Research Methods

MILKIYAS S. (BSC, MPH)

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

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 1. Introduction to Research
Methods

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Learning Objectives:-

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

• Define the term research

• Describe the characteristics of research

• Explain the different types of research

• Describe the purpose of doing health research

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 Discussion points
1. What is research?

2. Why researchers do research?

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 Definition:
• Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new
facts, testing ideas, etc.

• It is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation

of data to generate new knowledge and answer a
certain question or solve a problem.

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 Characteristics of Research
• It demands a clear statement of the problem

• It requires a plan

• It builds on existing data

• New data should be collected as required and be

organized in such a way that they answer the research
question(s)

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 Research must be:
• Purposeful: What do you want to be able to contribute?

• Targeted: Who are the audiences?

• Credible: Consider sources of information, method of

data collection, personnel involved…

• Timely: Is the information needed?

v Research is done to find solution to health problems.

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 Types of Research
• The classical broad division of research
are:

• Basic and Applied research

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 Basic Vs Applied Research
• Basic research (also called fundamental or pure
research)

Ø Primary objective: Advancement of knowledge

and the theoretical understanding of the
relations among variables

Ø Basic research provides the foundation for

further, sometimes applied research.

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 Basic Vs Applied Research
cont..
Ø Basic research is conducted to address
fundamental questions about
• The biological,
• Behavioral, and
• Social,
mechanisms which underlie wellness and
disease

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 Basic Vs Applied Research
cont..
Applied research

• Is original work undertaken in order to

acquire new knowledge with a specific
application in view.

• Is a research that seeks to solve practical

problems
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 Basic Vs Applied Research
cont..

• Necessary to identify priority problems

• Design and evaluate policies and

programs

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• In addition to the above broad division, research can be
classified based on different criteria.

• Based on data type utilized:

♦Quantitative: phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity

♦Qualitative: Qualitative phenomena (those relating to

involving quality or kind)

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• Based on study design used and results obtained in
the study:

♦ Descriptive research

♦ Analytic research

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 What is Health Research?
Ø Health research is the process of obtaining
systematic knowledge and technology which can
be used for the improvement of the health of
individual/groups.

Ø It provides the basic information on the state of

health and diseases of the population

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 What is Health Research
con...

Ø Health research is a systematic collection,

analysis and interpretation of data to solve a
health problem.

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 Purpose of Health Research
Ø To generate knowledge essential to effectively
promote the health of the population

Ø Without that knowledge, effective action is

impossible because it has no logical or empirical
basis.

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 Types of Health research
Level of Analysis Object of Analysis
Conditions
Individual Biomedical Research
(Basic biological processes,
structure and function of the
human body, pathological
mechanisms)
Population Epidemiologic Research
(Frequency, distribution, and
determinants of health)
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Responses
Clinical Research
(Efficacy of preventive,
diagnostic, and therapeutic
procedures, natural history of
diseases)
Health Systems research
(Effectiveness, quality, and costs
of services: development and
distribution of resources for care )
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Essential Features for Successful Health
Systems Research
• Focus on priority problems

• Action oriented- aimed at developing solutions

• Multidisciplinary approach (from many disciplines)
• Participatory in nature (from policy makers to community
members)

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• Must be timely.

• Simple, short-term designs

• Cost-effectiveness

• Results presented in formats most useful for

administrators, decision-makers and the community.

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 Good Research Is
Is simple

Has good rationale

Has clear objectives

Uses appropriate methodology

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 Steps Involved in the Research Process
– Identifying a problem

– Preparing a research proposal

– Fieldwork (i.e., data collection)

– Analyzing data and preparing a research report

– Dissemination and application of results

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 Problem Planning
identification research

Implementing
Application research

Disseminating
findings

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 Research Design
• Refers to the overall structure or plan of
the research

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 Research Methods

• The practices and techniques used to collect,

process and analyze the data

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 Main Components of Any Research
Work
• Preparing a research proposal

• Filed work (i.e. data collection)

• Analyzing data and preparing a research

report

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 ?

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2.TOPIC SELECTION
Milkiyas S. PH, MPH
 2. TOPIC SELECTION

Learning Objectives:-

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:

• Explain the criteria for selecting a research topic/
problem

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

 2.1. INTRODUCTION

• Formulation of the research proposal is the major task in

the process of developing a research project.
• The proposal is a basis for approval and funding.

• After approval, the proposal is used as a blueprint during

the implementation of the project.

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

• It should be noted that development of a research proposal is
often a cyclical process.

• Questions to be clearly answered before trying to develop the

research proposal:-

– Is there evidence to indicate that the research

proposal focuses on a problem of priority
importance?
– Was the given health problem identified by relevant
groups of the health system?

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

 – Was the problem adequately analyzed to include all
possible contributory factors from different
sectors?

– Was it clearly stated?

2.2 . Problem identification

• If the answer to the research question is obvious, we are
dealing with a management problem that may be solved
without further research.

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

• Whether a problem requires research depends on three
conditions:

I) There should be a perceived difference or discrepancy

between what it is and what it should be

II) The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear (so that it
makes sense to develop a research question)

III) There should be more than one possible and plausible

answer to the question (or solution to the problem).

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

2.3. Criteria for prioritizing problems for research
• Each problem that is proposed for research has to be
judged according to certain guidelines or criteria.

• There may be several ideas to choose from.

• Before deciding on a research topic, each proposed

topic must be compared with all other options.

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

• The selection and analysis of the problem for research
would include managers in the health services, health-
care workers, and community leaders, as well as
researchers.

• The guidelines or criteria given below can help in the

process of selection.

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

Objective Criteria for selecting a research topic:

○ Relevance

○ Avoidance of duplication

○ Urgency of data needed (timeliness)

○ Political acceptability of study

○ Feasibility of study

○ Applicability of results

○ Ethical acceptability

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

1. Relevance: The topic you choose should be a priority
problem:
• Questions to be asked include:
• How large or widespread is the problem?
• Who is affected?
• How severe is the problem?
• Is it the felt need of the community?

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

2. Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether the topic
has been researched.

• If the topic has been researched, the results should be

reviewed to explore whether major questions that
deserve further investigation remain unanswered.

• If not, another topic should be chosen.

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

3. FEASIBILITY:

• Consider the complexity of the problem and the resources

you will require to carry out the study
• Thought should be given first to personnel, time,
equipment and money that are locally available.

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

 4. POLITICAL ACCEPTABILITY:

• It is advisable to research a topic that has the interest

and support of the authorities.
• This will facilitate the smooth conduct of the research and
increases the chance that the results of the study will be
implemented.

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

5.Applicability of possible results and
recommendations

• Is it likely that the recommendations from the study will be

applied?

• This will depend not only on the blessing of the authorities

but also on the availability of resources for implementing the
recommendations.

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

6. Urgency of data needed

• How urgently are the results needed for making a

decision?

• Which research should be done first and which can be

done late?

7. Ethical acceptability

• We should always consider the possibility that we may

inflict harm on others while carrying out research

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

 SCALES FOR RATING RESEARCH TOPICS
Relevance
1= Not relevant
2= Relevant
3= Very relevant
Avoidance of duplication
1= Sufficient information already available
2= Some information available but major issues not covered
3= No sound information available on which to base problem-solving
Urgency
1= Information not urgently needed
2= Information could be used right away but a delay of some months
would be acceptable
3= Data very urgently needed for decision-making
Political acceptability
1= Topic not acceptable to high level policymakers
2= Topic more or less acceptable
3= Topic fully acceptable

Feasibility
1= Study not feasible, considering available resources
2= Study feasible, considering available resources
3= Study very feasible, considering available resources

Applicability
1= No chance of recommendations being implemented
2= Some chance of recommendations being implemented
3= Good chance of recommendations being implemented

Ethical acceptability
1= Major ethical problems
2= Minor ethical problems
3= No ethical problems

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

• Personal interest

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

 ?

Thank You

Milkiyas S. PH, MPH

3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ANALYZING
THE PROBLEM
COMPONENTS OF A PROPOSAL
No single recommendation (You may find different formats)
The format being used by Public Health includes the following
components
• Cover page
• Acknowledgment • Literature review

• Table of content • Objective

• List of Table • Methods

• List of Figures • Work plan

• Abbreviations • Dissemination and Utilization of

Results
• Summary
• Introduction • Budget (Estimated cost of the
ü Background, research)

ü Statement of the problem, • References

ü significance of the study) • Annex
 BACKGROUND

Informaiton included in the Background

ü It is always recommended to start background

by difining your outcome of interst
ü Information from the scintific perspective
ü Scholars explanation of the problem
 ANALYSIS OF STATEMENT
OF THE PROBLEM

• A systematic analysis of the problem is a very crucial

step in designing the research

• Because it:
• Enables the concerned bodies to bring together their
knowledge of the problem
 WHY STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM?

• It is the foundation for further development of the research

proposal (research objectives, methodology, work plan, budget, etc)

• Enables you to systematically point out:

üwhy the proposed research should be undertaken
üwhat you hope to be achieved with the study results
 WHAT INFORMATION'S SHOULD BE
INCLUDED?

ØA brief description of socio-economic and cultural characteristics

and an overview of health status and the health-care system as far
as relevant to the problem under study

Ø A concise description of:

üNature of the problem (size, discrepancy between what is and
what should be)
 CONT..

ü Severity of the problem (who is affected, where, since

when, and what are the consequences for those affected ).
ü Any solutions that have been tried in the past, & why
further research is needed (justification for study)
ü The type of information expected from the project and
how this information will be used to solve the problem.
POINTS THAT NEEDS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR
JUSTIFYING THE SELECTED RESEARCH PROBLEM

• A current and existing problem which needs

solution

• A widely spread problem affecting a target

population

• Effects on the health service programs

 HOW TO WRITE

• The section should be precise and concise, while not forgetting to

mention essential points.

• Should be in logical order from general to specific

• An outlining major points to be covered before any writing is

done, so the section will be logical and well organized.
THANK YOU
4. LITERATURE REVIEW
 4. LITERATURE REVIEW

• Literature review is an account of what has been

published on a topic by accredited scholars and
researchers
 PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

• As a benchmark for comparing the results with other findings

• It helps to understand the problem you plan to research, and may lead
to refining of the “Statement of the problem”.
Ø It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the
study

• It gives familiarity with the various types of methodology.

• It prevents you from “reinventing the wheel”.

 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

• Card catalogues of books in libraries

• Organizations (institutions)

• Published information (books, journals, etc.)

• Unpublished documents (studies in related
fields, reports, etc.)

• Computer based literature searches such as

Medline, PubMed, EMBAS…

• Opinions, beliefs of key persons

 STEPS OF LITERATURE SEARCH

1) Identifying key words

2) Go to the library and begin searching the catalog (i.e. journals and
books) or go to your browser and open reputable jornals

• Focus initially on journals and books related to the topic

• Also search the computerized data bases such as Google Scholar
3) Initially, try to locate enough reports of research articles or books

4) Skim this initial group of articles or chapters, and identify those that
are central to your topic
 STEPS IN LITRATURE REVEIW

5) Begin designing a literature map

• Literature map is a visual picture (or figure) which is groupings of the
literatures on the topic, positioning your own study within the larger body of
researches so that illustrates how your particular study will contribute to the
literatures

6) Begin to draft summaries of the most relevant articles

• These summaries are combined into the final literature review that you write for
your proposal

• End the literature review with a summary of the major themes and suggest how
your particular study further adds to the literature

• Include precise references to the literature using an appropriate style

 STEPS IN LITRATURE REVEIW

5) Begin designing a literature map

• Literature map is a visual picture (or figure) which is groupings of the literatures
on the topic, positioning your own study within the larger body of researches so
that illustrates how your particular study will contribute to the literatures

6) Begin to draft summaries of the most relevant articles

• These summaries are combined into the final literature review that you write for
your proposal

• End the literature review with a summary of the major themes and suggest how
your particular study further adds to the literature

• Include precise references to the literature using an appropriate style

 ARE ALL SOURCES IMPORTANT?

• Determine your criteria for evaluating the relevance of

retrieved materials
• Authority of author
• Relevance of content
• Date of publication
• Intended audience
• Type of publication
• Publisher
The reviewed literature should be presented
from:

– Global to local

– Broader to focused

– Past to current
• In conclusion, the review should answer the
following questions:

• How much is known?

• What is not known?

• What should be done based on what is

lacking?
• Conceptual framework; a diagrammatic
presentation of how different factor interrelate with
the dependent variable and also with other dependent
variables
• Overall, the literature review should be
adequate, relevant and critical.
• In addition to this, appropriate referencing
procedures should always be followed in
research proposals as well as in research
reports.
 METHODS OF CITATIONS/REFERENCING

A) Vancouver system- common

For an article the following information should be noted as:
• Author(s)’ Surname followed by initials. Title of article. Name of Journal. Year,
Volume(number): page numbers of article.
• Use consecutive numbers in the text to indicate your references
• Then list your references in that order at the end of your document
• Example: Louria DB. Emerging- and re-emerging infections: The societal variables.
International Journal of Infectious Disease. 1996, 1(2):59-62.

For a book
• Author(s)’ Surname followed by initials. Title of book. Place: Publisher, Year, Edition

• Example: Abramson JH. Survey methods in community medicine. Edinburgh: Churchill

Livingstone, 1990, 4th ed.
B) Harvard System

• Name of the author(s) (year), Edition. Title. Place of Publication: Publisher

• Put the surname of the author and year of publication between brackets in the
text to indicate your references (E.g. Shiva 1998)

• List the references in Alphabetical order, at the end of the proposal

• If more than two authors write the first authors followed by et al in text.

• Example

• For articles: Louria D(1996). Emerging- and re-emerging infections: The

societal variables. International Journal of Infectious Disease.1(2):59-62.

• For books: Abramson JH (1990) 4th ed. Survey methods in community

medicine. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
 DON’T FORGET
qAvoid bias-
• Distorting available information for one’s own opinion
• Restricting references to those in favor self
• Drawing far reaching conclusion from preliminary /shaky results
• Plagiarism and lack acknowledgement
ØAdopting or reproducing the ideas, words, or statements of
another person without appropriate acknowledgement.
• Take from results
• To focus on your objective
• To write in your own words
• GIGO phenomena: GARBAGE IN GARBAGE OUT
•Thank You
5 FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
3. FORMULATION OF RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES

Learning Objectives

• Define and describe the difference between general and

specific objectives
• Describe why and when a research objective should be
developed
• Discuss the characteristics of a good research objective
• Discuss how a research objective is developed and what
formats can be used in stating a research objective
Definition:-A research objective is a statement that clearly depicts the
goal to be achieved by a research project.
Ø Summarize what is to be achieved by the study.

Why research objective ?

• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)

• Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for
understanding and solving the problem you have identified
 CONT..

• Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases

• For evaluating the project
• Guide research methodology, and orient the collection,
analysis and interpretation of data.
When Objective Should be Written?
• The objectives should be written after statement of the problem
and before methodology
 WHAT FORMATS CAN BE USED?

Research objectives can be stated as:

A)Questions: “The objectives of this study is to answer the
following questions …”
B) Positive sentence: “The objectives of this study is to determine
…”
C) Hypothesis: “The objective of this study is to verify the following
hypothesis...”
 CONT..

The format chosen depends on the type of study that will be

undertaken:
• If the study is descriptive or exploratory in nature, then
objectives are stated in the form of questions or positive
sentences.
• If the researcher knows enough to make predictions of what
you is studying, hypotheses may be proposed.
 HOW IT SHOULD BE STATED?

Objectives should be stated using “action verbs” that are specific enough to be
measured:
Examples: use
determine calculate assess
compare verify find out
describe establish etc.
• Do not use vague non-action verbs such as:
appreciate understand study
believe comprehend etc.
 TYPES

General objective
Identifies in general terms what is to be accomplished
by the research project.
Specific objectives
§ Breaking down of what is to be accomplished into smaller logical
components
• Example
 EXAMPLE

General objective: To assess the prevalence of gender based

violation and associated factors among female students of
District X community, 2012.

Specific objective:
§ To determine the prevalence of gender based violence among
……
§ To identify factors associated with gender based violence .
IN SUMMARY, SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES SHOULD
BE SMART

• S= SPECIFIC

• M= MEASURABLE

• A=ACHIEVABLE

• R=REALISTIC/RELEVANCE

• T=TIME BOUNDED