FUNDAMENTALS OF

1 SOILS AND ROCK

MECKANICS (Geol 4111

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 PART ONE
Fundamentals of soil
mechanics

Introduction, it’s properties and index

properties of soil

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Soil Mechanics is defined as the branch of engineering
science which enables an engineer to know
theoretically or experimentally the behavior of soil
under the action of ;
1. Loads (static or dynamic),
2. Gravitational forces,
3. Water and,
4. Temperature.

 Simply speaking it is the knowledge of engineering

science , which deals with properties, behavior and
performance of soil as a construction material or
foundation support.
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 Introduction
Soil definition
• The word 'soil' has different meanings for
different professions.
• To the agriculturist, soil is the top thin layer
of earth within which organic forces are
predominant and which is responsible for the
support of plant life.
• To the geologist, soil is the material in the top
thin zone within which roots occur.
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 Introduction
To engineering geologist
• The term soil according to engineering point of view
is defined as the material, by means of which and
upon which engineers build their structures.
• The term soil includes entire thickness of the earth’s
crust (from ground surface to bed rock), which is
accessible and feasible for practical utilization as
foundation support or construction material.
• It is composed of loosely bound mineral particles of
various sizes and shapes formed due to weathering of
rocks.
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Why we study Soil Mechanics?
• Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
 Effects of static loading on soil mass
• Shear failure of the foundation soil
• Settlement of structures
 Stability criteria (Solution)
• There should be no shear failure of the foundation soil.
• The settlement should remain within permissible
limits.
• Firm Soil -> Spread Footing (Spread Foundation)
• Soft Soil -> Pile Foundation (Vertical members
transferring load of structure to ground i.e. rock)
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 Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength capacity
of soil!

Transcosna Grain Elevator, Canada Oct. 18, 1913

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 Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
 Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength
capacity of soil!

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 Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
 Shear Failure-Loads have exceeded shear strength
capacity of soil!

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Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
 Settlement

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Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
 Seepage Problems

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Problems in Geotechnical Engineering
Dam Failure - Seepage

Teton Dam Failure 5/14/2021 12

 Soil subjected to dynamic load
1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments

 Effects of dynamic loading on soil mass

• For Design and construction of roads following must be
considered:
Compaction Characteristics
Moisture Variation

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Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
2. Construction Material
• Subgrade of highway pavement
• Land reclamation
• Earthen dam

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Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
3. Slopes and Landslides
 Major cause is the moisture variation resulting in;
• Reduction of shear strength
• Increase of moisture
• Increase in unit weight

 Excavation of trenches for buildings require

braced excavation.

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Why we study Soil Mechanics?

Landslide of a parking area at the

edge of a steep
slope, mainly due to
increase in moisture
content.

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Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
4. Earth Retaining Structures
• Earth retaining structure (e.g., Retaining walls) are
constructed to retains (holds back) any material
(usually earth) and prevents it from sliding or eroding
away.

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Why we study Soil Mechanics?
Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
5. Special Problems
i. Effects of river water on soil mass
Scouring
Causes:
• Increased flow velocity due to obstruction
• Fineness of river bed material
Stability criteria:
• The foundation of pier must be below the scour depth
ii. Land Erosion

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 Introduction

Who must be concerned with soils?

Civil engineers (structural, environmental
and geotechnical) must have basic
understanding of the soil properties in order
to use them effectively in construction.

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 How is soil formed?

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 How is soil formed?
• Soil is generally formed by disintegration and
decomposition (weathering) of rocks through the
action of physical (or mechanical) and chemical
agents which break them into smaller and smaller
particles.
• Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by
mechanical and chemical processes into smaller
pieces.

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How is soil formed?

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Physical (or mechanical) Weathering is the
disintegration of rocks into smaller particles through
physical processes, including:
 The erosive action of water, ice and wind.
 Opening of cracks as a result of unloading due to erosion of
overlying soil and rock.
 Loosening through the percolation and subsequent freezing (and
expansion) of water.
 Thermal Expansion and contraction from day to day and season
to season.
 Landslides and rock falls.
 Abrasion from the downhill movement of nearby rock and soil.

• Common soil types formed by this process are coarse

grained soils such as Gravel, sand, cohesionless soil
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 Soil Formation

Physical weathering

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2. In chemical weathering, the original rock minerals are
transformed into new minerals by chemical reaction.
Water and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere form carbonic
acid, which reacts with the existing rock minerals to form new
minerals and soluble salts.
Soluble salts present in the groundwater and organic acids
formed from decayed organic matter also cause chemical
weathering.
An example of the chemical weathering of orthoclase to form
clay minerals, silica, and soluble potassium carbonate follows:

The principal types of decomposition are hydration, oxidation,

carbonation, dislocation and leaching.
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 The weathering of granite

The results of chemical weathering are generally fine soils with

altered mineral grains.
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Controlling factors in soil formation
• Nature and composition of the parent rock
• Climatic conditions, particularly temperature and
humidity
• Topographic and general terrain conditions
• Length of time related to particular prevailing conditions
• Interference by other agencies, e.g. earthquakes, action
of man etc.
• Mode and conditions of transport

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Nature of parent rock - Bowen’s Reaction Series
-The reaction series are similar to the weathering stability series

More stable
Higher weathering resistance

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Soil types
1. Geological consideration:
 Depending on the method of deposition,
soils can be grouped into two categories:
1-Residual soils:
 The soils which remain at the place of
disintegration of parent rock.

2-Transported soils :
 The soils, which carried away from their
place of disintegration to some other place
by transporting agencies. 5/14/2021 33
 The transported soils may be classified into several
groups, depending on their mode of transportation and
deposition:
1) Glacial soils—formed by transportation and
deposition of glaciers
2) Alluvial soils—transported by running water and
deposited along streams
3) Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in quiet lakes
4) Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas
5) Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by wind
6) Colluviam soils—formed by movement of soil from
its original place by gravity, such as during landslides

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 2. Engineering consideration:
General types of soils
According to their grain size Grains diameters (mm)
–Cobbles > 76.2 mm
–Gravel 76.2 mm to 4.75 mm coarse grained soils
-Sand 4.75 mm to 0.075 mm cohesion less soils

–Silt 0.075 mm to 0.002 mm fine grained soils

–Clay < 0.002 mm (2μm) cohesive soils

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Comparison of four systems for describing soils based on particle size

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 Soil Characterization
Soil characteristic/ properties: 3 types

1. those of the constituents (nature )

2. those of the soil mass (state)
3. those related to the behavior of the soil mass
subjected to external stresses (mechanical
properties)

Attention: disturbed / undisturbed soil ???

Undisturbed soil is obligatory to determine properties 2 & 3.
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Properties of soil constituents
• Mineral composition
• Unit weights of the grains and water
• Particle shape
• Specific surface

• Grain size distribution- granulometric anlaysis Index

• For fine grained soils – Atterberg limits properties
• (consistency limits)

• Mineral composition: the large majority of soils consist of mixtures of different

mineral particles
- Rock fragments
- Mineral grains 5/14/2021 38
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From an engineering point of view, three clay minerals of
interest are
• a. Kaolite b. Illite c. Montmorillonite (Smectite)

H bond

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Soil particle shape

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 Clay structures:
• 1) - Dispersed structure 2) flocculated structure

• Lower strength More strength

• permeability is less Permeability is higher
• higher compressibility Low compressibility
Formed by the deposition of
the fine soil fraction in water.
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• Index properties of soil

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 Mechanical analysis of soil
• Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size
range of particles present in a soil, expressed as a
percentage of the total dry weight.
• Two methods generally are used to find the particle-
size distribution of soil:
1) sieve analysis—for particle sizes larger than
0.075 mm in diameter, and
2) hydrometer analysis—for particle sizes smaller
than 0.075 mm in diameter.
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 1) Sieve analysis (Direct method)
• Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample
through a set of sieves that have progressively
smaller openings.
• Sieve analysis is carried out by using a set of
standard sieves.
• -Sieves separate particles in the range between 75
mm and 75 μm

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Commonly
Used
Standard
Sieve Sizes

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Grain size distribution curves
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 Hydrometer analysis

It is a sedimentation process
This method is applicable for fine grain size soil
particles.

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Limitations of using the Stokes 'equation:

Soil particles are not spheres;

The fluid is not of infinite extent;

The specific gravity of individual particles may vary;

Turbulence caused by larger particles falling;

Disturbance due to insertion and removal of the hydrometer;

The test is actually used for diameters as large as 0.07 mm

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 Plasticity of Fine Grained Soils

Plasticity is the ability of a soil to undergo unrecoverable

deformation at constant volume without cracking or
crumbling.
It is due to the presence of clay minerals or organic material.
Consistency limits (Atterberg limits):
Atterberg, a Swedish scientist developed a method for
describing the limit consistency of fine grained soils on the
basis of moisture content.
These limits are liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage
limit.

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Liquid limit (L.L): is defined as the moisture content in
percent at which the soil changes from liquid to plastic
state.
Plastic Limit (P.L.): The moisture contents in % at which the
soil changes from plastic to semi solid state.
Shrinkage Limit (S.L.): The moisture contents in % at which
the soil changes from semi solid to solid state.

Plasticity Index (P.I.): it is the range in moisture content

when the soil exhibited its plastic behavior:

Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

PI= LL – PL
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 Liquidity Index (L.I. or IL) : a relation between the natural moisture contents
(ωn) and (L.L.) and (PI.) in form:

where; IL=liquid index;

wn= natural water/in
situ water ;
wp=plastic limit;
Ip= plastic index
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 If LI > 1 Then the soil at Liquid state
If LI = 1 then the soil at L.L.
If LI< 1 then the soil below L.L.

where, wI = liquid limit, wn= in situ moisture

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 Plastic limit

The soil is rolled on a glass plate with the hand, until it is

about 3 mm in diameter.
At the plastic state the soil rolled into threads of about 3 mm
diameter just crumbles
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Activity: is the degree of plasticity of the clay size fraction of the soil and
is expressed as:

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 Exercise

(a) uniformity coefficient

(b) coefficient of curvature.
Comment on the type of soil.

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 lecture 2-soil phase
r.ship&index,properties.pptx

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