Mg2+(aq) + 2 PO43-(aq)
Dissolving Molecular Compounds
• Recall miscible compounds form solutions (homogeneous
mixture); immiscible compounds do not form a solution
• Water will dissolve polar molecules such as glucose,
however will not dissolve non-polar molecules such as oil.
• Oils and fats, however, will dissolve other non-polar
molecules
– This can be problematic for humans and animals when non-
polar chemicals are consumed
these chemicals may
accumulate in fatty tissues resulting in toxicity for the animal.
Dissolving Process – Ionic compounds
• After dissolving, the dissociated ions have been
hydrated, resulting in ion-dipole forces:
– Oxygen end of water molecule is δ–, attracted to positive ion
– Hydrogen end of water molecule is δ+, attracted to negative
ion
Like Dissolves Like
• Water is a polar (partially-charged) compound,
which is why it so effectively dissolves ionic
compounds (also charged) as well as molecular
compounds that are also polar.
• In general, “like dissolves like”:
– Polar solvents will dissolve solutes that are polar or
ionic, resulting in either dipole-dipole or ion-dipole
attractions
– Non-polar solvents (like oil) will dissolve solutes that
are non-polar (not charged)
More on polarity in topic 4
Surfactants
• “surface acting agent”
• A compound that can reduce the surface tension of a
solvent; surfactants contain a hydrophobic part and a
hydrophilic part
• Ex: soaps and detergents
• The two regions of the surfactant allow it to
associate with both polar and non-polar molecules
• The non-polar tail can associate with fats (non-polar),
whereas the polar region can associate with water. Factors Affecting Rate of Dissolving
• This is the premise of soaps and detergents. Thus, it is
possible to remove fats from surfaces during washing • Three factors are known
with water. to affect how quickly a
solute dissolves:
1) ___________– increases
interaction between
solute and solvent
particles, increasing the
rate of dissolving

Factors Affecting Rate of Dissolving Factors Affecting Rate of Dissolving

2) ___________– breaking a solute particle up 3) ___________ – increasing temperature adds
into smaller pieces increases interaction energy to help break ionic bonds or
between solute and solvent particles, intermolecular forces, increasing the rate of
increasing the rate of dissolving dissolving (see 3 steps of dissolving process)

Solubility
• Refers to the quantity of a solute that can dissolve in a given
Solubility Curves
quantity of solvent
– It can be expressed as the maximum mass of solute that can be • A graph that shows the solubility of a substance
dissolved per 100 g of water at a given temperature
over a range of temperatures
• ___________________– contains the maximum quantity of
solute at a given temperature and pressure
• ___________________– contains less than the maximum
amount of solute at a given temperature and pressure
• ___________________– a solution that contains more than
the maximum quantity of solute that it should at a given
temperature and pressure
– Additional of any additional solute, or even slight agitation may
result in crystallization of the solute
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HnSg2cl09PI
 Interpreting solubility curves Solubility of Ionic Compounds
• When reading a solubility curve, the area above the curve indicates the
values that would result in a supersaturated solution at a specific
• Generally, ionic compounds tend to have higher solubility values
temperature
at higher temperatures
• Values on the curve indicate the maximum solubility that will produce a
• Using the solubility curve on the following slide, answer the
saturated solution at a specific temperature
following questions:
• Values below the curve indicate the values that would result in an
unsaturated solution at a specific temperature
1) a) Classify a solution that contains 60g/100g H2O of potassium
nitrate at 40°C
Determine the b) What mass of solute should crystallize from this solution if it is
maximum cooled to 20°C?
solubility of a
sucrose solution
2) What mass of solute is required to saturate a solution containing
at 5°C (approx. 10g/100g H2O of sodium hydrogen carbonate at 30°C?
the temperature 3) At what temperature does a solution containing 50 g of
of a fridge). ammonium chloride become saturated?

Solubility of Gases
• Generally, as temperature rises, the solubility of
gases decreases.

Solubility of gases THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON SOLUBILITY

• Cooler liquids have a greater solubility of gases. • Pressure is defined as the

force applied to a unit area
• Thermal pollution – an increase in water temperature, usually • Pressure has little effect on
as a result of warm water being added to an aquatic
solids and liquids
both
ecosystem
states are not very
compressible
• This has implications for the solubility of oxygen in aquatic
ecosystems. • Gases, however, are affected
by changes in pressure
• What are the implications of increasing global temperatures? – The solubility of a gas in a liquid
increases as the pressure
increases
 Factors Affecting Solubility Factors Affecting Solubility
• Three factors are known to affect how much of a solute 2) ___________________ – increasing pressure will increase
dissolves: solubility of gases in liquid, with minimal affect on solubility
of solids/liquids
1) ___________________– adding more energy will break
The pressurized gas at top of a carbonated beverage
more bonds, thereby increasing solubility of solid solutes
container keeps gas molecules dissolved; no space available
(this is why you use hot water to dissolve Jello)
for them to move out of solution
However, an increase in temperature will decrease the
solubility of a gas solute (gas molecules will have more
energy and be able to more easily “escape” the solution –
this is why you cool soda, to keep the CO2 dissolved)

Factors Affecting Solubility Concentrations

• Concentration is defined as the ratio of the
3) ___________________– smaller alcohols (methanol,
ethanol) are miscible in water due to polar O–H group; quantity of solute to the quantity of solution or
larger alcohols have a longer non-polar end, so are less solvent; _________________________________
soluble _______________________________
Volume units:
• Concentration can be measured In: 3 1cm = 1mL
– grams per decimetre cubed (g dm-3) 1dm3 = 1L
– moles per decimetre cubed (mol dm-3) 1/dm3 = 1dm-3
– parts per million (ppm)
• Measured as 1 part of solute per million particles of solution
• Often calculated as 1 milligram in 1L or 1kg of substance
such as water or air.
• 1 ppm = 1 mg dm-3

Amount concentration(mol/L)
• May also be referred to as “molarity” or “molar concentration” but
Amount Concentration
the IUPAC technically does not use these terms (the IUPAC
designation is “amount concentration”) • Ex. 1: Calculate the amount concentration of a solution
• Most important and most commonly used concentration: containing 0.90 g of NaCl dissolved in 100.0 mL of solution.
Steps:
n or n = c ×V 1) Convert mass to moles and Convert volume to litres
c= 2) Calculate concentration.
V
c = amount concentration (units are mol/L or mol/dm3 or just M – “molar”)
n = moles (mol)
V = volume of solution (L or dm3)

• Ex: HCl solution of 1.0 mol/L , NaCl (saline) solution of 0.03 M

• Units of volume must be converted to litres
• Square brackets may be used to denote “concentration”
– Ex. [HCl] = 1.0 mol/dm3
• Ex. 2: What mass of potassium sulfate must be Preparing solutions
dissolved in 250.0 mL of solution to give a
• Stock solution – a concentrated solution that is
concentration. of 0.140 mol/L? used to prepare dilute solutions for actual use

• Standard solution – a solution for which the

precise concentration is known
– May involve dissolving a measured mass of pure
solute in a certain volume of solution OR
– Diluting a solution with a known concentration

• A volumetric flask is used in preparing solutions

since it can only measure one specific, fixed
volume.

Preparing a Standard Solution Dilutions

• Note the use of a balance to measure the solid and a
volumetric flask to prepare the solution. (An analytic
balance would produce the most accurate mass
measurements.)

• Sometimes, you want to take one solution of known concentration and

volume, and dilute it to make a second solution of certain concentration and
volume.
• A volumetric pipette can be used to deliver a specific volume (image on right)

Dilution Problems Dilution Problems

c1V 1 = c 2V 2
where c1 = conc. of 1st solution (mol/L)
V1 = volume of 1st solution (L)
c2 = conc. of 2nd solution (mol/L)
V2 = volume of 2nd solution (L)
• Ex 3: Suppose a chemist wants to dilute* a stock solution of 12 M HCl. They
would like to make 500.0 mL of 0.50 mol/L solution. What initial volume of
stock solution should the chemist use?

*Diluting acids? Don’t try this at home. Diluting acids releases a lot of thermal energy
that can cause the solution to boil and splatter out corrosive liquid. Always ADD ACID to
water, and never the other way around to try to minimize this.

• Ex 4: A chemist wants to take 250 mL of 1.00 mol/L NaOH solution and dilute
it to make a 0.60 mol/L solution. What should the volume of the diluted
solution be?
 Percentage Concentration VOLUME/VOLUME PERCENTAGE (V/V)
Ratios of solute to solution are commonly expressed as
percentages. These measures of concentration are referred to as • When two liquids are mixed to form a solution, it is easier to
percentage concentrations. Each percentage concentration is a measure their volumes than their masses
ratio multiplied by 100%

The 3 common methods for expressing percent concentration ௩௢௟௨௠௘ ௢௙ ௦௢௟௨௧௘

Percent (v/v) = x 100%
include: ௩௢௟௨௠௘ ௢௙ ௦௢௟௨௧௜௢௡

1. weight*/volume percentage (% W/V)

2. weight/weight* percentage (% W/W) • When doing these calculations, the volumes used must have
3. volume/volume percentage (% V/V) the same units

*Note that although “mass” is a more appropriate term, most

consumer labels use the term “weight” instead.

Ex. 5: Use %V/V to find a volume WEIGHT/VOLUME PERCENTAGE

Acetic acid, CH3COOH(l), is a liquid at room temperature. How much pure water
should be added to 15.0 mL of pure acetic acid to make a 5.00% (V/V) solution • A weight/volume percentage (% W/V), expresses the mass of
of acetic acid? Assume that the total volume of the solution equals the sum of
solute dissolved in a volume of solution as a percent:
the volumes of the water and the acetic acid.

௠௔௦௦ ௢௙ ௦௢௟௨௧௘ (௜௡ ௚௥௔௠௦)

Percent (m/v) = x 100%
௩௢௟௨௠௘ ௢௙ ௦௢௟௨௧௜௢௡ (௜௡ ௠௜௟௟௜௟௜௧௥௘௦)

• The units for percent (W/V) concentration are % g/mL,

however common practices use the notation “%(W/V)”
instead

Ex. 6 Find % W/V

An intravenous solution for a patient was prepared by dissolving 17.5g of
glucose in distilled water to make 350. mL of solution.
Find the percentage (W/V) concentration of the solution.
Ex. 7: Find mass using %W/V
Sucrose sugar syrups can have percentage concentrations that are greater
than 100% (W/V). Find the mass of sucrose in 475 mL of 166% (W/V) sugar
syrup.
 WEIGHT/WEIGHT PERCENTAGE (W/W) Ex. 8: Use % W/W to find mass
Sterling silver consists of 92.5% silver. Find the mass of pure silver in a
sterling silver ring that has a mass of 6.45g.
• The concentration of a solution that contains a solid solute
dissolved in a liquid solvent can be expressed as a percent
ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution
• To calculate the percentage, the masses of the solute and
solution must be expressed in the same units

௠௔௦௦ ௢௙ ௦௢௟௨௧௘
Percent (W/W) = x 100%
௠௔௦௦ ௢௙ ௦௢௟௨௧௜௢௡

VERY LOW CONCENTRATIONS

• If you were to look at the label on your
• For very dilute solutions we choose a concentration unit to water bottle, you would notice that it may
give reasonable numbers for very small quantities of solute contain sodium ions at a concentration of 6
– parts per million (ppm, 1:106) ppm
– This means that there are 6 parts of
– parts per billion (ppb, 1:109) sodium for every million parts of
– trillion (ppt, 1:1012) solution
• “parts per” concentrations are a special
• Using values such as these are case of (% W/W) concentrations
especially useful in environmental and • Since the aqueous solutions are very dilute,
medical sciences. its density is assumed to be the same as
water itself
1g/mL at 20°C
– ∴ 1 ppm = 1 g of solute per 1 000 000 g
or 1 000 000 mL of solution

Both parts per million and parts per billion are fractions, with the mass
of the solute divided by the mass of the solution: Ex. 9:
Health Canada’s guideline for the maximum mercury content in
commercial fish is 0.5 parts per million (ppm). When a 1.6 kg salmon
PARTS PER MILLION PARTS PER BILLION was tested, it was found to contain 0.6 mg of mercury. Would this
salmon be safe to eat?
௠௔௦௦ ௢௙ ௦௢௟௨௧௘ ௠௔௦௦ ௢௙ ௦௢௟௨௧௘
ppm = x 106 ppb = x 109
௠௔௦௦ ௢௙ ௦௢௟௨௧௜௢௡ ௠௔௦௦ ௢௙ ௦௢௟௨௧௜௢௡

When the solvent is water (which it usually is), we can use several
units for these concentrations:

1 ppm = 1 g/106 g
1 g/106 mL
1 g/1000 L
1 mg/L
Ex. 10:
Swimming pool manufacturers recommend maintaining the pool
chlorine concentration at 3.0 ppm. What is the mass of chlorine in a
pool containing 3.4 x 106 L of water?
Solubility of Ionic Compounds
PRACTICE
• Write the formula equation, total ionic equation and
net ionic equation for each of the following reactions:
a) CuCl2(aq) + KOH(aq)

THE REACTIONS OF IONS IN SOLUTION
• There are three equations that represent ions in
solution:
1. Formula equations
a chemical equation in which all
compounds are represented by their chemical formulas
BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq)
BaSO4 (s) + 2 NaCl (aq)
2. Total ionic equations
a chemical equation in which all highly
soluble ionic compounds are written as dissociated ions
Ba2+(aq) 2Cl-(aq) + 2Na+ (aq) + SO4- (aq)
BaSO4 (s) + 2Na +(aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
3. Net ionic equations
a chemical equation that includes only
the entities that react during the reaction
Ba2+(aq) + SO4- (aq)
BaSO4 (s)
STEPS FOR DETERMINING NET IONIC
EQUATION:
• Write the balanced chemical equation for all reactants
and products.
• Using solubility information, rewrite the formulas for all
high solubility ionic compounds as dissociated ions, to show
the total ionic equation.
– All entities on one side of the equation must be accounted for on
the other
– The net electrical charge on both sides of the equation must be
the same
• Cancel identical amounts of entities appearing on either
side of the equation.
• Write the net ionic equation, reducing coefficients if
necessary.
Stoichiometry of Solutions
Being able to predict the quantity of products or the quantity of reactants required
in a reaction is critical to the success of a chemical process.
We can use our knowledge of stoichiometry to predict the quantity of one
chemical required to react with another.
The strategies you learned to solve stoichiometric problems previously can be
applied to solutions as well. The only difference is that amount concentrations and
volumes of solutions are involved.
SAMPLE PROBLEM #11:
Sodium carbonate can be used to precipitate strontium ions from a solution of
strontium chloride. You have 150 mL of a 0.25 mol/L strontium chloride solution.
a) What volume of 0.500 mol/L sodium carbonate is required to precipitate all
the strontium ions from this solution?
b) What mass of precipitate is expected?
SAMPLE PROBLEM #12:
In the experiment, a 10.00 mL sample of sulfuric acid reacts completely with 15.9
mL of 0.150 mol/L potassium hydroxide solution. Calculate the molar
concentration of the sulfuric acid.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #13:

LIMITING REAGENT PROBLEMS
If the volume and concentration of BOTH of the reactants are given, you will
have to determine which of them is the limiting reagent.
A jelly-like precipitate of iron (III) hydroxide forms when solutions of iron (III)
nitrate and potassium hydroxide are combined. What mass of precipitate is
expected to form when 70.0 mL of 0.80 mol/L potassium hydroxide is added to
40.0 mL of a 0.50 mol/L iron (III) nitrate solution?

Recall: the limiting reagent is the reactant that is completely used up during
the reaction.

STOICHIOMETRY OF IONS IN SOLUTION SAMPLE PROBLEM #15:

Calculate the amount concentration of the ammonium ion in 100.0 mL of a
When calculating the amount concentration of each type of ion released solution containing 14.4 g of ammonium carbonate.
when an ionic compound dissolves, you will need to write a dissociation
equation.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #14:

Find the amount concentration of the anion in each of the following solutions:

a) 0.50 mol/L barium chloride

b) 0.10 mol/L aluminum chlorate