International Journal of Plasticity, Vol. 5, pp- 95-130. 1989 0749.-6419/$9 $3.00 + .

00
Printed in the U.S.A. Copyright © 1989 Pergamon Press pie

AN INTERNAL VARIABLE CONSTITUTIVE MODEL

FOR HOT WORKING OF METALS

STUART B. BROWN, KWON H. Kn~, and LALI.IT AN'AND

Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(Communicated by Theoder Lehmann, Ruhr Universit~itBochum)

Abstract-A set of internal variable type constitutive equations which model large elastic-
viscoplastic deformations of metals at high temperatures is formulated. For a first-order rep-
resentation of large deformation constitutive behavior we use a scalar as an internal variable
to represent the isotropic resistance to plastic flow offered by the internal state of the material.
Hot compressiontests on an iron-2r0 silicon alloy and a commerciallypure aluminum have been
conducted. Based on these experiments, specificviscoplasticconstitutive functions are proposed,
and the values for the materials parameters appearing in these functions are determined. The
constitutive equations with these functions and material parameters accurately reproduce the
basic tests and also accurately predict the response of the metal to some critical experiments
which were not used to determine the material parameters in the constitutive functions. Although
the use of a single scalar internal variablelimits the constitutiveequations to describingthe defor-
mation behavior of initially isotropic metals up to deformation levels where significant inter-
nal damage and polycrystal texturing has not developed, the constitutive equations presented
here should be useful for obtaining an improved analysis of various hot deformation process-
ing operations of metals.

I. LNTRODUCTION

Approximately 80°70 o f all metals products undergo hot working during some part o f
their processing history. H o t working includes such operations as rolling, forging, and
extrusion, and is characterized by interrupted, non-isothermal, large deformations at
high strain rates (10 -3 to 104 sec -z) and high homologous temperatures (0.5 to 0.9).
Recent developments in numerical modeling techniques permit significant reductions in
the cost o f both the design and the analysis o f hot working operations, transforming
the design process f r o m one requiring decades o f industry experience and involving
costly, iterative experimental procedures to one where hot working m a y be rapidly and
realistically simulated numerically before any actual trial runs. Central to the proper
application o f these modeling techniques, however, are accurate constitutive equations
for metal behavior in the hot working regime.
Metal behavior in the hot working regime is complex. The kinetics o f deformation
are highly temperature- and rate-dependent. During such processes the internal struc-
ture o f a metal evolves, producing strain-hardening, dynamic recovery, and in m a n y
instances dynamic recrystallization. The defect and microstructural states produced dur-
ing deformation are usually unstable, and further changes in the microstructural state
occur by static recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth on holding at temperature
after the end o f a d e f o r m a t i o n pass (e.g., JONAS et al. [1969], SeLLAgS a M e G T~:oxgr
[1972], McQu1~cN a JONAS [1975]).
The object o f this article is to formulate a set o f constitutive equations for large
elastic-viscoplastic deformations at high temperatures which m a y prove to be useful for

95
96 STuArt B. BROWN et al.

application to the analysis of hot working of metals. The constitutive model is based
on the following physical ideas:

Plastic deformation due to dislocation motion is inherently rate-dependent. The

rate effects (for a large range of interest) are due to thermal activation of various
flow processes, and therefore plastic flow is also intrinsically temperature sensitive
(KOCKS et al. [1975]).
The instantaneous response of a material is determined by its current state, The cur-
rent state (which is produced by the entire past history of deformation undergone
by the material) may be assumed to be representable by a small number of mac-
roscopic internal variables, and their evolution to be representable by rate equations
(e.g., RIcE [1975]).

For application to hot working, the physical mechanisms that need to be modeled
include:

• Strain rate sensitivity.

• Temperature sensitivity.
• Strain rate and temperature history effects.
• Strain hardening and the restoration processes, both dynamic and static, of recov-
ery and recrystallization.
• Internal damage and its evolution.
• Crystalline texture and its evolution.

For hot working, the appropriate internal variables and their rate evolution equations
are not easily identifiable. Here, to obtain a first-order constitutive model for large de-
formations, we employ a single scalar as an internal variable to represent the isotropic
resistance to plastic flow offered by the internal state of the material. We denote this
internal variable by s (for state), take it to have the dimensions of stress, and call it the
deformation resistance. Such an internal variable also appears in a one-dimensional the-
ory by KOOKS [1975]. He calls such a state variable the mechanical threshold because
all thermal activation controlled viscoplastic flow occurs at stress levels below the cur-
rent value of this scalar state variable.
The assumption that only a single scalar may be used to characterize the internal
structural characteristics of a material is of course a gross simplification; it clearly can-
not account for internal damage and crystalline texture effects. Our major reasons for
employing only one scalar internal variable, s, are first, we wished to determine whether
one scalar internal variable would be sufficient to describe the major strain hardening
(softening) features of deformation behavior during hot working. The well-known corre-
lation between either dislocation density or subgrain size and the flow stress suggested
that a single internal variable might be adequate for capturing the hardening character-
istics during monotonic deformations. Small strain anisotropy associated with anelas-
tic and Bauschinger type effects was ignored since these effects usually saturate at a
small fraction of the strains encountered in hot working. Second, the largest expected
source of anisotropy, deformation-induced texture is not well understood, especially at
high temperatures. Until simple relationships for describing the effects of texture and
its evolution are formulated, it is our opinion that a model using only a scalar internal
variable may be effectively used as a first approximation to model the strain harden-
ing or softening characteristics, strain rate sensitivity, and temperature sensitivity of the
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 97

workpiece during hot working operations. A single scalar internal variable model cor-
responds in spirit to the isotropic hardening assumption of the classical rate-independent
plasticity theory.
A simple set of constitutive equations for large, isotropic, elastic-viscoplastic ! defor-
mations but small elastic deformations is the single-scalar internal variable model pro-
posed by A~AND [1982,1985] and A~AND a BRows [1987]. These constitutive equations
are strictly valid only for initially isotropic materials subjected to deformation levels
where significant internal damage and texturing has not developed. Within the frame-
work of this model there appears a scalar valued function for the equivalent plastic
strain rate and an evolution equation for the internal variable. The major task in com-
pleting this constitutive model involves specifying particular forms for these functions.
In recent years a large number of specific forms for such functions in single scalar
internal variable models have been proposed for the high temperature, rate-dependent
deformation of metals (for a review see ~ et ai. [1984]). Virtually all of these models
except that of ANAND [1982] have been proposed for application in the regime of creep
deformation, at temperatures, strains, and strain rates lower than those encountered in
hot working. Many issues associated with formulating an internal variable model for
deformation behavior are the same, whether the model is intended for application in the
creep or the hot working regime. However, the precise forms of the constitutive func-
tions may be different, and due to lack of experimental data in the hot working regime,
it is not evident that a model formulated for creep may be extrapolated for hot work-
ing simulation. The model proposed by A~,cs'D for hot working was based on the exper-
imental data from a small set of moderate strain, tension tests representing a small
subset of state space pertinent to hot working. ANA_~,~, by necessity, had to assume spe-
cific functional forms for his material model which he then fit to the experimental data.
No data were available for model validation independent of those used for the fitting
of material parameters.
Here, we have developed experimental apparatus to conduct hot compression tests,
and we have conducted a series of monotonic constant true strain rate, strain-rate jump,
and load-unload-hold-reload tests on specimens made from both an iron-2eT0 silicon
alloy and an 1100-type aluminum alloy. These tests were performed in the hot work-
ing regime, encompassing large strains, high homologous temperatures, and moderately
high strain rates. The data from these tests were then used to determine scalar material
functions for incorporation into a complete elastic-viscoplastic constitutive model.
To validate the predictive capability of the model we have also performed some exper-
iments using different loading conditions than those which were used to determine the
material functions and the associated material parameters. The constitutive model accu-
rately predicts the response of the two alloys to such tests. We have also performed tests
to evaluate the ability of the model to predict the variation of structure within an
inhomogeneously deformed specimen, and have correlated this predicted variation with
macroscopic measures of deformation resistance.
The set of constitutive equations presented here accounts for the physical phenom-
ena of strain rate and temperature sensitivity, strain rate history effects, strain-hardening
and the restoration process of dynamic recovery. As compared to the currently used
constitutive models which take the equivalent plastic strain rate to be a simple power-
law or a hyperbolic sine function of the equivalent stress, together with a temperature

tSome models for large deformation plasticity neglect elastic effects. However, to retain a capability to
model residual stresses generated during metal-working, it is imperative to include elastic effects.
98 STUART B. BROWN et aL

dependence of an Arrhenius form, and which do not account for any internal structural
evolution, the constitutive equations presented here should be useful for obtaining an
improved analysis of various hot deformation processing operations for metals.

!I. M A T H E M A T I C A L S T R U C T U R E O F T H E C O N S T I T U T I V E M O D E L

Attention in this article is focussed on modeling isotropic metals with isotropic hard-
ening, for which the state variables are taken to be ( A N A N D [1985], ASAND ~, BgOWS
[1987]):

[T,s,01, (1)

where T is the Cauchy stress, 0 is the absolute temperature, and s is a scalar internal
variable with dimensions of stress, called the deformation resistance. The internal vari-
able s represents an averaged isotropic resistance to macroscopic plastic flow offered by
the underlying isotropic strengthening mechanisms such as dislocation density, solid
solution strengthening, subgrain and grain size effects, etc.
The evolution equations for the three state variables are:

1. Evolution equation for the stress2:

T v = £ [ D - D p] - H0, (2)

where
Tv-~'F-WT+TW Jaumann derivative of Cauchy stress T;
J~ = 2 / ~ I + [r - ( 2 / 3 ) # ] 1 ® 1 fourth order isotropic elasticity tensor;
= M O ) , ,< = ~ ( 0 ) elastic shear and bulk moduli;
/ / = (3~ol)1 stress-temperature tensor;
a = ~(0) coefficient of thermal expansion;
L -- grad v spatial gradient of the velodty v;
D -= sym (L) stretching tensor;
W E skew (L) spin tensor;
I= fourth order identity tensor;
1= second order identity tensor.

The constitutive equation for D p, that is the flow rule, is:

Dp = ~ ] , (3)

2McMEEKXI~G a Rice [1975l have r e c o m m e n d e d the use o f the stress rate (T v + TtrD) instead of T v on
the g r o u n d s that the use o f this stress rate measure preserves the s y m m e t r y of the contributions to the ele-
ment stiffness matrix arising f r o m constitutive terms in finite element formulations. Indeed, as also shown
by AN.~'D [1985l and A N ~ ~ Bnow,~ [1987], such a stress rate is also suggested by a linearization o f a proper
hyper-elastic constitutive equation under the assumption o f small elastic stretches. However, since plastic defor-
mation is assumed to be incompressible, the difference between the use o f (T v + TtrD) and T v will be barely
detectable computationally for situations when the elastic stretches are small. Further, this difference will also
be very difficult to detect experimentally. Accordingly, it is for reasons o f simplicity that we use the J a u m a n n
derivative o f the Cauehy stress in this article.
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 99

where
~t, = f ( # , O , s ) > O, # < s equivalent plastic tensile strain rate;
T' = deviator of the Cauchy stress tensor;
# = 4(3/2)T'.T' equivalent tensile stress.

2. Evolution equation for the internal variable s:

= g(#,s,O). (4)

3. Evolution equation for the absolute temperature:

- ( p c ) - I [div(xV0) + ~0T.DP]. (5)

This is obtained from an approximate energy balance. It is not a constitutive equa-

tion. Here p = ~(0) is the mass density, c = ~(0) is the specific heat, k = k(0) is
the thermal conductivity, and ~o, a scalar in the range 0.85 -- ~o_< 1.0, is the frac-
tion of plastic work converted to heat.

The main task of this experimental investigation was to evaluate specific functional
forms for the flow equation:

~p = f ( # , s , O ) , (6)

and the evolution equation for the internal variable s:

= g(#,s,O). (7)

Ideally, we would like to have an adequate understanding of the underlying mecha-

nisms governing high temperature behavior such that our task would be only to perform
the experiments needed to determine the few specific material constants for the metal
of interest. Realistically, our limited knowledge of the operative mechanisms precludes
this, both because our understanding of the different mechanisms is incomplete and
because the actual mechanisms are associated with complex structures and processes cer-
tainly not totally representable by a single internal variable model. We therefore choose
to motivate functional forms, where possible, from elementary assumptions about de-
formation mechanisms, guided by appropriate experimentation to modify these forms
and provide material parameters.
We make the following assumptions concerning the forms of eqns (6) and (7):

1. The state variable enters into the flow equation only as a ratio with the equivalent
tensile stress. That is,

#0

This form has been suggested by Kocrd et aL [1975] in conjunction with a model
for mechanically activated dislocation glide. RxcE [1970] and others have suggested
this structure as well. Although there seems to be no fundamental requirement for
100 S'rUARI B. BROWN et aL

a scalar internal variable to be incorporated in this way it is to be noted that the

appearance of # and s as a ratio O / s ) is attractive from dimensional considera-
tions alone. Further, we shall consider only those functional forms for which
eqn (8) may be inverted such that we may write # = cs, where c is a function of
strain rate and temperature: c = O(~P,0).
2. The evolution equation for the internal variable is assumed to be of the form:

.~ = h ( # , s , O ) d p - i-(s,O). (9)

For the three primary mechanisms of strain hardening, dynamic recovery, and
static recovery, we associate h (#, s, 0) with dynamic processes, that is, strain hard-
ening and dynamic recovery, while static recovery is accommodated through the
function/'(s,O). The assumption that the static recovery function ~ is independent
of stress reflects our desire for this function to represent evolution processes which
occur in the material in the absence of an applied stress. This form for the evo-
lution equation for s is reminiscent of the Bailey-Orowan equation ( B ~ x , [1926],
OaowA~ [1945]), and it is almost universally employed in internal variable evo-
lution equations for high temperature deformation.

We now ask what experiments may be performed to complete the specification of the
material functions. Experiments where one applies fast changes in the external variables
(so that we may assume constant internal structure) should characterize behavior of the
equivalent plastic strain rate function f in eqn (8). Here, the following three sets of
experiments are used to evaluate independently the functional forms of both the flow
eqn (8) and the two material functions in the evolution eqn (9) for the internal variable:
(a) isothermal strain rate jump tests from the same state, conducted at various temper-
atures, to determine the strain rate and temperature sensitivity of the flow stress, and
thereby evaluate f in (8); (b) isothermal load-unload-hold-reload tests to evaluate ~ in
(9); and (c) isothermal, constant true strain rate tests to evaluate h in (9). In the next
section we describe our experimental procedures and results.

111. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES AND RESULTS

Materials

Two polycrystalline metals were selected for this investigation, a BCC iron-2% sili-
con alloy, and an FCC 1100-type aluminum alloy. The iron-2°70 silicon alloy was fur-
nished by Armco Metals, Middlefield, Ohio. The aluminum was provided by ALCOA
Laboratories, Alcoa Center, Pennsylvania. Both metals possess a high stacking fault
energy (Hma'H ~, Loxrm [1982]), which serves to accentuate the rate of dynamic recov-
ery and inhibit dynamic recrystallization (Sm.LARS [1978], McQtn~E~ [1982]).
The iron-2°To silicon was provided in rolled plates, approximately 1 inch thick, 12
inches wide, and 3 to 4 feet long. All cylindrical specimens were machined such that
their axis of symmetry was oriented parallel to the long transverse direction of the plates.
The 1100 aluminum was furnished in 1.4 inch diameter extruded bar. The cylindrical
test specimens of aluminum were machined such that their axis of symmetry was par-
allel to the axis of the bar. The compositions of the two alloys are provided in Table I.
The iron-2°70 silicon was annealed for 1 hour at 700°C. This annealing schedule is
 Internal variable modei,f6rliot workingmetals 101

Table I. Alloycompositions
Element Weight %
Fe-2% Si
Fe 96.71
Si 1.98
AI 0.56
C 0.0023
Mn 0.16
Cu 0.26
Cr 0.13
Ni 0.14
S 0.0012
P 0.009
Ti 0.0041
N 0.0050
Mo 0.038
ll00 Al
A1 99.72
Fe 0.16
Si 0.08
Ti 0.03
V 0.01

identical to that used by YOUNG & SHERBY [1973] for a similar iron-silicon alloy. An-
nealing of the iron-silicon alloy at higher temperatures and for a longer time was avoided
to prevent excessive grain growth. The annealing schedule for the aluminum consisted
of heating to 260°C, holding for 1 hour, increasing the temperature to 538°C, holding
for another 15 minutes, and then furnace cooling to room temperature.

Experimental apparatus

The data presented in this article were obtained by performing experiments on two
high temperature mechanical test systems assembled at M.I.T. for the simulation of hot
working. The first system consists of an Instron Corporation, Model 1322 tension/tor-
sion servohydraulic test machine. Temperature and environmental control is provided
by a high temperature, vacuum furnace built by Centorr Associates, Suncook, New
Hampshire, according to our specifications. Maximum vacuum attainable is approx-
imately 10-s torr. Heating in this furnace is provided by a cylindrical heating zone
consisting of tungsten mesh heating elements surrounded by a multiple layer set of
molybdenum heat shields. A thermocouple, spot-welded to each specimen, serves as the
feedback transducer to the temperature controller. The heat zone is designed to reach
temperatures up to 1800°C, but the loading rod materials (94070 alumina and TZM)
begin to creep and recrystallize, respectively, at approximately 1200°C. All tests were
therefore run at or below 1200°C. All iron-2070 silicon data were collected using this
system.
The second test system consists of a Research Incorporated radiant furnace (Model
E4-5) mounted in a model 1350 Instron servo-hydraulic axial test machine. The load
train consists of Astrolloy rods terminating in alumina ceramic. The furnace is capa-
ble of testing in air to 800°C. All 1100 aluminum data were collected using this system.
102 STUART B. BROWN et al.

Data acquisition was accomplished with an IBM P C / X T equipped with a Metrabyte

Corporation DASH-16 analog-to-digital converter, permitting sampling rates exceeding
I kilohertz. Data analysis was performed on a Data General MV4000 computer.

Compression testing
All experimental data reported here were obtained from compression tests. Control
signals for the movement of the actuators of both servohydraulic test machines were
obtained from an analog function generator, designed and assembled in our laboratory,
following a simpler design used by I ~ C E O N [1975]. The function generator used a
simple RC circuit to provide a decaying exponential voltage which simulates a constant
true strain rate compression test. The function generator is also designed with set points
which may either latch the voltage at that point or change the strain rate. This capability
enables one to perform strain rate jump tests and recovery tests. It is possible to per-
form compression tests on both systems to true strains greater than -1.0, and constant
true strain rates and strain rate jump experiments in the range of 10 -4 to 10° sec -~.
The role of the compression tests in the study of the large deformations of metals is
well established (e.g., U v n ~ • JOr~AS[1968], Hsu [1969], ASTM STP 808 [1983], ASTM
Standard E209-65 [1983]). As compared to the tension test, one can achieve large strains
in a compression test due to the absence of necking. Also, a compression test is eas-
ier to perform relative to a torsion test since it permits simpler and more common
experimental apparatus and requires less complicated alignment of loading fixtures.
Compression testing is particularly appropriate for large deformation testing at high
temperatures, where temperature uniformity is difficult to maintain in tension and
torsion specimens, and strain measurement in tension and torsion requires complex
extensometry.
Axial temperature gradients were reduced to +2 degrees Celsius by using low ther-
mal conductivity 94°70 alumina ceramic rods for loading in compression. Either TZM
or Astroloy were used as compression platen materials, since they could be easily pol-
ished to provide a smooth compression surface, and since they acted to distribute the
specimen contact load evenly over the cross section of the alumina rod.
All compression specimens had a height-to-diameter ratio of 1:1.5. The effect of fric-
tion between the specimen and the compression platens was reduced by machining shal-
low concentric grooves on the end,faces of the compression specimens to hold special
high temperature lubricants. This technique has been used by many investigators (e.g.,
U v n ~ ~ JonAs [1968], Hstr [1969]) and appears to work very well in producing homo-
geneous compression for compressive true strains exceeding -1.0. Figure 1 shows the
dimensions of the specimen and the grooves on the specimen faces. The lubricants used
were graphite, powdered glass and mixtures of powdered glass and boron rtitride pow-
der. The particular lubricants used at the different test temperatures are listed in Ta-
ble 2.
Figure 2 shows typical iron-2070 silicon and 1100 aluminum compression specimens
before and after essentially homogeneous, isothermal, constant true strain rate compres-
sion tests to a true grain of - 1 . 0 , Notice that the deformed specimens are still cylin-
drical, and that there is no noticeable roll-over of the sides of the specimen, which would
have resulted were there significant friction between the specimen end, faces and the
compression platens.
Compressive strains throughout this investigation were measured by subtracting the
effect of test machine compliance from the displacement of the servohydraulic actua-
 Internal variablemodel~ l~t,working metals 103

0 I 0.030 [
-70.005
0.750 ~ Groove 5pacing

0.500
Fig. 1. Dimensionsof compressionspecimen.Test resultsinsensitiveto groovegeometry.(All dimensionsin
inches.)

Fig. 2. Fe-2% Si and 1100aluminumcompressionspecimensbeforeand after compressionto true strain

of approximately- 1.0.

tor. The large displacements required for large strain compression tests permitted this
indirect means of measuring specimen strains since the errors associated with variations
and nonlinearities in compliance, and the resolution of the actuator LVDT were rela-
tively small. Further, extensive digital smoothing techniques permitted greater resolu-
tion in measuring displacements than was possible by using only the analog data. By
using digital smoothing, we could easily resolve strains of less than 10-4 , although the
degree of resolution was sensitive to both the strain rate and the rate of data acquisition.

Strain rate jump tests

A series of strain rate jump tests were performed on our test systems with the two
alloys. All strain rate jumps were programmed to occur at the same value of strain for
a given temperature, after the stress variation with strain had reached an apparent con-
104 STUART B. BROWN et al.

Table 2. Lubricant compositions

Temperature Strain Rate Composition Ratio

(Celsius) (sec- ~) Constituents by Weight

1100 AI
200-350 10 -3 - 10 ° DAG41
400 10 - I - 10 ° DAG41
400 10 -3 - 10 -2 8463
450 l0 ° 8463
450 l 0 -3 - 10 -1 8463:7570 l:l
500 10 ° 8463:7570 I :t
500 1 0 - 2 - 10 -1 7570
500 l0 -3 7570:1990 4: l
550 l0 -3- l0 -2 7570:1990 4:1
600 10 ° 7570:1990 1:2
600 10 - 3 - 10 -~ 7570:1990 1:4

F e - 2 % Si
700 10 - z - 10 ° BN:1190 1:4
800 10 - z - 10 ° BN:1190 1:4
900 10--" - 10 ° BN:0010 1:8
1000 10 - 2 - I0 ° BN:0010 1:8
1100 10-" - 10° BN:0010 1:8
1200 I0 - z - 10 ° BN:0010 1:8

Notes: DAG41 is an oil based graphite lubricant purchased from Aeheson Colloids
Company, Port Huron, Michigan. Four digit numbers refer to glass classification
codes. Glass was purchased as a powder, 325 screen size, from Coming Corporation,
C o m i n g , N e w Y o r k . B N = b o r o n nitride powder, grade HCP, purchased from U n i o n
Carbide Corporation.

stunt value at the initial strain rate. Jumping from such apparently steady state condi-
tions minimized the variation in initial state among tests at the same temperature and
initial strain rate. Figures 3 and 4 show strain rate jump test results at different temper-
atures for the two alloys. The maximum final strain rate was selected to be - 1 per sec-
ond due to the inherent limitations of the dynamic response of our servohydrualic test
machines.
The stresses before and immediately after the jump were used to characterize the con-
stant structure, strain rate dependence of the flow stress. The stress after the jump was
selected to be the stress corresponding to a 0.002 plastic strain offset from the jump
strain. Figures 5 and 6 show plots of log strain rate versus log stress at constant struc-
tures si, obtained from the strain rate jump tests. These data from the two alloys sug-
gest two different functional dependences between strain rate and stress. The aluminum
data are well represented by a power law relationship, indicated by dashed lines in
represented b y a n e x p o n e n t i a l depen-
F i g . 5, w h i l e the iron-2~/0 s i l i c o n d a t a are better
dence of strain rate upon stress, once again indicated by dashed lines in Fig. 6. Very lit-
tle, i f any, other constant structure data exist f o r the homologous temperatures and
strain rates presented here.
The following functional form of the flow equation was selected to accommodate
both the power law and the exponential dependence o f the strain rate on the stress at
constant structure:

(10)
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 105

200.0

Fe - L~ S!
180.0 eO0"C
= -0.94 s e c "s

120.0

.o 80.0

40.0

0.0 I i I i I , I i
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0

120.0 i ! i !

Fe - 2X Si
100.0 900"C
,, -1.13 s e e "

80.0
11
80.0
m
o

m 40.0
~ . -0.020

20.0 .00021_-~._ o0.0021

~0

0.0 i I i I i I i I i
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
80.0

Fe - ~ S i
tO00
80.0 •. -O.8ga s . c " ,

v
40.0

20.0

0.0 "0"0(002, I I I I I I I ,
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0
True Strain

Fig. 3. Strain rate j u m p tests with F e - 2 % Si to determine constant structure rate dependence.

The four material parameters in this constitutive function are A, Q, m, and/~. In the
temperature and strain rate range of interest here, all of these material parameters were
taken to be temperature independent. The parameter A is called the preexponential fac-
tor; Q is called the activation energy, and m is called the strain rate sensitivity. Also,
106 STU~d~'rB. BROWNet al.

R is the gas constant) The temperature dependence in this function is incorporated via
a classical Arrhenius term, while the stress and state dependences are a simple modifi-
cation of the following hyperbolic sine form first proposed by GAROrAtO [1963] to
model steady state creep:

~ = A~s e x p ( - R ~ ) [sinh(~a~s)] l/m (ll)

Here the subscript ss denotes quantities relevant only to steady state conditions. This
equation has also long been used to model steady state behavior in hot working (e.g.,
Joto.s, Sm:,,.Rs, ~ McG TEG~u~T [1969]). As will be seen shortly, the simple modifica-
tion of replacing a~ by (a/s), together with providing a suitable evolution equation for
s, generalizes the steady state expression (11) sufficiently to capture the major strain
hardening characteristics of a material. A consequence of the function for ~P chosen in
eqn (10) is that the power law breakdown, which is observed when the steady state stress
is correlated with the steady state strain rate, will be modeled by the flow equation, and
not by the evolution equation for the internal variable.
There appears to be no widely accepted mechanistic derivation of the hyperbolic sine
dependence on stress in the flow eqn (10). A hyperbolic sine dependence of the strain
rate on the stress results from an assumption of forward and backward thermal acti-
vation of vacancies. However, at the high strain rates associated with hot working, this
is not the operative mechanism. Many investigators, (e.g., FROST~ Astray [1982]) associ-
ate power law breakdown with a transition from dislocation climb dominated plastic
flow to dislocation glide dominated plastic flow, but as just mentioned, there does not
appear to be a rigorous derivation of the hyperbolic sine dependence from considera-
tions of these mechanisms.
Although the strain rate jump tests measure strain rate dependence, they provide very
little information on the magnitude of the activation energy, Q. Temperature jump tests
are required to measure Q, particularly to distinguish thermally activated, constant
structure kinetics from state evolution kinetics which are also thermally activated. Such
tests have not yet been performed by the authors, primarily because of the limitations
imposed by the high thermal inertia of our current heating apparatus. However, the
value of Q is usually found to be close to that of self-diffusion, and constant for ho-
mologous temperatures above - 0 . 5 (FRosT ~, Astray [1982]).
An important consequence of the assumed form (10) for the flow equation is that the
internal variable s is proportional to the equivalent stress #. That is,

O=cs, (12)

where

c,~ 1 (13)

3The gas constant actually has no place in the theory; Boltzmann's constant should appear imtead. How-
ever, use of R has been customary in the field of hot working in order to work with reasonabt~ small values
of Q.
 Internalvariablemodelfor h6t workingmetals 107

50.0 i ! ! !

1100Alumln~m - -t.O H e "

40.0

-0.!

30.0
~ -0.01
20.0

10.0
-0.~01
0.0 i I i I * I * I ,
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0,8 1.0

40.0 i !

1100 A]Hm|)~ttl~

400 *C
30.0
S i - -1.0 see"
eL -0.1
:1
v
)) 20.0 f
M
I) -0.01
f
(n

10.0
-0.00t

-0.0001
0.0 , I , I i I i I i
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0

30.0

] 100 Alumlw,,,,
450 "C - -I.0sec"t~
20.0 ~
v
-0.!
ol
m
0
-0.01
In 10.0
d
-'0.0001
0.0 I I , I i I i I i
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0
TrueSt.redn
Fig.4. Strainratejumptestswith1100aluminumto determineconstantstructureratedependence.

Since the internal variable s represents some generalized isotropic resistance to plastic
deformation, it is not possible to measure a value of s directly. In the absence of a
directly measurable quantity, eqns (12) and (13) permit the determination of model
parameters without directly knowing the value of the internal variable. When plastic
108 STUAI~T B. BROWN et al.

1.0
- i 1 I00 ~ u m L ~ u m
0.0 Coruttant State Data x / 0 '~
//
e.
O
et = -0.0001 s e c -~ // /
// ///
~ -LO s6 450 "C. • - -.05 x// 0 // O//
400 "C, c - - 0 5 / / // /
w 350 "C. e = - 0 5 / /
/
/ C~, /
,~ -2.0
/ / // / I /
._~ / //
~ -a.o // x/ ~" / //
/ /
I ii I

~ -4.0 x// O / //0

0 s~ st sa

~ * t [ ,, | , i i
-5.0
O.S LO 1.5
Loglo SLress ( U P a )

Fig. S. Stress/strain rate dependence of I lO0 aluminum at different constant states (s~), determined from
strain rate j u m p tests.

2.0 ~ j ! , , ,' •

~-- Fo - 2Z $1
"o l.O Con3tant State Data
o~" sl: 1000 C. e = - A
0.0 / x O,
~:gOOC. c =-.2 ~ / /
~5 ~ 800 C. c = -.2 ~,/ / 0/
-t.O /x
/ /
p~ / / /

-2.0 .,"~ /
," /
9/
/ t

I t /
/ •
e. Jr x" O
~ -4.0 s~ ~

0.5 t.O t.5 2.0

Loglo Stress (UPa)
Fig. 6. Stress/strain rate dependence of F e - 2 ° ' 0 Si at different constant states (sD, determined from strain
rate jump tests.

flow fully develops during an isothermal, constant true strain rate test, the equivalent
plastic strain rate is approximately equal to the imposed strain rate (d p --- d). Under
these conditions c is known. We may then use the proportionality (12) in the evaluation
o f both the static recovery function P and the hardening function h, for it allows us to
measure (estimate) the value of the internal variable s by simple measuring the exter-
nal variable stress and dividing through by c.

Evaluation of the static recovery function t ( s , 0)

L o a d - u n l o a d - h o l d - r e l o a d experiments under isothermal, constant true strain rate
conditions were performed to evaluate the static recovery function. Figure 7 shows a
 Internal variablemodel for hot working metals 109

80.0 i i i

SabemaUc e!
?0.0
Load-U,~load-H~d-~oad Tests
60.0

v
SO.O

40.0

30.0
S
20.0

10.0

0.0 , I I , | , I ,
0.0 0.2 0.4 O.e 0.8 ! .0
Strain

Fig. 7. Schematic of load-unload-hold-reload test series used to evaluate rate of static recovery. Curves do
not represent actual test data.

schematic of such an experiment. The difference between the stress just before unload-
ing and the 0.2% offset yield stress upon reloading represents the change in state due
only to static restoration processes. By varying hold time ( 4 t ) and the stress before
unloading (~), while maintaining a constant value of c during the loading/reloading
segments of a given series of tests, the state dependence of the recovery function can
be determined by comparing the stress before unloading (~) to the value of stress
obtained upon reloading (al). The temperature dependence of the recovery function is
determined by repeating the procedure at various different temperatures.
A set of load-unload-hold-reload tests were performed on the iron-2% silicon and
1100 aluminum according to the procedure described above. A representative set of
results for 1100 Al are presented in Fig. 8. One immediate result of these experiments
is that the stress measured upon reloading is n o t significantly different from that mea-

50.0

. 1100 AlumLaum .
4010 I 350"C.~i--0.1 s.c-' _~ i

L," o..o
20.0 1 -A, - ..c i
/

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

True S ~ s l n

Fig. 8. Representativerecovery tests for aluminum 1100.

1 10 STUART B. BROWN et al.

sured just before unloading, even for relatively long hold periods. The recovery rates
measured for both the 1I00 aluminum and the iron-2% silicon were low. The integrated
influence of static recovery on the deformation resistance at normal hot working strain
rates (greater than 10 -3 second -l) was less than 1 percent of the total deformation
resistance. We therefore neglect the contribution o f static recovery for the remainder
o f this investigation. The experimental data collected to measure the static restoration
rates will be presented elsewhere.

Evaluation o f dynamic hardening and recovery function h (8, s, O)

Under isothermal, constant true strain rate conditions, for fully developed flows
where ~ --- ~P and # = cs, we may express the evolution eqn (9) for the internal variable
in terms of stress:

= ch~ p - c~, (14)

or equivalently,

dO C
= ch - "z-z/',
e"
(15)
d~P

where c is defined in eqn (13). The strain hardening data, that is the slope of the stress
versus plastic strain curve from an isothermal, constant true strain rate test, therefore
reflect the evolution of the internal variable. The hardening data incorporate contribu-
tions from both functions h and L However, as shown in the previous section it is rea-
sonable to neglect the contribution of static recovery for the two materials tested in the
range o f strain rates of interest. All subsequent analysis therefore considers only the
dynamic term h. The strain hardening data therefore represent:

dO
ch. (16)
dgP

A series of isothermal, constant true strain rate experiments have been performed on
both alloys. Tests with the iron-2°70 silicon were performed over a temperature range
of 800 to 1200°C (0.60 to 0.83 Tin), while tests with the 1100 aluminum were over a
temperature range of 300 to 600°C (0.61 to 0.94 Tin). Strain rates for both alloys were
from 10 -3 to 10° second -~. Figures 9 and 10 contain the stress versus strain data for
the different temperatures at constant strain rates. Notice that the stress eventually
reaches an apparent steady state value and the rate of strain hardening goes to zero at
strains approaching 0.5. Figures 11 and 12 show representative dS/d~ p versus tr d a t a :
The values of the elastic constants for the two alloys, as a function of temperature, used
to process the data are listed in Table 3. The data for Fe-2% Si are from the ASM Met-
als Handbook [1978], and those for 1100 AI are taken to be the calculated aggregate
properties for pure aluminum from Stm~oNs • WANO [1971].

4The stress/straindata and hardening data for the isothermal, constant true strain rate tests,as well as the
jump test data, are available from the authors on 5~ I B M floppy disks.
 [nternai variable model for hot working metals 111

180.0 | ! 120.0 I !

lee - 2:II211 Fe - I X ~d
= -1.0 =me"= ~ = -0.1 N ¢ "l
150.0 100.0
eoo.c
1100"1;
f
f
S
120.0 80.0

go.o 20O "C 00.0 900 "C

00.0 40.0
f tO00 "C
f
llO0
so.o 20.0 f

7t
t200 .~"

! I
0.0 ' I , 0.0 ! I I t

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

100.0 ! i 60.0 , ,
Fe - 2X Si Fe - 2X Si
,; = --0.01 see" ,~ = -0.001 see "l
50.0
80.0
8OO "C
800 "¢
40.0

~ " 0.0
f 860 *¢
30.0

~ 40.0
S 2OO "C
20.0 f
90o'(:

25O "C
f ZOO0 "C
20.0 1000 °C
f 11oo "¢
10.0
11oo ~"
12oo ~ -

0.0 I I
I I
0.0 ! ! I

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
T r u e St4-Mn T r u e St.r~h.,

Fig. 9. Isothermal, constant true strain tests on F e - 2 % Si with varying strain rates and temperatures.

T h e f o r m o f h (8, s, 0) which was a d o p t e d to represent the h a r d e n i n g b e h a v i o r o f the

t w o alloys is:

o ~ 1, (17)
112 STUART B. BROWN et al.

which is a simple modification of the function proposed by A N A N D [1982], who con-

sidered only the particular case a = 1 o f eqn (17). Here, ho represents a constant rate
o f athermal hardening. The quantity s* represents a saturation value o f s associated
with a given temperature/strain rate pair, and following ANAND [t982], it is taken to
be given byS:

(18)

The material parameters in this constitutive function are h0, a, g, and n. Also, Ix[ and
sign(x) denote the absolute value and the sign of x, respectively. The absolute value and
the sign function are introduced to accommodate situations when the current value of
the internal variable is greater than the saturation value given by (18). This permits the
modeling o f not only strain hardening, but also strain softening. Such a situation is
certainly possible in hot working processes where the strain rate decreases or the tem-
perature increases at a material point. Such a change may cause the current value o f
s to be greater than the asymptotic value represented by s* calculated under the new
conditions.
For isothermal, constant true strain rate tests where 8 = cs, and for situations where
s* > s, eqns (16) and (17) give

dO =cho 1 -
d~p
(:.) (19)

where 8" = cs* is the saturation or steady state stress. The constant c represents the
contribution of constant structure deformation kinetics, and its appearance in (19)rep-
resents rate sensitivity of strain hardening: Figures 13 and 14 shows the correspon-
dence between eqn (19) and the strain hardening data for a given strain rate and a range
o f temperatures. A value of a = 1.5 was found to represent best the hardening curves
for the iron-2% silicon, while a = 1.3 was found to be more accurate for the 1100
aluminum.
Finally, note that the integrated form o f eqn (19) is:

8 = 8"- [ ( 8 " - 0 0 ) ( 1 - # ) + ( a - l)[(cho)(O*)-ol~P] 1/(I-~), (20)

where 0o = CSoand So is the initial value of s. For a = 1 eqn (19) integrates to the clas-
sical VOCE [1955] equation:

0 = O* - (8* - 80) e x p [ - ( c h o / # * ) ~ P ] . (21)

~There is no a priori reason to assume that the activation energy Q in the flow equation is the same as that
in the evolution equation for the internal variable. In fact, we expect that different thermally activated pro-
cesses influence the constant structure deformation rate and the evolution of structure. As mentioned previ-
ously, temperature jump tests are required to m e a s u r e the Q appearing in the flow equation. Since these
experiments have not been performed, the same value for the activation energy in (10) and (18) has ~ chosen
for operational convenience. As will be seen shortly, from an operational point of view, the choice of the same
value of activation energy in the flow equation and the evolution equation is not a bad one,
6It is possible to extend the function h by considering ho to be a function of the equivalent plastic strain
rate and the temperature. However, for the two materials considered here, this extension is not necessary.
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 113

70.0 ! i 60.0 I I

1100 AJ,,mi,,,~Lm 1100 Aluminum

- -1.0 s o c °n 4 - -0.1 s e c °s
60.0
50.0
3O0 "C
300 °C

S0.0 ~ 3S0"C 40.0

o~ 40.0
v

4OO *C 30.0 ~ - ~

30.0 ~ . 46o*c 400 "C

/ 20.0
20.0 5oo "C 45O "C
r
5o0"¢
eO0"C 10.0
10.0 e 0 0 "C

0.0 ' ' ' ' 0.0 ' ' ' '
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0

50.0 I I 40.0 i |

1100 A l u m i n u m 1I00 Aluminum

- -0.01 se~ ° ' - -0.001 see"

40.0
30.0
~90 "C

~" 30.0
'I
v
f 20.0
350 "C
m f
qD
35~c_
(n 20.0 f

~__,,, 4o¢ "¢

4 0 0 "C
45o0c 10.0
450 "C
10.0 50o "c 500 *C
S 0 0 "C e 0 0 *C

0.0 I I I | I 0.0 I | | I
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
?Yue Strain True St~ala

Fig. 10. Isothermal constant true strain rate tests on 1100 aluminum with varying strain rates and temperatures.

Summary of the specific constitutivefunctions for ~P and

The flow equation:

e P = A e x p ( - Q ) [ s i n h ( ~ s ) ] I/m.
114 STUARt B. BROWN et al.

(JO0.O. ! • ' ! I I

I Fe- ~ S1
500.0 i = -0.1 see-'

I 800 "C
300.0

"°F
,~o I \,,oo\
oo- '~\\
0.0 20.0 40.0 80:0 80.0 100.0
Stxess (M1~a)
Fig. 11. Plastic hardening data (dR~dep) derived from isothermal, constant true strain rate tests on F e - 2 %
Si.

400.0 | I l I

1100 Aluminum

d = -O.l se~"s ~O0"C

300.0

.i

% 200.0 400 350 \

b

100.0

0,0
0.0 lO.O 20.0 30.0 40.0 80.0
S~ess (MPa)

Fig. 12. Plastic hardening data (da/d~ p) derived from isothermal, constant true strain rate tests on 1100 alu-
minum.

The evolution equation:

S S ~p

with

s n
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 115

Table 3. Elastic moduli

Temperature ~ E
(Celsius) (GPa) (GPa) v

Fe-2% Si
800 50 135 0.35
900 42 115 0.37
1000 37 105 0.41
1100 32 93 0.43
1200 30 87 0.45
1100 AI
300 21.9 59.4 0.356
350 21.1 57.3 0.359
400 20.2 55.1 0.362
450 19.4 52.9 0.365
500 18.5 50.7 0.368
600 16.8 46.4 0,377

eO0.O I

re - 2XSI
500.0 ; - - O . t s . ¢ "i

400.0
a_
800 "C

% 300.0
-o
b
200.0

t
\. I
1000 •
•

,
, "
100.0 s k • •

0.0 I .S,..\ N-. , "

0.0 20.0 40.0 00.0 eO.O 100.0
Stress (MPa)

Fig. 13. Correlation of constitutive model with plastic hardening data from isothermal, constant true strain
rate tests.

The material parameters in these constitutive equations are: A, Q, m, ~, ho, a, ~, and

n. In the following section we detail the procedures used to determine these material
parameters.

IV. DETERMLNATION OF MATERIAL PARAMETERS

Ideally, the determination of the material parameters associated with the constitutive
model should follow the progression of experiments described in the previous section.
Parameters associated with each material response function should be determined from
the tests used to characterize that particular function. The parameters in the flow equa-
tion should therefore be determined from constant structure data, those in the static
recovery function form the load-unload-hold-reload data, and the parameters in the
dynamic hardening and recovery function from the isothermal, constant true strain rate
116 S'rUARI B. BROWN et al.

400.0
1100 Aluminum

300.0 = -0.1 see-~ ~300"C

21
% 200.0 350 ~',,
\ \",,
100.0
460 \
\ '\\ \,, ",
,00 ,

500 ",,

0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 ,0.0
Stress (MPa)
Fig. 14. Correlation of constitutive model with plastic hardening data from isothermal, constant true strain
rate tests.

tests. However, the procedure described below does not precisely follow this progres-
sion because of the absence of appropriate data from temperature jump experiments.
We intend to perform such experiments, but until then, the statistical parameter deter-
mination procedure described below 7 has proven to be reasonably accurate.
In simple compression # = l al, where a is the compressive stress measured in the com-
pression experiments. Further, at aft.red temperature 0 and af'vcedcompressive strain
rate d, when the plastic flow has become fully developed we may assume ~P ~ [~]. As
noted previously, for such tests the internal variable s is proportional to the external
variable [ a[ s:

s = [o J/c, (22)

where c is a constant defined by

c - ~-] sinh -1 [ ( Z / A ) m ] , with c < 1, (23)

and

Z_= ~ l e x p ( Q ) , (24)

is the well known temperature-compensated strain rate or the Zener-Hollomon param-

eter (ZEm~R • HoLto~os [1944]). The material parameter determination procedure
extensively exploits this proportionality between stress and the internal variable for
isothermal, constant true strain rate conditions.

7This procedure will also provide reasonable estimates of the material parameters when the only data avail-
able are those from isothermal, constant true swain rate compression tests.
Sin this and subsequent sections, the negative sign on the values of stress, strain and the strain rate in com-
pression experiments will be dropped whenever there is no danger of confusion.
 Internal variable model for hot woi-kitagmetals 117

From eqns (10), (18), and (24), when s = s* we obtain

Z= A[sinh ~-~-~}
f ~ [A\n o *)j ] ' / " , (2~)

or, inverting,

n
o ' = ~ g ( ~ )Zs i n h - l [ ( Z ) m] (26)

Next, if the strain rate jump tests are performed such that all changes in strain rate occur
only after the initial portion of the test has reached a constant stress (or equivalently
s = s*), then from (10), (18), and (24) we obtain:

g (-~)nsinh-I [ (-~)m] , (27)

where of is the stress immediately after the strain rate jump, Zi is the Zener-Hollomon
parameter before the jump, and Z/is the Zener-Hollomon parameter after the jump.
Notice that eqns (26) and (27) are identical except for the values of the stresses and
Zener-Hollomon parameters. This is important in our procedure for the determination
of material parameters.
Values of the material parameters A, Q, ~, m, h0, a, L and n for any given material
may be determined from isothermal, constant true strain rate compression tests and
strain rate jump tests, spanning the range of temperatures and strain rates of interest,
by following the procedure outlined below:

. Determination of the Saturation Stress a*.

The value of the saturation stress a* is determined for each test from the steady
state value reached in the (a,e p) data. 9
. Determination of a, cho, and #o.
The combined constant cho and the parameter a for each test are determined by
a least squares fit of the hardening (a, da/de p) data according to eqn (19). After
the values of a and cho are obtained the value of ~o is obtained by a least square
fit of the constant strain rate (a,e p) data to eqn (20) for fixed values of a and
cho. Alternatively, cho, a, and ao may be determined by a least squares fit of t h e
(a,e p) data to the integrated stress-strain relation (20). We believe that the first
approach is more physically motivated, but the second should work well, especially
when it is difficult because of lack of sufficient data points or noisy data to dif-
ferentiate numerically the (o,~ o) data. Normally, there is variation in the values
of a determined from different tests. The value of a is therefore determined as the
average of the values determined from each individual test. After the value of a
is fixed, the least squares fit of eqn (19) is performed again to determine the final
value of cho. The range of data used to determine cho and Oo corresponds to e p >

91f a steady state is not reached in the experiments, then or* is estimated by extrapolating the a versus
d o l d e p data obtained in step 2 to d o / d e # = O. If the experimental data show no evidence of a saturation
stress, then the form of the hardening function h will have to be modified.
118 STUART B. BROWN et al.

I °70 because there are various uncertainties associated with measuring small strains
in compression by our test techniques.
3. Determination of A, Q, m, n, and (~/g).
The values of A, Q, m, n, and the combined term of (~/g) are then determined by
a non-linear least squares fit to eqn (27) of the set of data from both the constant
true strain rate and the strain rate jump experiments. When using the constant true
strain rate data, Zy and Zi are set equal to Z, and af to a*.
4. Determination of ~.
Using the values A, Q, and m determined above, the value of the parameter ~ is
selected such that the constant c in eqn (23) is less than unity for each test.
5. Determination of g.
g is then determined from the combined term ~/g found in step 4.
6. Determination of h0.
The value of ho is then obtained as the simple average:

q
~,, ([Cho]i/ci)
i= 1
ho = ,
q

where [cho]i is the value of cho determined in step 2 for test i, ci is the corre-
sponding value of c defined in (23), and q is the number of tests.
. Determination of So.
The value of So for each test, the initial value of the deformation resistance s, is
then determined by dividing the value of a0 determined in step 2 by the corre-
sponding value of c defined in eqn (23).

The material parameters for the iron-2~/0 silicon and the aluminum, determined by
following this procedure, are listed in Table 4. The value of the activation energy for
the silicon iron, Q = 312.35 k J/mole, is within the range of 251 to 313 k J/mole for the
activation energy for lattice self-diffusion in ferrite (e.g., FRosT ~, Asua¥ [1982]). We
note that for a similar silicon iron, Uv'm_A~, JONAS [1968] have previously obtained a
value of Q = 333.6 k J/mole. The value of Q for the aluminum, 175 kJ/mole, is slightly
higher than that associated with self-diffusion, 142 k J/mole (e.g., FROST • Astray
[19821).

Table 4a. Material parameters for F e . 2 % Si Table 4b. Material parameters for 2I00 A2

Material Parameter Value Material Parameter Value

A 6.346 x l0 II sec-~ A 1.91 x 207 sec -~

Q 322.35 kJ/mole Q 175.3 kJ/mole
3.25 ~ 7.00
m 0.1956 m 0,23348
g 125.1 MPa g 18.9 MPa
n 0.06869 n 0.07049
ho 3093.1 M P a ho I 115 6 M P a
a 2.5 a 2.3
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 119

Table 5a. Initial values of internal Table 5b. Initial values of internal
variable s for Fe-2% Si variable s for 1100 AI

Temperature So Temperature so
Celsius MPa Celsius MPa

800 102.7 300 36.6

850 89.6 350 34.4
900 74.6 400 29.7
950 79.1 450 29.5
1000 66.1 500 27.6
1100 58.4 600 21.6
1200 60.1

The initial values So for the deformation resistance s at each test temperature, deter-
mined via the procedure described above, are listed in Table 5. Each So value at a given
temperature represents the average of all So values obtained at that temperature.

v. EVALUATIONAND VALIDATIONOF THE CONSTITUTIVEMODEL

NO consistent criteria have been established for the evaluation of different constitu-
tive models. However, some reasonable considerations include:

1. The model should duplicate reasonably well the physical data upon which the
model is based and from which the material parameters o f the model have been
determined.
2. An evaluation of the model should consist of examining the predictive capabili-
ties of the model for stringent tests n o t used to determine the material parameters
in the model.
3. Comparisons between the predictions from the mathematical model and the actual
material response should encompass as large a range of state variables as possi-
ble. An evaluation of the model should therefore consist of examining the predic-
tive capabilities of the model at reasonable points, including the limits, of the
variable space.
4. Item three above supposes that all of the relevant variables are measurable. Unfor-
tunately in our case, and indeed most cases, there is no direct correlation of the
internal variable s to a physical quantity. Therefore, an additional consideration
in our investigation is whether we may find some means of correlating s to some
physical measurement which we may then take to represent s.

The tests which are described in this section provide an initial evaluation of the model
with due consideration of the above issues. The numerical simulations presented here
were carried out by using one of two time integration procedures. The first procedure
uses an IMSL [1987] subroutine to simulate all isothermal, constant true strain rate tests.
Simulations of experiments involving other boundary conditions were performed using
the finite element program ABAQUS (l-lmBrrT [1984]), and the time integration proce-
dure developed by A_,CANDet al. [1985], specialized for the class of constitutive equa-
tions considered here.
120 STUART B. BROWN et al.

Simulation of Original Experiments

Figures 15 through 18 present simulations of the isothermal, constant true strain rate
and strain rate jump experiments, together with the original experimental data. The
correlation between the model and the experimental data is very good.

200.0 I I | I

F* - 2X $1 Experiment4d Data
800 C ........ Model PredlctJon
150.0 ~ ° ~
= o
- I . 0~ o
sec-~
~ ,

100.0
~ - 0 . 1

. -0.01
50.0

0.0 i ! i I * I * I ,
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0

120.0. , , . , . [ , , ,

F Iro- 2X SI - -- F,xperlme,',tad Data~

tO0.O~- 900 C ........ 14odel Preatctlon
80.0~ ~ - -i.13 s e e "L

i 40.0

~o.o
t ::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~:o_.o_~_~-
:-o.o2o_ . . . .
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

.
.

O0 / i I i ! * I * I i
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0

80.0 I i | I

Ire - ~ S! ~-x]?erlmeut~L Data

........ Uodel Pr~dicUon
1000 C
60.0 ~ "
i ._ .......... = ..... --

40,0 l"~~mf_~ _~ ~.~~ '

__,=--

. . . .
- -.01

0.0 , .I , * I ~ I
0.0 O.Z 0.4 O.O O.B 1.0
Strain

Fig. 15. Correlation of constitutive model with strain rate j u m p tests on F e - 2 % Si.
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 121

50.0 , u u u

1100 A l u m i n ~ i = -1.0 sac "l,

40.0
.................. _ : .....

i 30.0

..... "77 .................. .:.o.o.., ....

i 20.0

10.0
......... Uodol Col'~lliUon

0.0 i I I I I I I I I
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.8 1.0
40.0
1100 Aluminum
400 @~ i n --1o0 s e c "I
30.0

"i
v
20.0
O}
N ~! ........................ :~:~.L
'~._..~,L _ooo,
. . . .

in

10.0

,-o.~, ~ '.~.-o.,~..~:~
0,0 n I m I I I I I I
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.8 1.0
30.0 ! l i i

1100 Aluminum
4.50 "C i - -1.¢, p . e "

20.0 S "'**-~- .................................

-0.1

M
m ~,~m~...
t..... ~.01
10.0 .. - -0.001

..... _ _ , . . _ _ . ° , . o . , .
....... Model ¢on'elaUon
0.0 I I I I i I I I i
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.8 1.0
True Strain

Pig. 16. Correlation of constitutive model with strain rate jump tests on I I00 aluminum.

Double Strain Rate Jump Experiments

Figures 19 and 20 show results from experiments where the strain rate is rapidly
increased twice. The model reproduces the double jump test data very well, duplicat-
ing both the instantaneous, constant structure strain rate dependence, and the subse-
quent strain hardening.
 122 STUART B. BROWN et al.

180.0 ~_8..O~_..OC__l~
I G :~ --|'0 SeC'-I------- ~0.0 I I I I l
150.0

60.0 l- 900 *C

"°fY
90.0 -
t 40.0

r .- .......
...... ..... .....
1000 °C

80.0
. . . . . . ,. _.;..19(2"c
P'-;---i ....
o.o o., o., o., o., 1.o 0% o:, o., 'o'., 'o:~ 'I.O
100.0 ! 60.0 t l , ' i

r e - 2Z Si Fe - 2X Sl
- -0.0! s.c "~ = -0.001 see "l
50.0
80.0
800 "C
800 *C ....... __--___
40.0
80.0

f 30.0
0
40.0 900 "C gO0 "C
20.0

. . . . . . . . . . . . !.oo..o'_c 1000 "C

20.0 .~.~ . . . . . . - - - - - - . - - - - . - - - . . -
10.0
.... o.oq 1100 "C"

0.0 * I
i ! I 0.0 , I ,. I , t J
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 O.el 0.8 1.0
S~ectn St.redn

Fig. 17. Correlation of constitutive model with F e - 2 % Si isothermal, constant true strain rate tests. Solid
lines are experiments.

Strain Rate Decrement Tests

Figure 21 shows experimental results and the corresponding numerical simulations of
a strain rate decrement test. This test shows the predictive capability of the model to
handle strain softening. The steady state stress reached after the strain rate decrement
corresponds to the steady state value for a monotonic test at the final strain rate and
temperature, and this is well predicted by the constitutive model.
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 123

?0.0 60.0 . . . .
1100 Jdumln.-m
L t - - 1 . o ~,e-' L t - -0.1 see"j
eO.O 1-
50.0
/

40.0 , / " ""

&.
'I 40.0 ~ ................
lq 400"C 30.0 ' -""'"
M
@
30.0 .------" . . . . . . . .
ul
20.0 ,,
20.0

10.0 ..B~..'C,.

0.0 0.0 1 , I i , ,
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.2 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

S0.0 ! i 40.0 ! !

1100 ~uminum 1100 Aluminum

-, - 0 . 0 1 s e ~ "t i - -0.001 s e e -#

40.0
30.0

300 "c
30.0
.!

20.0
m
M
................ - . . 3. .5-0- - :"C
:
cn 20.0

r ..... 400 *C
10.0
10.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . .

0.0 ' ' J ' 0.0 ' , ! , I , , ,

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
True StrsJn True Strain
Fig. 18. Correlation of constitutive model with isothermal, constant true strain rate tests on 1100 aluminum.
Sofid lines are experiments.

A Load Controlled Experiment

Since the e x p e r i m e n t s were all p e r f o r m e d u n d e r s t r o k e c o n t r o l , it is i m p o r t a n t to
investigate the predictive capability o f the constitutive m o d e l for experiments p e r f o r m e d
u n d e r l o a d c o n t r o l . A c c o r d i n g l y , an isothermal, l o a d controlled c o m p r e s s i o n experiment
was p e r f o r m e d . A s i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 22, t h e l o a d in the e x p e r i m e n t was i n c r e a s e d
124 STUART B. BROWN et al.

80.0 ! 1 t i

Fe 2X SI - - Expert.mental Data
?0.0 -

....... Rodel PredlcUon

80.0 t = -0.1 s e c "t g O 0 "C

z. 50.0

",~'~
40.0

30.0
-0.0_1 _ F -0.3 se©" 1100 'C
tn -0.001 " - - -"
20.0

to,o ~. -o~.o~tL ~
0.0 1 , I ,. l , I , I ,
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0
Strain

Fig. 19. P r e d i c t e d a n d a c t u a l stress r e s p o n s e f o r d o u b l e s t r a i n r a t e j u m p test o n F e - 2 % Si.

40.0 i i i i •

t 100 X l u m i a u m
t = - . 1 SeC"t 3 f ~ "~

30.0

et.

20.0
oo iii?iiiiiiiiiii iiii;i;ii
....... 4 ~ 0 "C
I0

01

10.0

-0.(301 ........ Model P r e d i c t i o n

0.0 i I, , I i I i I i
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 LO

?rue Strain

F i g . 20. P r e d i c t e d a n d a c t u a l stress r e s p o n s e f o r d o u b l e j u m p test o n 1100 a l u m i n u m .

linearly at a rate o f 2000 Newtons per second up to 20,000 Newtons, held for 10 sec-
onds, and then decreased linearly to zero load. The displacement was recorded as a
function o f time, the true strain '° and stress calculated, and the strain rate determined
from the strain versus time data. Figure 23 shows the agreement between the experimen-
tal and predicted strain rate versus time plots. Although the initial loading segment o f
the test produces the worst agreement between the model and the data, it is also the
most severe test o f the model, since the model is being asked to follow a rate o f change
in one o f the state variables. The constant load segment, where the applied stress varies
more slowly, is duplicated very well by the model.

' ° N o t e t h a t this is n o t a s m a l l s t r a i n c r e e p test, t h e t o t a l a c c u m u l a t e d c o m p r e s s i v e s t r a i n in t h i s test

exceeded -0.9.
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 125

40.0 i ! i i

1100 ~ - , - ~ , , u m
3,50 "C I t " 0.0958 see-'
30.0

: zo.o
. . . . : . . . . . .

V~
10.0
Experimental Data
....... )/odel Prediction

0.0 i I I I i I I I I
0.0 0~, 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.0
True S t r a i n

Fig. 21. Correlation of constitutive model with a strain rate decrement test on aluminum 1100.

30.0 i ! i i |

Fe - 2X S!
Losd History - L o e d Boundsry CondiUons

o zo.0
t

z
o
-j

a 10.0
3

0.0 I I I
0.0 5.0 tO.O 16.0 20.0 215.0 30.0 36.0
Time (seconds)

Fig. 22. Load history used on load boundary condition test of constitutive model.

State Gradient Experiment

The aim of this particular test was to determine the correlation between the value of
the internal variable predicted by the constitutive model and the variation in deforma-
tion resistance within an inhomogeneously deformed test specimen. A truncated coni-
cal compression specimen geometry was selected to produce a gradient of deformation,
and therefore state, along the axis of the cone. A typical test sequence consisted of com-
pressing the specimen at an elevated temperature, quenching the specimen immediately
after the high temperature compression test, and then machining a series of small cyl-
indrical compression specimens with axes parallel to the axis of the deformed speci-
men. The 0.2% offset room temperature yield strength obtained from a compression
test on each small compression specimen provides a measure of the deformation re-
sistance in the region of the gradient specimen from which the compression specimen
126 S r u x a r B. BROWN eta/.

0.1,5 . . . . i . . . . , . . . . l . . . . l . . . . i . . . . i . . . .

Fe - 2~: St
Load Control Test
~K)O "C
'0
.a 0.10

, ~ EXperimentalData
• --- Model PredlcUon
a .05
b~

0.00 ~ ........... ' ,'' '~' ' ' ........ ,

0.0 5.0 tO.O 15.0 20.0 2S.O 30.0 3,5.0
Time (seconds)

Fig. 23. Predicted and actual strain rates measured during load boundary condition test on F e - 2 % Si com-
pression specimen.

was machined. Microhardness profiles were also determined on cross-sectional gradient

specimens.
Such experiments have been performed only on the 1100 aluminum alloy. The use of
aluminum permitted large specimens, faster quench rates, and easier machining, and
testing of the re-compression specimens. The aluminum could be tested in air, using the
radiant heating furnace. This permitted heating rates more than two orders of magni-
tude greater than was possible using the vacuum furnace. The radiant furnace also per-
mitted a water quench which also increased quenching rates, s' Use of aluminum
specimens thus permitted more reliable retention of high temperature microstructure.
Figures 24 and 25 show the original dimensions and before-and-after photographs of
an aluminum gradient specimen.
Experiments were performed at 300°C at a compression rate of 1 millimeter per sec-
ond. After deformation and quenching, some specimens were sectioned along their axis
of symmetry. Figure 26 shows the typical variation in microhardness along the longi-
tudinal axis of the specimens. Each data point in the figures represents the average of
8 to 10 readings at each position. Although one would expect that there would be def-
inite gradient in the microhardness measurements, there was no significant measurable
variation in the microhardness o f the deformed and quenched specimens. Thus, a micro-
hardness measurement cannot be correlated with s.
Cylindrical compression specimens, approximately 7.0 mm in diameter by 7.0 mm in
height, were machined coaxial with the axis of the compressed gradient specimens as
indicated in Fig. 27. This figure shows the variation in the room temperature 0.2% off-
set yield strength as a function of position along the axis of the specimen. The ~adient
specimen compression test was simulated using the finite element program ABAQUS.
Figure 28 shows the predicted level contours of s on the deformed geometry, ta The

liThe specimens reached 300 dc~ces from room temperature in approximately 500 seconds and were
quenched from 300 degrees Celsius to room temperature in less than I0 seconds.
l e t h e values provided in the contour table are in terms of an equivalent shear value, and t h ~ must be mul-
tiplied by ~ to obtain equivalent tensile values.
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 127

1.600

1.000

Groove spacing: 0.030

Groove depth : 0.005

(All dimensions in inches.)

Fig. 24. Dimensions of 1100 A1 state gradient specimen.

Fig. 25. 1100 aluminum state gradient specimens before and after testing.

variation in the value of the internal variable s along the axis of the specimen predicted
by the ABAQUS simulation is also plotted in Fig. 27. In plotting these predictions, the
values o f s have been multiplied by a constant (.830) such that the predictions from the
model and the measured yield strength coincide for the rightmost data point. As is clear
from Fig. 27, the predicted variation in the internal variable (when suitably normalized)
correlates very well with the variation in plastic deformation resistance, as measured by
the room temperature yield strength.
128 STUART B. B r o w s et aL

80.0 . . . . i . . . . : . . . . i

1 lOO M u m l n u m
50.0 300 * C - 1 rnm/sec
M
@

"~
L.
40.0
e

0
L 30.0
0

i
~" 20.0
0

10.0

n I I . I . . . . I . . . . I , . . . I . . . . I , . , .
0.0
0.0 5;0 lO.O 1510 20.0 25.0 30.0
Distance alonll s p e c i m e n axis ( r a m )

Fig. 26. Variation in microhardness along central axis of 1I00 aluminum gradient specimen. Specimen tested
at 300 degrees Celsius and quenched.

80.0 ' • ' I'~" " " I . . . . I . . . . ! . . . . I . . . . I . . . .

1100Aluminum
50.0 ..... ".. 300 C " 1 ram/sic

40.0 .~
.............

30.0
tD

tn 20.0 T / ~ \

lO.O O Y i e l d Stress
..... Sealed s Iradlent

0.0 .... ' .... ' .... ' .... ' .... t .... , ....
0.0 S.O 10.0 16.0 20;0 25.0 30.0 35.0
D i s t a n c e a l o n g s p e c i m e n axis ( m m )

Fig. 27. Variation in room temperature yield stress along axis of 1100 aluminum gradient specimen.

Vl. CONCLUDING REMARK

It is expected that specific forms of constitutive equations should be the same for dif-
ferent materials, as long as the underlying operative physical mechanisms are the same.
Since the mechanisms are generally the same for a given class of materials in a given
range of temperatures and strain rates, we anticipate that the constitutive equations pro-
posed in this article should be applicable for modeling the deformation behavior of
other single phase cubic materials at temperatures greater than half the meeting temper-
ature in degrees absolute, and in the strain rate range 10-3 to 10°. This range of strain
rates and temperatures is of great practical interest for numerous low-rate hot working
processes (e.g., isothermal forging). Accordingly, the constitutive equations should be
useful for application to the analysis of such hot working processes.
 Internal variable model for hot working metals 129

Internal variable values

(MPa)
3 24.4
4 25.5
"~_.9 ~9
5 28.8
6 31.1
7 33.3
.8~8--~
8 35.5
9 37.7 -7 7~7~
-6~6~6~
-5~5~5_ ~

~ 3~3

ALUMINUM GRADIENT SPECIMEN

Fig. 28. Contours of constant internal variable s predicted by ABAQUS simulation of state gradient exper-
iment.

Acknowledgements-Support for this work was provided by the U.S. Army Materials and TechnologY Lab-
oratory (Contract No. DAAG47-K-0021), and by the U.S. National Science Foundation (Contract No.
MEA-8315117).

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Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Room 8-I01

Massachusetts Institute of Technology
77 Massachusetts Average
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA

(Received 17 September 1987)