Tips:

 Always define any term you can. A question asking you to explain PCR will usually award
marks for the definition of PCR. Don’t lose this easy mark
 Look at the number of marks for a question; this will in most cases correspond to the
number of key points you need to mention. A question of 6 marks can be earned by six
sentences or less, but play it safe and write one more statement than is required.
 Some questions will always have a common answer. For example, almost all questions
asking about enzymes will reward marks for stating that they lower activation energy
 Stick to the question. You might get a weird question like ‘compare transcription and
replication’, where you have to list the similarities. Be concise when you answer this; don’t
explain the processes.
 Even if a statement appears trivial to you, if it is specific to what you are describing then you
need to mention it. For example, you know that the ribosome moves down the mRNA
strand, but you must mention this.
 If you have a question worth 9 marks , such as ‘explain translation’ , mention the details,
such as AUG being the start codon

Notes (these points will often be mentioned in past papers):

 Helicase unwinds DNA in replication, but RNA polymerase unwinds DNA in transcription.
 DNA polymerase always adds nucleotides in the 5’ to 3’ direction.
 The genetic code refers to the codons of mRNA
 Complementary base pairing is the basis of replication, transcription, and translation. They
might ask you about the importance of complementary base pairing. It is responsible for the
conservation of DNA sequence in replication, for synthesizing a complementary mRNA
template in transcription, and for the attachment of a specific anticodon on tRNA to the
codons of mRNA in translation
 The genetic code is degenerate and universal
 Always mention that anticodons are on tRNA and codon are on mRNA in questions asking
you about translation. Mention that complementary anticodons and codons bind.
 Stop codon does not code for a corresponding amino acid; instead it causes the release of
the polypeptide.
 Translation is the process in which mRNA is used as a template to form a polypeptide

Explain the structure of the DNA double helix, including its subunits and the way in which they are
bonded together. (8 marks)

The subunits of the DNA strand are monomers termed as nucleotides (1). A nucleotide consists of
the sugar deoxyribose, bonded to a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base (1). A nitrogenous base
may be Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, or Guanine(1). The deoxyribose and phosphate groups of
different nucleotides covalently bond together via a phosphodiester bond(1), thus forming the
sugar-phosphate backbone of each DNA strand(1). Complementary base pairing occurs when
hydrogen bonds form between Adenine and Thymine, as well as Cytosine and Guanine(1), on
opposite DNA strands. This holds the double helix(1) together. There are 2 hydrogen bonds between
Adenine and Thymine, and three hydrogen bonds between cytosine and guanine(1). The two strands
are antiparallel(1), with one strand running from 5’ to 3’ end, while the other runs in the 3’ to 5’ end.

Explain the significance of complementary base pairing during DNA replication. (2 marks)

Complementary base pairing is the formation of Hydrogen bonds between Adenine and Thymine,
and Cytosine and Guanine(1). Complementary base pairing ensures that DNA polymerase adds the
complementary nucleotides to form two identical DNA molecules (conservation of base sequence)
(1).

Outline the structure of DNA (5 marks).

DNA is a polymer made up of monomers called nucleotides(1). Nucleotides are made up of the sugar
deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of the nitrogenous bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, or
Thymine(1). Nucleotides bond together to form a DNA strand by a phosphodiester bond between
the phosphate group attached to Carbon 5 and the hydroxyl group on Carbon 3(1). Two DNA strand
are bonded together to form a double helix(1) via hydrogen bonds between complementary
nitrogenous bases(1). Adenine forms two hydrogen bonds with Thymine and Guanine forms three
hydrogen bonds with Cytosine(1). The two DNA strands are antiparallel(1), meaning that one runs in
the 5’ to 3’ direction while the other runs in the 3’ to 5’ direction.

Explain the process of translation (8 marks)

Translation is the process by which a mRNA strand is used as a template for the formation of a
polypeptide. During the initiation of translation, the mRNA strand binds to the ribosome (1). The
ribosome reads the mRNA as three bases, or a codon, at a time (1), with each codon specifying one
amino acid. A tRNA with an anticodon complementary to the mRNA codon binds to it (1). Each tRNA
carries a specific amino acid (1). Another tRNA binds to a codon next to the first one (1), and a
peptide bond is formed between the two amino acid (1). The first tRNA molecules then leaves the
ribosome (1) and the ribosome moves along the mRNA strand (1) in the 5’ to 3’ direction. New
amino acids are brought in by tRNA’s until the stop codon is reached (1). The stop codon doesn’t
code into an amino acid; instead, it triggers the release of the polypeptide (1). The ribosome
disassembles.

Explain how DNA is replicated within the cells of living organisms (total 8 marks)

The double helix structure of DNA is unwound (1) by the enzyme helicase (1) by breaking hydrogen
bonds between complementary base pairs (1). Each of the two strands serve as a template for the
synthesis of a new DNA strand (1). DNA polymerase (1) adds free nucleotides found in the
nucleoplasm to the separated strands in 5’ to 3’ direction (1). Adenine binds to Thymine and
Guanine binds to Cytosine by complementary base pairing (1). Because each new DNA molecule
contains a DNA strand from the original molecule and a newly synthesized strand (1), DNA is said to
replicate by a semi-conservative model (1). The enzyme ligase fuses the sugar-phosphate backbone
of DNA molecules.

Describe the genetic code (6 marks).

The genetic code comprises 64 (1) mRNA base triplets (1) called codons (1) which code for 20 amino
acids. Each codon codes for the addition of a specific amino acid to the polypeptide chain during
translation (1). Because more than one codon codes for the same amino acid (1), the genetic code is
said to be degenerate (1). The genetic code is also said to be universal (1) because all organisms
share the same genetic code (1).

Draw a diagram of the molecular structure of a portion of DNA (total 4 marks)

Outline enzyme-substrate specificity (5 marks).

An enzyme has an active site to which only a specific substrate binds(1). The binding of the substrate
to the active site weakens the bonds in the substrate and thus lowers the activation energy (1). In
the lock and key model (1), the shapes of the active site and the substrate are complementary (1),
while in the induced fit model of enzyme specificity, the substrate induces a slight change in the
conformation of the active site (1). The substrate and the active site have similar shapes that are not
exactly complementary

Distinguish between fibrous and globular proteins, giving an example of each.

Fibrous proteins are thread-like while globular proteins are spherical in shape. Fibrous proteins are
insoluble while globular proteins are soluble. Globular proteins have an irregular amino acid
sequence while fibrous proteins have a regular amino acid sequence. An example of a fibrous
protein is collagen. Hemoglobin is a globular protein.

Outline the effect of temperature, light intensity, and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of
photosynthesis. (6 marks)

Generally, an increase in temperature causes the rate of photosynthesis to increase because the
frequency of collisions between the substrate and active site of enzymes increase(1). However, the
enzymes function at an optimal temperature, and increasing the temperature too much leads to the
denaturation of the enzymes(1), thus decreasing the rate of photosynthesis. Because carbon dioxide
is a reactant in photosynthesis(1), specifically the Calvin Cycle, increasing the CO2 concentration will
maximize the rate of photosynthesis. However, once all enzymes are saturated with CO2(1), any
further increase in concentration will not cause a change in the rate. Increased light intensity also
increases the rate of photosynthesis as it speeds up photolysis(1), but once all photosystems reach
their capacity the rate of photosynthesis will plateau(1).

Compare DNA transcription with translation.

Transcription produces an mRNA template and translation produces a polypeptide chain(1). Both
processes require ATP(1) and both the DNA sequence in transcription as well as the mRNA template
in translation are read in the 5’ to 3’ (1)end direction. However, transcription takes place in the
nucleus while translation takes place in the cytoplasm(1). Both processes require proteins to be
carried out: RNA polymerase is required for transcription while ribosomes are required for
translation(1)

Explain the effect of substrate concentration on enzyme activity.

An enzyme has an active site to which a specific substrate binds. Increasing substrate concentration
causes enzyme activity to rise (1) as the frequency of collisions increases. However, once all active
sites are saturated (1), the activity of the enzyme plateaus (1). Drawings are accepted.

Outline the induced fit model of an enzyme.(5 marks usually)

In the induced fit model, the substrate has a similar shape to the active site(1). The binding of the
substrate to the active site induces a change in the conformation of the active site(1), and this
changes the enzyme from the inactive to the active form (1). The bonds in the substrate are
weakened(1), thus lowering the activation energy. The induced fit model explains the broad
specificity of some enzymes such as the proteases.(1)

Outline two examples of the commercial applications of enzymes in biotechnology (6 marks)

The enzyme lactase(1) can be used break down the lactose(1) in milk into galactose and glucose(1)
for the consumption of lactose-intolerant individuals. The enzyme lactase is immobilized so that it
can be recycled. Another application of enzymes in biotechnology is the usage of endonucleases(1)
to cleave a DNA strand(1) into DNA fragments(1) which are later used in genetic engineering.

Explain the relationship between the structure of a chloroplast and its function (2)

The thylakoids increase the surface area available for light absorption. The stroma is fluid, which
allows the enzymes of the Calvin cycle to move freely. The space inside the thylakoid membrane
allows the build-up of the proton gradient. (all three are awarded marks)

Explain how photosynthesis can be measured both directly and indirectly (3 marks).

Photosynthesis can be measured directly by the uptake of CO2, since CO2 is a reactant in
photosynthesis. The uptake of CO2 causes changes in pH which can be measured by a pH
indicator/probe. Another way to measure photosynthesis directly is by measuring the volume of
Oxygen gas produced. Photosynthesis can also be measured indirectly by the increase in the biomass
of plant tissue or the increase in the starch content.

Explain the relationship between the absorption spectrum and the action spectrum of
photosynthetic pigments (3 marks).

The absorption spectrum measures the amount of light absorbed versus the wavelength of light(1).
Since pigments absorb light as a source of energy for photosynthesis(1), the peaks for the action
spectrum and the absorption spectrum show strong correlation(1). The action spectrum is the rate
photosynthesis versus the wavelength of light absorbed(1).

Explain why enzymes are substrate-specific and why their activity is affected by substrate
concentration (8 marks)

Enzymes have a site called an active site(1) to which only a specific substrate binds(1). The chemical
properties of the substrate have to be complementary to the chemical properties at the active
site(1). The catalytic activity of an enzyme happens at the active site when the substrate-enzyme
complex is formed. The bonds in a substrate are weakened and thus lowering the activation energy
necessary for a reaction to occur(2). The two theories that explain enzymatic action are the lock and
key model and the induced fit model(2). The binding of the substrate to the active site happens
when they collide, thus raising the substrate concentration will raise the frequency of collisions(1),
and in effect, also the activity of the enzyme. However, once all active sites are saturated(1), the
addition of any more substrate will not result in an increase in enzymatic activity.

Outline how carbon compounds are produced in cells using light energy (5 marks)

The conversion of light energy into chemical energy (1) stored in the bonds of carbon compounds
occurs in the process of photosynthesis (1). During photosynthesis, which happens in the chloroplast
of plant cells (1), carbon dioxide and water are reactants (1) and glucose is the product(1) while
Oxygen is given off as a by-product (1). The first step of photosynthesis is the photolysis of water (1)
by light absorbed by pigments such as chlorophyll. Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue wavelengths of
light and reflects green(1). The second step of photosynthesis is the Calvin cycle, where carbon
dioxide is fixated into carbon compounds.