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Negative Life Events and Maladaptive Behaviors Among Filipino Adolescents:

an Empirical Test of the General Strain Theory

Article  in  Asian Journal of Criminology · December 2016

DOI: 10.1007/s11417-016-9230-9

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Negative Life Events and Maladaptive
Behaviors Among Filipino Adolescents: an
Empirical Test of the General Strain Theory

Dan Jerome Barrera, Bless Gaga-a &

Janice Pabayos

Asian Journal of Criminology

An Interdisciplinary Journal on Crime,
Law and Deviance in Asia

ISSN 1871-0131
Volume 11
Number 4

Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265-287

DOI 10.1007/s11417-016-9230-9

1 23
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 Author's personal copy
Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287
DOI 10.1007/s11417-016-9230-9

Negative Life Events and Maladaptive Behaviors

Among Filipino Adolescents: an Empirical Test
of the General Strain Theory

Dan Jerome Barrera 1 & Bless Gaga-a 1 & Janice Pabayos 1

Received: 10 July 2015 / Accepted: 12 January 2016 / Published online: 30 January 2016
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016

Abstract Agnew’s general strain theory has been widely tested in other countries and has
received general support from most studies. To date, however, there has been limited empirical
test of the theory in the Philippines. Thus, this study aims to test the core theoretical
propositions of the theory that link negative life events (strains) to negative emotions that in
turn encourage maladaptive behaviors or criminal coping. The study uses the Global School-
based Student Health Survey (2011) data on a nationally representative sample of 5920
secondary Filipino students. In general, the results support the general strain theory: negative
life events (e.g., violent experiences, discrimination, sexual harassment victimization) encour-
age maladaptive behaviors (i.e., suicidality, substance use, and truancy), and this link is
somewhat mediated or attenuated by depression. Further, conditioning factors such as parental
care and supervision, social support, and engagement in physical activities moderate the effects
of negative life events and depression on maladaptive behaviors. Contrary to the theory,
however, some conditioning factors intensify the effects of strain on truancy. Overall, the
current findings support the theory but call for further research and theory building—delin-
quent acts are diverse behaviors, and thus, each may require a crime-specific model of the
general strain theory.

Keywords Negative life events . Strains . Maladaptive behaviors . Delinquency . General strain
theory . Philippines

Introduction

When confronted with negative events, people have an array of responses to choose from—
both legal and illegal. However, it is puzzling why some people who experience negative

* Dan Jerome Barrera

danjerome.barrera@norsu.edu.ph

1
College of Criminal Justice Education, Negros Oriental State University, Dumaguete City, Philippines
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266 Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287

events resort to crime and why some who experience similar events do not. One of the leading
theories in criminology that could answer these questions is the general strain theory (Agnew
1992, 2006, 2013, 2015a). This theory posits that negative life events or strains trigger people
to employ coping strategies that they intend to alleviate the effects of such strains.
Unfortunately, one of these coping strategies is crime. The theory adds that the effects of
strain on criminal coping are mediated by negative emotions—anger, depression, or frustra-
tion. That is, people who experience strains are angered, depressed, or frustrated, and these
emotions encourage them to commit crime. However, the effects of strains and negative
emotions on crime depend on the individual’s characteristics like low self-control, delinquent
peers, and parenting and circumstances most conducive to crime. Thus, the theory could
explain why people commit crime and why some people presented with strains do not resort to
criminal coping.
The general strain theory has received considerable attention from researchers and has
received empirical support from most studies (Agnew 2006, 2015a; Froggio 2007). Most of
these studies were conducted in the USA; however, some studies have begun using the theory
in other countries such as in South Korea (Yun and Lee 2015; Jun and Choi 2015; Jang et al.
2014), China (Gao et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2011), Russia (Botchkovar and Broidy 2013),
England (Baron and Tan 2012), Iceland (Sigfusdottir et al. 2010), Canada (Baron 2008, 2009),
and Italy (Froggio and Agnew 2007). In addition, there have been cross national tests of the
theory across some countries in Europe (Sigfusdottir et al. 2012; Botchkovar et al. 2009) and
between the USA and Taiwan (Lin et al. 2013).
To date, however, only one study has tested the theory in the Philippine setting (Maxwell
2001). This study used familial strains to explain delinquency among grade school students in
Cagayan de Oro City, Mindanao, and found tentative evidence on the effects of Filipino
culture on the strain-delinquency relationship. In particular, parent-to-child violence did not
affect Filipino adolescent delinquency as spanking and other forms of familial discipline are
culturally accepted in the country (Maxwell 2001). Another reason for this null finding might
be the Filipino trait of resiliency (katatagang-loob): when faced with negative life events,
Filipinos tend not to express anger and violence but instead survive in silence and search for
external support and engage in creative activities (Tiangco 2005). As such, testing the theory in
the Philippine setting provides a challenge for the general strain theory (Sigfusdottir et al.
2012; Agnew 2015b). There are, however, questions as to the generalizability of Maxwell’s
(2001) findings to the whole Philippines, and the mediating role of negative emotion on the
strain-delinquency relationship and the moderating role of some variables on this relationship
and that of negative emotion-delinquency link were not tested in her study. Further, it is still
unknown how other forms of interpersonal violence, say, peer violence, and social variables
work in the general strain theory framework in the Philippine setting. It can be expected that
peer violence will affect Filipino delinquency because such form of violence is not culturally
accepted in the country. In addition, it can also be expected that social variables like parental
supervision, peer support, and engagement in physical activities play a role in the general
strain theory framework, because Filipinos, like most East Asian countries, have collectivistic
culture.
Thus, the purpose of this study is to add to the literature by testing the general strain theory
that relates negative life events or strains to negative emotions which in turn leads to criminal
coping among Filipino adolescents. The study also tests the moderating role of parental care
and supervision, social support, and engagement in physical activities on the strain-
delinquency and depression-delinquency relationships. The findings of the study contribute
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Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287 267

to the generalizability of the theory in non-western settings and support the arguments of
Agnew (2015b) that the theory can explain crime and delinquency in Asian countries. Further,
the study advances GST research on less explored areas of non-criminal deviance such as
suicide and truancy and the effects of engagement in physical activities that include exercise
(see Agnew 2013 for a discussion of these gaps in GST research). The article proceeds by
discussing the general strain theory and its core theoretical propositions, the methodology,
results of the analysis, and the discussion of these results within the general strain theory
approach.

Overview of the General Strain Theory

The general strain theory benefits from the confluences of social and psychological variables in
explaining crime and delinquency (Agnew 1992). At its core is the notion that strains or
negative life experiences drive one to resort to illicit coping strategies (one of which is crime)
through negative emotions. It defines strain as Brelationships in which others are not treating
the individual as he or she would like to be treated^ (Agnew 1992:50). Unlike classic strain
theories that focused only on one type of strain—failure to achieve positively valued goals—
this theory adds two major types of strains: removal of positively valued stimuli and the
presentation of negative stimuli. Strains as failure to achieve positively valued goals include
injustice and failure to achieve monetary goals. Strains as removal of positively valued stimuli
include loss of a partner, death of a family member, and separation of parents. Finally, strains
as presentation of negative or noxious stimuli include child abuse, peer abuse, criminal
victimization, and physical punishment.
Earlier tests of the theory found that strains indeed induce criminal coping (Agnew and
White 1992; Paternoster and Mazerolle 1994). However, some subsequent studies found
varied results—some measures of strains are not related to some crimes (see, e.g., Mazerolle
and Piquero 1998; Mazerolle et al. 2000; Botchkovar et al. 2009). In response to these
contradictory findings, Agnew (2001, 2006, 2013) argues that researchers must use specific
measures of strains instead of aggregated ones and that not all strains are conducive to crime.
In particular, he proposes strains that are more likely to illicit crime and delinquency. These
strains are seen as unjust, seen as high in magnitude, associated with low social control, and
pressure the individual to resort to maladaptive behaviors. Such strains include, but not limited
to the following: failure to achieve monetary goals, parental rejection, erratic and harsh
discipline, child neglect and abuse, negative secondary school experiences, unpleasant work-
ing conditions, homelessness, peer abuse, criminal victimization, and discrimination.
Subsequent research found support for the significant effects of these specified strains on
crime and delinquency (see, e.g., Agnew 2002; Eitle 2002; Baron 2006; Hay and Evans 2006;
Manasse and Ganem 2009; Rebellon et al. 2012; Moon and Jang 2014).
Aside from its direct effect, strains also indirectly lead to crime through negative emotions.
The theory argues that individuals resort to maladaptive behaviors partially because they
experience negative emotions resulting from negative events (Agnew 1992, 2006, 2015a, b).
These emotions include anger, depression, and frustration. To alleviate or escape from these
negative emotions, individuals may resort to maladaptive behaviors. For example, victimiza-
tion may lead to retaliation, negative school experiences may lead to substance use or truancy,
or the worst, other negative life events may lead to self-harm as a means of escape. Previous
research provides mixed support for these predictions. Some research found that some
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268 Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287

negative emotions mediate the strain-delinquency relationship while others did not (see, e.g.,
Mazerolle et al. 2000; Capowich et al. 2001; Jang and Johnson 2003; Hay and Evans 2006;
Botchkovar et al. 2009; Moon and Jang 2014).
To explain these contradicting findings, Agnew (2013) suggests that models predicting
delinquency through negative emotions must use strains that are logically consistent with
negative emotions of which they are expected to predict. For instance, Bstrains evaluated as
unjust may be more strongly linked to anger, those involving the inability to achieve desired
goals to frustration, those seen as uncontrollable to depression, and those involving impending
threats seen as uncontrollable to fear^ (Agnew 2013:656). In addition, these strains and the
production of negative emotions must occur in circumstances that are most conducive to
crime—circumstances where criminal coping may elicit lower risks and more benefits for the
offender.
It is logical, however, that not all strained individuals resort to maladaptive behaviors.
Thus, it is important to investigate what factors condition the effects of strains and
negative emotions on crime. These factors lessen (or aggravate) the effects of strain and
negative emotions on the individual. Among these factors are individual characteristics.
Some individuals may be overwhelmed by the effects of strains because of their poor
coping abilities brought by their individual characteristics such as low self-control, low
social control, and low social support (Agnew 1992; Agnew et al. 2002). However, there
has been mixed support for the strain-individual characteristic interaction in the literature
(see Agnew 2006 for a review), thereby suggesting that individual characteristics are
incomplete conditioning variables.
Thus, Agnew (2013) offers a more comprehensive set of factors that moderate the effects of
strains and negative emotions on crime. He argues that criminal coping is likely chosen by
Bcertain individuals experiencing certain types of strain in certain circumstances^ (Agnew
2013:661). In other words, crime is highly likely when certain strains conducive to crime and
negative emotions interact with certain individual characteristics (e.g., low self-control, delin-
quent peers, low social support, and low social control) and certain circumstances (e.g., strains
occur in unsupervised settings, the potential victim is smaller than the motivated offender, or
other settings that present tremendous opportunities for offending).

Current Study

In this study, it is argued that the framework of the general strain theory can model some
maladaptive behaviors among Filipino adolescents. As such, the study fits the framework on
the nationally representative data of Filipino secondary students collected by the Global
School-based Student Health Survey. However, the data limit the current analysis to three
adolescent maladaptive behaviors—suicidality, substance use, and truancy. Such behaviors,
nevertheless, are considered to be among the leading health problems associated with adoles-
cents. Self-harm and suicide rates are high during adolescence and considered as one of the
leading causes of death in this age group (Hawton et al. 2012; Wasserman et al. 2005).
Likewise, substance use such as smoking and drinking alcohol poses serious health problems
for young people (Gold et al. 1995; Gore et al. 2011; Warren et al. 2006). Finally, truancy has
also been considered a major health problem among adolescents, because of its role in
increasing the risk of substance use and other risky behaviors among adolescents (Garry
1996; Heilbrunn 2007; Yiede and Kobrin 2009).
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Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287 269

A common theme in the literature is the effect of negative life events on suicide (Liu and
Miller 2014; Wasserman 2016; Hawton et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2011; Hay et al. 2010; Garisch
and Wilson 2010), substance use (Booker et al. 2004, 2008; Unger et al. 2001), and truancy
(Reid 2005; Yiede and Kobrin 2009). Such events include loss of significant others or
possessions, familial conflicts, school problems, and violent victimization such as bullying
and harassment. And, these events are viewed to block the satisfaction of basic needs of being
loved, belongingness, being respected, and awareness of one’s worth (Wasserman 2016),
thereby putting an individual at a pressure of coping through conformity or deviation. Thus,
the study aims to test this hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: negative life events (i.e., violent experiences, sexual harassment, discrim-
ination, social exclusion, and food deprivation) are positively related to maladaptive
behaviors (i.e., suicidality, substance use, and truancy).

Although the general strain theory proposes several negative emotions (e.g., anger,
frustration, and depression) in its framework, this study uses only depression as a mediator
of the strain-delinquency link for a few reasons. The current data provide measures of
depression only and thus do not afford the study to measure anger and other negative
emotions. Nevertheless, research in eastern Asian countries reveals that Asians express
more depression than anger, probably because of these countries’ collectivistic cultures in
which relationships are highly valued (Agnew 2015b; Horton et al. 2012). Such collectiv-
istic culture is also existent in the Philippines as its philosophy, as with most of Asian
cultures, has emanated from Chinese philosophy of man (Tiangco 2005). Further, the
Filipino philosophy of survival is not of Darwin’s survival through aggression but through
katatagang-loob encompassing kawalang-karahasan (non-violence), kahinahunan
(prudence), kakalmahan (calmness), determinasyon (determination), bahala-na
(fatalism) and pagsusumikap (hardwork; Tiangco 2005). However, as Estanislao (2001:
104 quoted in Tiangco 2005) puts it, B…there is a cultural tendency in the Philippines to
deny the presence of depression and to endure and to suffer in silence^—the Filipino trait
of resiliency (katatagang-loob). With this, an empirical test of the mediational effect of
depression in the strain-delinquency link in the Philippines might be a challenge to the
theory’s generalizability. Nevertheless, the general literature on suicide, substance use, and
truancy shows that depression plays a role in affecting maladaptive behaviors or mediating
the relationship between negative life events and maladaptive behaviors (Chaiton et al.
2009; Thapar et al. 2012). The second hypothesis of this study is as follows:

Hypothesis 2: depression mediates the effects of negative life events on maladaptive

behaviors.

One of the major Filipino cultural traits is pakikisama or sharing/merging oneself with
others (Guevara 2005). This trait contributes to Filipino resiliency (katatagang-loob) and is
often manifested in seeking support from family and friends and through creative activities
such as arts and sports (Tiangco 2005). Thus, we argue that parental supervision, peer support,
and engagement in physical activities moderate (as promotive factors) the strain-delinquency
and depression-delinquency relationships. Such factors have been known to contribute to
adolescent resiliency in the midst of negative life experiences (Biddle and Asare 2011; Eime
et al. 2013; Fergus and Zimmerman 2005).
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270 Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287

Hypothesis 3: parental care and supervision, social support, and engagement in physical
activities moderate and buffer the effects of strains and depression on maladaptive
behaviors.

Methodology

Data and Respondents

Data used in this study come from the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS)
administered in the Philippines (2011) by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Center
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in collaboration with the United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS; CDC 2013). The GSHS aims
to collect data that could guide national and international health policies for the youth. Student
information collected comprises alcohol use, dietary behaviors, drug use, hygiene, mental health,
physical activity, protective factors, sexual behaviors, tobacco use, and violent experiences.
The 2011 Philippines GSHS used a two-stage sample design (CDC 2011). At the first stage,
secondary schools were chosen based on their probability proportional to enrolment size with
97 % response rate. At the second stage, classes within the chosen schools were randomly
selected and all students in chosen classes were requested to respond to the GSHS question-
naire with 84 % response rate. A total of 5920 students answered the GSHS questionnaire. Of
these students, 56.7 % were female, while 43.3 % were male students (Gender Parity
Index = 1.31). This ratio is similar to the national female to male secondary enrolment which
is 1.17 (Philippine Commission on Women 2014). Most of the students aged 13 to 16 or older
who were distributed from first- to fourth-year level (Table 1).

Table 1 Descriptive statistics of demographic variables

Variables N Mean or % SD Min-max

Age
11 years old or younger 11 0.3 %
12 years old 205 3.9 %
13 years old 980 18.7 %
14 years old 1349 25.7 %
15 years old 1309 25.0 %
16 years old or older 1383 26.4 %
Sex
Male 2276 43.3 %
Female 2984 56.7 %
Body mass index 4791 19.10 3.224 13–55
Year level
First year 1245 23.8
Second year 1830 35.0
Third year 1112 21.3
Fourth year 1035 19.8
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Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287 271

Measures

Dependent Variables

Suicidality An index was created to measure suicidality (suicide ideation, suicide plan, and
suicide attempts). Three GSHS items were used to create the index. These items comprise the
following: (1) BDuring the past 12 months, did you ever seriously consider attempting
suicide?,^ (2) BDuring the past 12 months, did you make a plan about how you would attempt
suicide?,^ and (3) BDuring the past 12 months, how many time did you actually attempt
suicide?^ The first two items were answerable with either Byes = 1^ or Bno = 2,^ and the third
had these responses: Bzero time = 1,^ Bone time = 1,^ two or three times = 3,^ Bfour or five
times = 4,^ and Bsix or more times = 5.^ The items were recoded such that those respondents
who answered Byes^ to the first two items or at least once to the third one received a score of
B1^ per item. However, the index was highly skewed. Thus, following the suggestions of
Farrington and Loeber (2000), the index was transformed into a binary variable: those who
scored from 1 through 3 in the index were given a score of 1.

Substance Use Substance use was initially measured by an index of items on using tobacco
products and drinking alcoholic beverages. Items on smoking include the following: (1)
BDuring the past 30 days, on how many days did you smoke cigarettes?^ and (2) BDuring
the past 30 days, on how many days did you use any tobacco products other than cigarette,
such as chewing tobacco leaves?^ Items on drinking alcohol include the following: (1)
BDuring the past 30 days, on how many days did you have at least one drink containing
alcohol?^ and (2) BDuring the past 30 days, on the days you drank alcohol, how many drinks
did you usually drink per day?^ The first three items had these responses: B0 days = 1,^ B1 or
2 days = 2,^ B3 to 5 days = 3,^ B6 to 9 days = 4,^ B10 to 19 days = 5,^ B20 to 29 days = 6,^ and
Ball 30 days = 7,^ while the fourth item was answerable with these responses: BI did not drink
alcohol during the past 30 days = 1,^ Bless than one drink = 2,^ Bone drink = 3,^ Btwo
drinks = 4,^ Bthree drinks = 5,^ Bfour drinks = 6,^ and Bfive or more drinks = 7). The items
were recoded to create an index such that those who scored at least two received a score of 1
per item, while those who scored 1 received 0; then, the scores were added. Again, a binary
variable was created for substance because of being extremely skewed. Those who scored 1
through 4 received 1, while those who scored 0 retained their scores.

Truancy Only one item was used to measure truancy: BDuring the past 30 days, on how
many days did you miss classes or school without permission?^ Similar to the distribution of
the other dependent variables, truancy was highly skewed (69 % answered 0 days); thus, it was
also recoded into a binary variable (0 days = 0; at least one absence = 1).

Independent Variables

Strain Variables

Violent Experiences Four items were tapped to create an index of violent experiences.
The first three items comprise the following: (1) BDuring the past 12 months, how many
times were you physically attacked?,^ (2) During the past 12 months, how many times
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272 Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287

were you in a physical fight?,^ and (3) BDuring the past 12 months, how many times were
you seriously injured?^ Responses for these items are as follows: B0 times = 1,^ B1
time = 2,^ B2 or 3 times = 3,^ B4 or 5 times = 4,^ 6 or 7 times = 5,^ B8 or 9 times = 6,^
B10 or 11 times = 7,^ and B12 or more times = 8.^ The fourth item of the index is a response
to the follow-up question of bullying victimization. Bullying victimization questions use
this introductory statement: BThe next two questions ask about bullying. Bullying occurs
when a student or group of students say or do bad and unpleasant things to another student.
It is also bullying when a student is teased a lot in an unpleasant way or when a student is
left out of things on purpose. It is not bullying when two students of about the same
strength or power argue or fight or when teasing is done in a friendly and fun way.^ After
the respondent was asked how many days in the past 30 days he was bullied, this follow-
up question was asked: BDuring the past 30 days, how were you bullied most often?^ One
of the responses to choose from is BI was hit, kicked, pushed, shoved around, or locked
indoors.^ Those who answered this response was scored 1; other answers were coded as
B0.^ To create the index, the other three items were also recoded into binary variables in
which those who experienced at least once were scored 1 per item; then, the scores for the
four items were added.

Discrimination Discrimination was measured using three available responses to the question
on how the respondents were bullied most often: (1) BI was made fun of because of my race,
nationality, or color,^ (2) BI was made fun of because of my religion,^ and (3) I was made fun
of because of how my body or face looks.^ Those who answered either of these items were
given a score of 1; other answers were coded as B0.^

Sexual Harassment To measure sexual harassment, a response to the question on how

the respondent was bullied most often was used. Those who responded BI was made fun
of with sexual jokes, comments, or gestures^ were scored 1; those who did not were
scored 0.

Social Exclusion Another response to the question on how the respondent was bullied most
often was used to measure social exclusion. Respondents who answered BI was left out of
activities on purpose or completely ignored^ were scored 1; those who did not were scored 0.

Food Deprivation One question was used to measure food deprivation. Respondents were
asked: BDuring the past 30 days, how often did you go hungry because there was not enough
food in your home?^ Responses comprise the following: (1) Bnever = 1,^ Brarely = 2,^
Bsometimes = 3,^ Bmost of the time = 4,^ and Balways = 5.^

Strain (Aggregated Index) An aggregated strain index composed of the five strain variables
was created to ease the complexity of building models with interaction terms to test the third
hypothesis. Violent experiences and food deprivation were recoded as binary variables. Those
who scored at least 1 in violent experiences were scored 1. And, those who answered never,
Brarely,^ and Bsometimes^ to the food deprivation item were scored 0, while those who
answered Bmost of the time^ and Balways^ were scored 1.
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Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287 273

Negative Emotion

Depression Two items were tapped to measure depression (Cronbach alpha = 0.474). These
items comprise the following: (1) BDuring the past 12 months, how often have you felt
lonely?^ and (2) BDuring the past 12 months, how often have you been so worried about
something that you could not sleep at night?^ Responses for these two items were never = 1,
rarely = 2, sometimes = 3, most of the time = 4, and always = 5.

Conditioning Variables

Parental Care and Supervision A scale of four items was used to measure parental care
and supervision (Cronbach alpha = 0.717). These items comprise the following: (1)
BDuring the past 30 days, how often did your parent or guardians check to see if your
homework was done?,^ (2) BDuring the past 30 days, how often did your parent or
guardians understand your problems and worries?,^ (3) BDuring the past 30 days, how
often did your parent or guardians really know what you were doing with your free time?,^
and (4) BDuring the past 30 days, how often did your parent or guardians go through your
things without your approval?^ Responses to these items were never = 1, rarely = 2,
sometimes = 3, most of the time = 4, and always = 5.

Social Support A scale of social support was created using two questions. The first question
was BDuring the past 30 days, how often were most of the students in your school kind and
helpful?^ with responses of never = 1, rarely = 2, sometimes = 3, most of the time = 4, and
always = 5. The second question was Bhow many close friends do you have?^ with responses
of Bzero friend = 1,^ Bone friend = 2,^ Btwo friends = 3,^ and Bthree or more friends = 4.^ The
scale was created by calculating first the items’ factor weights using factor analysis. Then, the
weights were multiplied to the original scores of the corresponding variables and the results
were added.

Physical Activities Engagement in physical activities was measured using three ques-
tions. Before the items were asked, this introductory statement was given: BThe next three
questions ask about physical activity. Physical activity is any activity that increases your
heart rate and makes you get out of breath some of the time. Physical activity can be done
in sports, playing with friends, or walking to school. Some examples of physical activity
are running, fast walking, biking, dancing, football, and other activities.^ These items
comprised the following: (1) BDuring the past 7 days, on how many days were you
physically active for a total of at least 60 min per day?,^ (2) BDuring the past 7 days, on
how many days did you walk or ride a bicycle to or from school?,^ and (3) During the
school year, on how many days did you go to physical education (PE) class each week?^
Responses to the first two items ranged from 0 to B7 days^ and coded from 1 through B8,^
while responses to the third item ranged from B0 days^ to B5 or more days^ coded from 1
through B6.^ To create the scale, the same procedure as that of creating the social support
scale was used.
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274 Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287

Control Variables

Three control variables were used in this study—age, gender, and body mass index. Of these
variables, age and gender have been the more commonly known correlates of delinquency.
Nevertheless, research reveals that obesity increases the risk of depression (Luppino et al.
2010), suicide (Heneghan et al. 2009; Steele and Doey 2007), substance use (Lanza et al. 2014,
2015), and truancy (Conroe 2007; Lanza and Huang 2015); thus, BMI must also be controlled
in the current study. Those who aged 11 years or younger were scored 1, 12 years old = 2,
13 years old = 3, 14 years old = 4, 15 years old = 4, 15 years old = 5, and 16 years old or
older = 6. Female was coded 1; male, 0. Body mass index was created by dividing the weight
in kilograms by the square of height in meters.

Results

This section presents the results of the analysis. It comprises (a) the descriptive statistics of the
key variables and the bivariate correlations and (b) binary logistic regression models of
suicidality, substance use, and truancy.

Descriptive Results

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics of the key variables. As seen, strains (violent experi-
ences, discrimination, sexual harassment, and social exclusion) and maladaptive behaviors
(suicidality, substance use, and truancy) are highly skewed—only very few respondents
experienced strains and resorted to maladaptive behaviors. Only 23 % of the respondents
resorted to any suicidal behavior, 27 % used any substances, and 31 % missed classes without
permission.

Bivariate Correlations

Maladaptive behaviors correlate with strains, depression, conditioning variables, and control
variables as shown in Table 3. Suicidal behavior is positively related to violent experiences,
discrimination, sexual harassment, food deprivation, and the aggregated strain index. This
relationship implies that those adolescents who experienced these strains were more likely to
resort to suicidal behaviors. Also, those who were depressed were more prone to suicidal
behaviors as shown by the two variables’ significant positive correlation coefficient. However,
suicidal behavior is negatively related to two conditioning variables—parental care and
supervision and social support—which implies that these conditioning variables tend to
decrease the adolescents’ tendency to resort to suicidal behaviors. Finally, suicidal behavior
is positively related to all control variables—age, sex, and body mass index (BMI). Those who
were older, were female, and had higher BMI had higher risk of resorting to suicidal behaviors.
Substance use is positively related to violent experiences, sexual harassment, food depri-
vation, and the aggregated strain index. As these strains increased, tendency to use substances
such as tobacco products and alcoholic beverages also increased. Substance use is also
positively related to depression—depressed adolescents tend to use substances than those
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Table 2 Descriptive statistics of the key variables

Variables N Mean or % SD Min-max

Violent experiences 4565 1.15 1.063 0–4

Discrimination
Yes 471 8.9 %
No 4845 91.1 %
Sexual harassment
Yes 315 5.9 %
No 5001 94.1 %
Socially exclusion
Yes 183 3.4 %
No 5133 96.6 %
Food deprivation 5262 2.14 1.032 1–5
Strain (aggregated index) 4547 0.9074 0.70913 0–3
Depression 5164 5.18 1.505 2–10
Parental care and supervision 5092 10.49 3.745 4–20
Social support 5184 5.05 1.088 2–7
Physical activities 5097 5.62 2.902 2–14
Suicidal behavior
Yes 1174 23.1 %
No 3914 76.9 %
Substance use
Yes 1381 27.1 %
No 3709 72.9 %
Truancy
Yes 1646 31.4 %
No 3590 68.6 %

who were not. The use of substances is negatively related to parental care and supervision and
social support. This means that those adolescents who received adequate parental care and
supervision and had more friends and helpful peers were less likely to use substances. Finally,
older male adolescents and those who had higher BMI were more likely to use substances.
Truancy is also related to some independent variables. It is positively related to some
strains—sexual harassment, food deprivation, and the aggregated strain index. Adolescents
who experienced these strains were more likely to miss classes without permission. Truancy is
also positively related to depression: those who were depressed tend to miss classes. However,
the relationship of truancy to each conditioning variable differs. While parental care and
supervision encourages school attendance, engagement in physical activities encourages
truancy. Finally, truancy is related to only one demographic variable —sex. Males were prone
to miss classes without permission.
Although Table 3 shows that maladaptive behaviors correlate with the independent vari-
ables, the nature of this relationships is still unknown. Some relationships may be mediated or
moderated by other variables. Thus, binary logistic models were built to test the hypotheses of
this study on the direct, mediating, and moderating roles of the key variables, controlling for
sociodemographic factors. These models are discussed in the next subsection.
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Table 3 Bivariate correlations of all variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

1 –
2 0.123* –
3 0.090* 210* –
4 0.130* 0.200* 0.180 –
5 0.073* 0.020 0.009 0.071* –
6 0.044* 0.030* 0.047* 0.088* −0.078* –
7 0.019 −0.024 0.017 0.075* −0.059* 0.047* –
8 0.044* 0.079* 0.083* 0.208* 0.045* 0.073* 0.011 –
9 0.128* 0.132* 0.144* 0.640* 0.388* 0.354* 0.263* 0.371* –
10 0.177* 0.107* 0.115* 0.207* 0.083* 0.088* 0.084* 0.199* 0.240* –
11 −0.129* −0.070* −0.056* −0.102* −0.035* −0.013 −0.013 −0.083* −0.090* −0.003 –
12 −0.100* −0.111* −0.022 −0.046* −0.018 0.010 0.018 −0.059* −0.035* 0.014 0.352* –
Author's personal copy

13 −0.018 0.006 0.036* −0.018 0.031* 0.045* 0.019 −0.068* 0.008 0.041* 0.209* 0.177* –
14 0.070* 0.214* 0.112* 0.000 0.006 −0.018 −0.021 0.039* −0.015 0.089* −0.019 −0.099* 0.085* –
15 0.077* −0.203* −0.081* −0.157* 0.011 0.022 0.082* −0.087* −0.078* 0.124* 0.086* 0.105* 0.059* −0.060* –
16 0.036* 0.064* 0.009 −0.025 0.068* −0.024 −0.008 −0.068* −0.001 0.003 0.029* −0.003 0.036* 0.117* 0.050* –

1 suicidal behavior, 2 substance use, 3 truancy, 4 violent experiences, 5 discrimination, 6 sexual harassment, 7 social exclusion, 8 food deprivation, 9 strain, 10 depression, 11 social
support, 12 parenting, 13 physical activities, 14 age, 15 sex, 16 body mass index
*Coefficient is significant at the 0.05 level
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Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287 277

Logistic Regression Models of Maladaptive Behaviors

This subsection presents the binary logistic regression models of the three maladaptive
behaviors—suicidal behavior, substance use, and truancy. Five models were built for each
maladaptive behavior. The first model contained the five strain variables and the three control
variables. The second model added the negative emotion of depression. The third one entered
the three conditioning variables into the equation. Finally, the fourth and the fifth models
added the interaction terms between the aggregated strain index and the conditioning variables
(e.g., strain × parenting) and the interaction terms of depression and the conditioning variables
(e.g., depression × parenting). By building these models, we were able to test the three
hypotheses of the study.

Suicidal Behavior

Table 4 presents the binary logistic regression models of suicidal behaviors. In support to first
hypothesis, three strain variables—violent experiences, discrimination, and sexual harassment
victimization—significantly predicted suicidal behaviors net of the effects of the demographic
variables in model. However, as expected in the second hypothesis, these effects are mediated
or attenuated by depression as shown in model 2. Specifically, the effect of sexual harassment
victimization on suicidal behaviors became nonsignificant, and the coefficients of the effects of
violent experiences and discrimination had 16 and 29 % reduction, respectively. These
findings suggest that those adolescents who experienced physical violence, discrimination,
and sexual harassment resorted to suicidal behaviors, partly because they experienced
depression.
In model 3, two conditioning variables (parental care and supervision and social support)
help predict suicidal behavior. These variables reduce the likelihood of suicidal behaviors. To
test the third hypothesis, interaction terms of strain and the three conditioning variables and
depression and these variables were created. Following Moon and Jang (2014), the strains
were aggregated to create an aggregated strain index. This index was used to create interaction
terms to lessen the complexity of the analysis. All continuous variables were mean centered
before creating the interaction terms to reduce multicollinearity. The interaction terms were
then entered in models 4 and 5. Contrary to the third hypothesis, none of the interaction terms
significantly predicted suicidal behaviors, except that of depression × social support. But, the
positive coefficient of this interaction term seems counterintuitive and suggests that those
depressed adolescents with adequate social support tend to resort to suicidal behaviors, thereby
contradicting the protective effect of social support expected in hypothesis 3. This anomaly
was investigated by building another model which excluded the original measure of depression
and the other interaction terms to reduce possible multicollinearity. As a result, depression ×
social support failed to significantly predict suicidal behaviors (b = 0.041, p = 0.083). Thus, its
significant effect in model 5 is just a product of multicollinearity even though the variables
were mean centered before building the models.

Substance Use

In Table 5, the results of the logistic regression models of substance use are shown. Model 1
partially supports the first hypothesis—violent experience and food deprivation significantly
affect substance use in the expected direction, controlling for gender, age, and BMI. Those
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278 Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287

Table 4 Binary logistic regression models of suicidal behaviors

Independent variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5

Strain variables
Violent experiences 0.304* 0.255* 0.226*
Discrimination 0.501* 0.385* 0.396*
Sexual harassment victimization 0.326* 0.170 0.125
Social exclusion 0.156 0.039 −0.132
Food deprivation 0.052 0.001 −0.017
Strain (aggregated index) 0.278* 0.273*
Negative emotion
Depression 0.220* 0.239* 0.248* 0.262*
Conditioning variables
Parental care and supervision −0.040* −0.042* −0.041*
Social support −0.243* −0.257* −0.264*
Physical activities −0.002 −0.001 0.000
Interaction variables
Strain × parenting 0.021
Strain × social support 0.048
Strain × physical activities 0.001
Depression × parenting 0.004
Depression × social support 0.066*
Depression × physical activities 0.001
Control variables
Age 0.148* 0.127* 0.134* 0.132* 0.134*
Sex 0.522* 0.444* 0.515* 0.467* 0.467*
Body mass index 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.013 0.013
Constant −3.021* −3.842* −2.305* −2.252* −2.322*
Nagelkerke R2 0.058 0.080 0.108 0.101 0.104

*Coefficient is significant at the 0.05 level

adolescents who experienced violence and experienced food deprivation tend to use sub-
stances. When depression was entered in model 2, the effect of food deprivation on substance
use was diminished and the effect of violent experiences was reduced by 7 %, thereby
providing support to hypothesis 2. Depression tends to mediate the effects of food deprivation
and violent experiences on substance use.
Surprisingly, the original nonsignificant coefficient of social exclusion increased and
became significant in model 2. Possibly, depression is a suppressor variable of social exclu-
sion. A suppressor variable accounts for a large error in the model, and thus, the previously
entered nonsignificant variable is left with a lesser error for it to account, thereby becoming
significant (Conger 1974; Thompson and Levine 1997). Criminologist recognizes that some
variables have suppressor effects on other variables that are uncorrelated with delinquency
(see Lipton and Smith 1983 for an example). To clarify the effects of social exclusion on
substance use, model 2 was run for those adolescents who scored 1 through 5 in the depression
scale and for those adolescents who scored from 6 through 10. For those who scored in the
lower half of the depression scale, social support did not significantly predict substance use
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Table 5 Binary logistic regression models of substance use

Independent variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5

Strain variables
Violent experiences 0.375* 0.349* 0.343*
Discrimination 0.043 −0.064 −0.105
Sexual harassment victimization 0.368 0.278 0.255
Social exclusion −0.340 −0.464* −0.486
Food deprivation 0.080* 0.033 0.029
Strain (aggregated index) 0.339* 0.322*
Negative emotion
Depression 0.172* 0.180* 0.195* 0.203*
Conditioning variables
Parental care and supervision −0.054* −0.056* −0.055*
Social support −0.026 −0.043 −0.045
Physical activities 0.009 0.010 0.013
Interaction variables
Strain × parenting 0.035*
Strain × social support −0.009
Strain × physical activities −0.026
Depression × parenting 0.007
Depression × social support 0.018
Depression × physical activities −0.020*
Control variables
Age 0.411* 0.395* 0.372* 0.368* 0.371*
Sex −0.802* −0.878* −0.842* −0.924* −0.925*
Body mass index 0.043* 0.043* 0.047* 0.043* 0.043*
Constant −4.013* −4.663* −4.043* −3.718* −3.763*
Nagelkerke R2 0.161 0.174 0.180 0.162 0.162

*Coefficient is significant at the 0.05 level

(b = −0.334, p = 0.386). Although the significance level is still a little higher than 0.05, the
coefficient of social exclusion predicting substance use of adolescents who scored at the upper
half of the depression scale increased dramatically by 20 % (b = −0.532, p = 0.075). Social
exclusion, therefore, is a poor predictor of substance use. This is supported by its marginal
significance level in predicting substance use in model 2 (b = −0.464, p = 0.049). Depression
acts as a suppressor variable of the errors unaccounted by social exclusion. Moreover, it
became nonsignificant in model 3.
In model 3, the conditioning variables were entered into the equation in predicting
substance use. As seen from Table 5, only parental care and supervision significantly predicted
substance use: likelihood of using substances was reduced in adolescents who received
adequate parental care and supervision. To test hypothesis 3, interaction terms were entered
in models 4 and 5. Only two interaction terms significantly predicted substance use. In line
with the expectation of the third hypothesis, engagement in physical activities buffers the
effects of depression. However, a counterintuitive finding was found for interaction term of
strain and parental care and supervision. Its positive significant coefficient implies that
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280 Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287

adolescents who experienced strains and have adequate parental care and supervision were
more likely to use substances. To conduct a deeper analysis, a model that excluded original
strain and parental care and supervision measures and the other interaction terms was run of
which the results showed that the effect of strain × parenting became nonsignificant, thereby
suggesting problems with multicollinearity.

Truancy

Five binary logistic regression models of truancy are presented in Table 6. Model 1 was used to
test hypothesis 1 of which the results show partial support. Three strains—violent experiences,
sexual harassment victimization, and food deprivation—are positively related to truancy after
controlling for the demographic factors. Adolescents who experienced physical violence,
sexual harassment, and food deprivation were more likely to miss classes without permission.
However, the effects of these strains are attenuated by depression as shown in model 2.
Specifically, depression reduces the coefficient of violent experiences by 7.4 %, sexual

Table 6 Binary logistic regression models of truancy

Independent variables Model 1 (n=) Model 2 (n=) Model 3 (n=) Model 4 (n=) Model 5 (n=)

Strain variables
Violent experiences 0.326* 0.302* 0.294*
Discrimination 0.026 −0.030 −0.054
Sexual harassment victimization 0.391* 0.331* 0.295*
Social exclusion 0.111 0.061 0.050
Food deprivation 0.107* 0.082* 0.082*
Strain (aggregated index) 0.347* 0.345*
Negative emotion
Depression 0.098* 0.096* 0.118* 0.122*
Conditioning variables
Parental care and supervision 0.000 −0.003 −0.001
Social support −0.101* −0.128* −0.116*
Physical activities 0.028* 0.027* 0.029*
Interaction variables
Strain × parenting 0.031*
Strain × social support 0.127*
Strain × physical activities −0.001
Depression × parenting 0.007
Depression × social support 0.032
Depression × physical activities −0.019*
Control variables
Age 0.196* 0.187* 0.178* 0.180* 0.180*
Sex −0.289* −0.345* −0.336* −0.402* −0.404*
Body mass index 0.008 0.009 0.010 0.006 0.005
Constant −2.338* −2.713* −2.339* −1.933* −2.045*
Nagelkerke R2 0.074 0.079 0.081 0.071 0.068

*Coefficient is significant at the 0.05 level

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Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287 281

harassment by 15.3 %, and food deprivation by 23.4 %. Thus, hypothesis receives partial
support —depression attenuates the effects of some strains on truancy. Violent strains, sexual
harassment, and food deprivation elicit depression which in turn encourages truancy among
adolescents.
Conditioning variables were entered in the model 3 to have a feel on the direct effects of
these variables on truancy. As seen, social support tends to decrease the likelihood of truancy,
while physical activities counterintuitively increase the likelihood of truancy. These effects
remain significant in the two remaining models which include the interaction terms in the
equation in predicting truancy. As shown in models 4 and 5, three interaction terms signifi-
cantly predicted truancy—strain × parenting, strain × social support, and depression × physical
activities. Physical activities seem to buffer the effects of depression on truancy. This finding is
puzzling, because the direct effect of physical activities on truancy is positive, as noted above.
Thus, a model that excluded potential sources of multicollinearity was run of which the results
showed that depression × physical activities ceased to significantly predict truancy (b = −0.012,
p = 0.139).
Two other counterintuitive findings are that of the effects of strain × parenting and strain ×
social support. Instead of reducing the effects of strain, these conditioning variables aggravate
the said effects on truancy. These findings contradict the third hypothesis. So, models were run
so that the original values of the variables in the interaction terms and the other interaction
terms were excluded to reduce possible multicollinearity. The results of these models support
the earlier findings—strain × parenting (b = 0.045, p = 0.001) and strain × social support
(b = 0.152, p = 0.001) continued to positively predict truancy. Thus, adolescents who had
adequate parental care and supervision and social support tended to miss classes without
permission when they experienced strains.

Discussion

The general strain theory has received much attention from researchers and general
support from previous studies. To our knowledge, however, there has been limited test
of the theory in the Philippine setting. Previous test of theory in the country used familial
strain to explain grade school students’ delinquency in a city in Mindanao, Philippines
(Maxwell 2001). Although this study provides initial evidence that the theory can be
applied in the country, it ignores the role of negative emotions and some conditioning
variables on the effect of negative life events on delinquency. To further investigate the
applicability of the theory in the country, the current study aimed to test the core
theoretical propositions of the theory that predict positive effects of strains (i.e., violent
experiences, discrimination, sexual harassment victimization, social exclusion, and food
deprivation) on delinquency (i.e., suicidal behaviors, substance use, and truancy) mediat-
ing effects of negative emotions (depression) on the strain-delinquency relationship and
the moderating effects of individual characteristics (i.e., parental care and supervision,
social support, and engagement in physical activities) in the strain-delinquency and
depression-delinquency relationship. The current study is important primarily because it
fills some gaps in the general strain theory research, especially on the areas of suicide and
the use of engagement in physical activities as a moderating variable in the theory (see
Agnew 2013 for a discussion of these gaps). Further, the study offers contribution to the
generalizability of the general strain theory which might be limited in the Philippine
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282 Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287

context as some negative life events (e.g., parent-to-child violence) are culturally accepted
and Filipinos generally are resilient to most negative life events.
Results show general support for these predictions with some important exceptions, thereby
calling for further research and model building. Of special note is the consistent effect of
violent experiences on the three maladaptive behaviors. Such finding suggests that, although
parent-to-child violence tends not to affect Filipino delinquency (Maxwell 2001), peer vio-
lence increases maladaptive behaviors among Filipino adolescents. It could that, unlike parent-
to-child violence, peer violence is not culturally accepted in the Philippines and thus exerts
positive effect on maladaptive behaviors, an effect that could offset the protective effect of the
Filipino trait of resiliency (katatagang-loob). Further, depression consistently mediated some
strain-delinquency relationships in the study, thereby lending support to previous research
stating that depression plays a key role in the general strain theory framework as applied in
Asian countries, because Asians are more likely to respond to negative events with depression
than anger (Agnew 2015b), and this is also true among Filipinos who value non-violence
(kawalang-karahasan), prudence (kahinahunan), and calmness (kakalmahan) over anger and
violence (Tiangco 2005).
In predicting suicidal behaviors, the findings show partial support to the first and second
hypotheses but not to the third one. In particular, three strains—violent experiences,
discrimination, and sexual harassment victimization—have direct positive effects on sui-
cidal behavior. That is, adolescents have higher likelihood to resort to suicidal behaviors
when they experience violence (e.g., physical bullying, physical attack, physical injury,
and physical fight); discrimination stemming from their looks, religion, and nationality;
and sexual harassment in the form of sexual jokes, comments, and gestures. These effects
confirm Agnew’s (2001; 2006, 2013) arguments that these strains are seen as unjust and
high in magnitude and therefore should encourage an individual to engage in delinquency,
in this case, suicidality comprising suicide ideation, suicide plan, and suicide attempts. The
results are in line with prior research finding positive effects of violent experiences,
discrimination, and sexual harassment and other negative life events on suicide (Hay
et al. 2010; Klomek et al. 2008; Chiodo et al. 2009; Bakken and Gunter 2012; Garisch
and Wilson 2010; Wasserman 2016; Liu and Miller 2014).
Moreover, the findings also support the second hypothesis. Depression mediates the effects
of sexual harassment and attenuates the effects of violent experiences and discrimination on
suicidal behaviors. In other words, strains elicit depression which in turn pushes someone to
escape from strains through suicidality—a finding supporting Agnew’s (1992) predictions and
previous research (e.g., Garisch and Wilson 2010). Of further note, however, is the null finding
on the moderating effects of social variables (i.e., parental care and supervision, social support,
and engagement in physical activities) on suicidal behavior. These findings contradict
Agnew’s (1992) moderation hypothesis but consistent with some previous studies (Agnew
2006). As the results suggest, parental care and supervision and social support have direct
negative effects on suicidality but no moderating effects.
Another set of models provide partial support for the theory in predicting substance use.
Substance use is positively related to violent experiences and food deprivation, and
depression mediates food deprivation-substance use relationship and decreases the effects
of violent experiences on substances use, thereby providing partial support for the first and
second hypotheses. Adolescents who experience violence and food deprivation are more
likely to use tobacco products and drink alcoholic beverages, perhaps, to alleviate these
negative life events. These results support predictions from the theory (Agnew 1992;
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Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287 283

2001) and findings of prior research (e.g., Yun and Lee 2015; Sharp et al. 2012).
Moreover, only one interaction effect—depression × physical activities—is positively
related to substance use. Engagement in physical activities has conditioning effects on
depression-substance use relationship, but it has no direct effect on the said maladaptive
behavior. Adolescents who engage in physical activities do not resort to substance use
even when presented with strains. This effect is opposite that of parental care and
supervision. Parental care and supervision has direct negative effect on substance use
but no moderating effects.
The models used to predict truancy partially support the first and second hypotheses but
contradict the third hypothesis. Three strains have positive direct effects on truancy,
depression attenuates these effects, but parental care and supervision and social support
aggravate the effects of strains on truancy. In particular, violent experiences, sexual
harassment victimization, and food deprivation encourage adolescents to miss classes
without permission, thereby providing support for the general strain theory (Agnew
1992; 2001). The effect of these strains is so strong that adolescents can only alleviate
through truancy. This is reinforced by the effect of depression on strain-truancy relation-
ship: none of the effects of these strains was not diminished (but only attenuated) even
when depression was entered into the second model. Surprisingly, however, the moderating
effects of parental care and supervision and social support on strain contradict the expected
buffering effects. Specifically, these social variables aggravate the effects of strains on
truancy. Adolescents miss classes without permission even when they have adequate
parental care and supervision and social support when they experience violence, sexual
harassment, and food deprivations miss. These findings run contrary to the predictions of
the theory (Agnew 1992). One possible reason for this anomaly is that strained adolescents
run to their parents for support and thus need to miss classes for the simple reason that they
cannot locate their parents at school but at their homes. Strained adolescents may also
collude with their close friends to alleviate the effects of negative life events by truancy
when their peers are themselves also truant. Such behavior is further aggravated by the
Filipino cultural trait of pakikisama. Filipinos love to share/merge oneself with others
(Guevara 2005) and tend to seek external support and engage in recreational activities
when confronted with negative life events (Tiangco 2005).
The findings in this study provide more support to the first and second hypotheses than
to the third. These mixed findings might stem from the incomplete models used to explain
suicidal behaviors, substance use, and truancy. The study fails to include other condition-
ing variables such as self-control and delinquent peers and the nature of circumstances in
which those strains occurred because the GSHS does not include these factors. This
limitation, however, is also common in most previous studies (Agnew 2006, 2013).
Thus, in order to fully test the theory, researchers must attempt first to devise nationally
representative surveys intended to test the general strain theory. These surveys must
include comprehensive list of strains most conducive to crime, individual characteristics
expected to condition the effects of these strains, negative emotions, and the circumstances
in which those strains occur. Given the mixed findings found in the current study and some
previous studies, researchers may attempt to build comprehensive crime-specific models
for each maladaptive behavior. It is likely that deviant acts are diverse behaviors that
require crime-specific models based on the general strain theory. One excellent example is
the work of Agnew (2010) on terrorism. Nevertheless, the current findings add to the
literature of general strain theory.
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284 Asian Criminology (2016) 11:265–287

Conclusion

The findings of this study partially support the arguments by Agnew (2015b) that the general
strain theory is applicable in Asian countries including the Philippines. In general, some strains
are positively related with maladaptive behaviors—suicidal behaviors, substance use, and
truancy—among Filipino adolescents. Of these strains, violent experiences have the most
consistent effect on maladaptive behaviors. Moreover, the effects of these strains are partially
mediated or attenuated by depression. That is, negative life events lead to maladaptive
behaviors partially through depression. However, models built to examine the moderation
hypothesis revealed mixed results—engagement in physical activities buffers the effects of
depression on substance use, but parental care and supervision and social support aggravate the
effects of strain on truancy. Overall, the current findings support the theory but call for further
research and theory building—delinquent acts are diverse behaviors, and thus, each may
require a crime-specific model of the general strain theory.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Funding The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

Conflict of Interest The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with
the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki
declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

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