A

Project on

IMPORTANCE OF METAL ION

For
The Submission of the Practical Fulfillment of the
AISSCE CBSE Practical Examination
In
CHEMISTRY
Submitted By
ANUJ AGNIHOTRI
Under the supervision
Of
DR. ANIRUDH PORVAL
P.G.T CHEMISTRY
Gayatri Vidyapeeth

GAYATRI VIDYAPEETH, SHANTIKUNJ

HARIDWAR-249411
2020-21
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, ANUJ AGNIHOTRI, the student of class “XII

SCIENCE”, during the year 2020-21, has successfully completed his
investigatory project on IMPORTANCE OF METAL ION, for the fulfillment
of board examination conducted by C.B.S.E. During the tenure, original and
genuine investigation work has been carried out to investigate about the subject
matter and investigation has been completed solely, sincerely and satisfactorily.

DR. ANIRUDH PORVAL

P.G.T CHEMISTRY

GAYATRI VIDYAPEETH,

SHANTIKUNJ, HARIDWAR
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, ANUJ AGNIHOTRI, the student of class “XII

SCIENCE”, during the year 2020-21, has successfully completed his
investigatory project on IMPORTANCE OF METAL ION, for the fulfillment
of board examination conducted by C.B.S.E. During the tenure, original and
genuine investigation work has been carried out to investigate about the subject
matter and investigation has been completed solely, sincerely and satisfactorily.

MR. S.R. SINHA

PRINCIPAL

GAYATRI VIDYAPEETH,

SHANTIKUNJ, HARIDWAR
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Presentation, inspiration and motivation has always played a key role in the
success of my venture. In the success and final outcome of this project required a
lot of guidance and assistance from people and I am extremly privileged to got
this all along the completion of my project. All that I have done is only due to
such supervision and assistance and I would not forget to thank them.

Firstly I would like to express my sincere gratitude to DR. ANIRUDH

PORVAL, P.G.T CHEMISTRY, GAYATRI VIDYAPEETH,
SHANTIKUNJ HARIDWAR, for inspiring me in choosing the most
appropriate and suitable project for me, continuous support for my project related
research, for his patience, motivation and immense knowledge. His guidance
helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have
imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my project.

Secondly I am very thankful to MR. S.R. SINHA, PRINCIPAL, GAYATRI

VIDYAPEETH, SHANTIKUNJ HARIDWAR, for providing us the
laboratory facilities, guidance and support.

I am immensly thankful to my CLASSMATES for the stimulating discussions,

for the continuous support and help which he provided me to achieve the perfect
completion of investigatory project, and for all the fun we have had in the one
year.

Last but not the least, I would like to thank my PARENTS for supporting me
spiritually throughout writing this thesis and my life in general and providing me
the facilities of internet and gadgets so that I can prepare my project in a fine way.

ANUJ AGNIHOTRI
 CONTENT

➢ Introduction

➢ Sources of metal ion

➢ Role of metal ion in biological system

➢ Side effects due to high concentration

➢ Conclusion

➢ Reference
 INTRODUCTION

What are metal ions?

A metal ion is a type of atom compound that has an electric charge. Such atoms
willingly lose electrons in order to build positive ions called cations.

How do ions form?

Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons in order to fulfill the octet rule
and have full outer valence electron shells. When they lose electrons, they
become positively charged and are named cations. When they gain electrons, they
are negatively charged and are named anions.

What is a free metal ion?

An ion, such as found in an ionized gas, whose properties, such as spectrum and
magnetic moment, are not significantly affected by other atoms, ions, or
molecules nearby are called free metal ions.

Metal ions in aqueous solutions -

A metal ion in aqueous solution or aqua ion is a cation, dissolved in water, of

chemical formula [M(H2O)n]z+. The solvation number, n, determined by a
variety of experimental methods is 4 for Li+ and Be2+ and 6 for elements in
periods 3 and 4 of the periodic table.

Lanthanide and actinide aqua ions have a solvation number of 8 or 9. The strength
of the bonds between the metal ion and water molecules in the primary solvation
shell increases with the electrical charge, z, on the metal ion and decreases as its
ionic radius, r, increases. Aqua ions are subject to hydrolysis.
Some metal ions :

1) Na ion –

A sodium atom must lose one elevtron to have the same number of electrons as
an atom of the previous noble gas, neon. Thusa sodium atom will form a cation
with one fewer electron. The symbol for the ion is Na+, and it is called sodium
ion.

Na+ is a monoatomic monocation obtained from sodium. It has a role as a human

metabolite and a cofactor. It is an alkali metal cation, an elemental sodium, a
monovalent inorganic cation and a monoatomic monocation.

2) K ion –

A potassium atom must lose one electron to have the same number of electrons
as an atom of the previous noble gas, argon. Thus a potassium atom will form a
cation with one fewer electron. The symbol for the ion is K+, and it is called
potassium ion.

K+ is a monoatomic monocation obtained from potassium. It has a role as a

human metabolite and a cofactor. It is an alkali metal cation, an elemental
potassium, a monovalent inorganic cation and a monoatomic monocation.

3) Mg ion –

A magnesium atom must lose two electrons to have the same number of electrons
as an atom of the previous noble gas, neon. Thus, a magnesium atom will form a
cation with two fewer electrons than protons and a charge of 2+. The symbol for
the ion is Mg2+, and it is called a magnesium ion.

Mg2+ is a magnesium cation, a divalent metal cation and a monoatomic dication.

It has a role as a cofactor. ChEBI Magnesium cation is a Calculi Dissolution
Agent. The mechanism of action of magnesium cation is as a Magnesium Ion
Exchange Activity.

4) Ca ion –

A calcium atom must lose two electrons to have the same number of electrons as
an atom of the previous noble gas, argon. Thus, a calcium atom will form a cation
with two fewer electrons than protons and a charge of 2+. The symbol for ion is
Ca2+, and it is called a calcium ion.

5) Ni ion –

Nickel is a transition element with atomic number 28 hence it show variable

valency and the loss of the remaining valence electron in s sub-shell results in an
ion with a +2 charge. The proper way of noting the charges on these ions is to use
the systematic name for each ion, nickel (I) for the +1 ion and nickel (II) for the
+2 ion.

6) Fe ion –

Iron is a transition element with atomic number 26 therefore it show variable

valency i.e. 3 or 2 .

Iron(lll) :-iron(III) refers to the element iron in its +3 oxidation state. In ionic
compounds (salts), such an atom may occur as a separate cation (positive ion)
denoted by Fe3+.

Iron(ll) :- iron(II) refers to the element iron in its +2 oxidation state. In ionic
compounds (salts), such an atom may occur as a separate cation (positive ion)
denoted by Fe2+.

Fe3+ ion is more stable than Fe2+ ion. This is explained on the basis of the
electronic configuration of the two ions Fe3+ on whit all the five 3d orbitals half
filled, is more symmetrical than Fe2+ on in which four 3d orbitals are half filled
and one is filled. Therefore, Fe3+ on is more stable than Fe2+ ion.

7) Cu ion –

Copper is a transition element with atomic number 29 therefore it also show

variable valency

Copper(ll) :- Copper(ll) is an ion of copper carrying a double positive charge. It

has a role as a cofactor. It is a divalent metal cation, a copper cation and a
monoatomic dication.

Copper(l) :- Copper (I) ions have a 1+ charge. This happens when copper atoms
lose one electron. Its formula is Cu+ .

8) Cd ion –

Cadmium(2+) is a divalent metal cation, a cadmium cation and a monoatomic

dication. It has a role as a cofactor.
 SOURCES OF METAL ION

1) Na ion –

Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and exists in
numerous minerals such as feldspars, sodalite, and rock salt (NaCl). Many salts
of sodium are highly water-soluble: sodium ions have been leached by the action
of water from the Earth's minerals over eons, and thus sodium and chlorine are
the most common dissolved elements by weight in the oceans. Salt comes from
two main sources: sea water and the sodium chloride mineral halite (also known
as rock salt).

2) K ion –

Potassium is widely available in many foods, especially fruits and vegetables.

Leafy greens, beans, nuts, dairy foods, and starchy vegetables like winter squash
are rich sources. Many fresh fruits and vegetables are rich in potassium: Bananas,
oranges, cantaloupe, honeydew, apricots, grapefruit (some dried fruits, such as
prunes, raisins, and dates, are also high in potassium) cooked spinach, cooked
broccoli, etc.

3) Mg ion –

Magnesium is found in large deposits of magnesite, dolomite, and other minerals,

and in mineral waters, where magnesium ion is soluble. Although magnesium is
found in more than 60 minerals, only dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite, talc,
and olivine are of commercial importance. Green vegetables such as spinach
provide magnesium because of the abundance of chlorophyll molecules, which
contain the ion. Nuts (especially Brazil nuts and almonds), some whole grains are
also good sources of magnesium.

4) Ca ion –
There is a continuous supply of calcium ions into waterways from rocks,
organisms, and soils. Calcium ions are consumed and removed from aqueous
environments as they react to form insoluble structures such as calcium carbonate
and calcium silicate, which can deposit to form sediments or the exoskeletons of
organisms. Calcium is naturally present in water. It may dissolve from rocks such
as limestone, marble, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, fluorite and apatite. Calcium is
a determinant of water hardness, because it can be found in water as Ca2+ ions.

5) Ni ion –

Meteoric nickel is found in combination with iron, a reflection of the origin of

those elements as major end products of supernova nucleosynthesis. An iron–
nickel mixture is thought to compose Earth's outer and inner cores. An
economically important source of nickel is the iron ore limonite, which often
contains 1–2% nickel. Nickel's other important ore minerals include pentlandite
and a mixture of Ni-rich natural silicates known as garnierite.

6) Fe ion –

In its metallic state, iron is rare in the Earth's crust, limited mainly to deposition
by meteorites. Iron ores, by contrast, are among the most abundant in the Earth's
crust, although extracting usable metal from them requires kilns or furnaces
capable of reaching 1,500 °C (2,730 °F) or higher, about 500 °C (900 °F) higher
than that required to smelt copper. It is found in animal foods that originally
contained hemoglobin, such as red meats, fish, and poultry (meat, poultry, and
seafood contain both heme and non-heme iron).

7) Cu ion –

The method used to extract copper from its ores depends on the nature of the ore.
Sulfide ores such as chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) are converted to copper by a different
method from silicate, carbonate or sulfate ores. Chalcopyrite (also known as
copper pyrites) and similar sulfide ores are the commonest ores of copper.A few
examples of human activities that contribute to copper release have already been
named.

8) Cd ion –

cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct of mining, smelting, and refining

sulfidic ores of zinc, and, to a lesser degree, lead and copper. Small amounts of
cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources,
mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap. Cadmium is
introduced into the food chain through agricultural soil. In general, metal
concentrations are normally higher in roots than shoots, but in numerous leafy
vegetables (e.g. lettuces and endives), Cd is stored in the leaves due to its high
uptake and translocation.
ROLE OF METAL IONS IN BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS

1) Na ion –

Sodium ions (Na+) are necessary in small amounts for some types of plants, but
sodium as a nutrient is more generally needed in larger amounts by animals, due
to their use of it for generation of nerve impulses and for maintenance of
electrolyte balance and fluid balance. In animals, sodium ions are necessary for
the aforementioned functions and for heart activity and certain metabolic
functions. Sodium is the primary cation (positive ion) in extracellular fluids in
animals and humans. These fluids, such as blood plasma and extracellular fluids
in other tissues, bathe cells and carry out transport functions for nutrients and
wastes. Sodium is thus important in neuron function and osmoregulation between
cells and the extracellular fluid; the distribution of sodium ions are mediated in
all animals by sodium–potassium pumps, which are active transporter solute
pumps, pumping ions against the gradient, and sodium-potassium channels.

2) K ion –

Potassium plays an important role in regulation of cellular electrolyte

metabolism, electric signaling in cells, transport of essential nutrients, and
enzymatic analysis. In alliance with other (i.e., sodium and chloride ions), it
contributes to overall electrolyte balance of virtually all living organisms .It helps
your nerves to function and muscles to contract. It helps your heartbeat stay
regular. It also helps move nutrients into cells and waste products out of cells. A
diet rich in potassium helps to offset some of sodium's harmful effects on blood
pressure. Potassium is the major cation inside living cells. We need potassium to
keep the electrochemical balance across cell membranes. This is vital to transmit
nerve signals. This leads to skeletal muscle contraction, hormone release, and
smooth muscle and heart contraction. Along with sodium, potassium regulates
the water balance and the acid-base balance in the blood and tissues, and plays a
critical role in the transmission of electrical impulses in the heart. The active
transport of potassium into and out of the cells is crucial to cardiovascular and
nerve function.

3) Mg ion –

Magnesium is needed for more than 300 biochemical reactions in the body. It
helps to maintain normal nerve and muscle function, supports a healthy immune
system, keeps the heartbeat steady, and helps bones remain strong. It also helps
adjust blood glucose levels.

Magnesium is an essential cofactor for the synthesis and salvage of purine and
pyrimidine nucleotides. Magnesium is required for DNA replication,
transcription into RNA and translation into protein. Magnesium is a prosthetic
ion in enzymes that hydrolyze and transfer phos- phate groups. Hence it is
essential for energy-requiring biological functions, such as membrane transport,
generation and transmission of nerve impulses, contraction of muscles, and
oxidative phospho- rylation. Magnesium fulfills several functions within the
plant; it is a central component of chlorophyll which is supporting the function to
absorb sunlight during photosynthesis. Magnesium acts as a phosphorus carrier
in plants and is essential for phosphate metabolism. Magnesium Is Involved in
Hundreds of Biochemical Reactions in Your Body. It may boost exercise
performance. Magnesium fights depression. It has benefits against type 2
diabetes. Magnesium can lower blood pressure.

4) Ca ion –

calcium ions have been proposed as mediators of the functional consequences of

plasma membrane injury. An influx of extracellular calcium ions across a
damaged permeability barrier and down a steep concentration gradient may
convert potentially reversible injury into irreversible injury. Calcium ions (Ca2+)
contribute to the physiology and biochemistry of organisms cell. They play an
important role in signal transduction pathways, where they act as a second
messenger, in neurotransmitter release from neurons, in contraction of all muscle
cell types, and in fertilization. The body needs calcium to maintain strong bones
and to carry out many important functions. Almost all calcium is stored in bones
and teeth, where it supports their structure and hardness. The body also needs
calcium for muscles to move and for nerves to carry messages between the brain
and every body part. It acts as a cellular gatekeeper, so to speak, allowing insulin
and other hormones into individual cells. Calcium helps cells release chemicals
that enable cellular communication, and also helps the blood to clot.

5) Ni ion –

The biological role of nickel is not yet fully known. Although nickel is generally
evenly distributed in the body slightly larger amount is within the nucleic acid,
especially in ribonucleic acid (RNA) and it is considered to affect the structure or
function of the proteins associated with nucleic acids. In addition, the role of
nickel is associated with enzymes that affect the breakdown and use of glucose,
but also in the creation of prolactin (and thus the production of milk in the
mammary glands).Enzymes that use nickel are not identified yet although nickel
activates and inhibits enzymes that contain other metals. In addition to its role in
enzymes, nickel is involved in the production and action of certain hormones.
Nickel affects optimal growth, healthy skin, bone structure. It is involved in iron
metabolism (since it affects the absorption of iron from food) and plays a role in
the creation of red blood cells.

It is necessary in the metabolism of sugars, fats, hormones and cell

membranes.Nickel is a component of some plant enzymes, most notably urease,
which metabolizes urea nitrogen into useable ammonia within the plant. Without
nickel, toxic levels of urea can accumulate within the tissue forming necrotic
legions on the leaf tips.
6) Fe ion –

The red blood cells contain a protein called hemoglobin. Each hemoglobin binds
four iron atoms. Iron in hemoglobin binds with oxygen as it passes through the
blood vessels in the lungs and releases it in the tissues. After releasing from
oxygen, iron binds carbon dioxide, a by-product of respiration, returning it to the
lungs and releases into the environment. Erythrocytes and iron are updated every
120 days. Other iron containing protein is myoglobin, which carries oxygen to
the muscles and is therefore essential for cellular activity of all tissues. Many
enzymes involved in metabolic processes also contain iron. This nutrient is
essential for cell division, cell growth and the synthesis of DNA molecules. It is
also important in protein metabolism. Iron plays an important role in the transfer
of oxygen by the cytochrome, molecule involved in energy production. Thyroid
hormones that regulate metabolic processes include iron in their structures. Iron
is involved in the formation of connective tissues of several neurotransmitters in
the brain.The important role of iron is to strengthen the immune system. Iron
plays an important role in the transfer of oxygen by hemoglobin.

7) Cu ion –

Copper is an important component of many enzymes in the body and play an

important role in cell energy production. Activity of these enzymes is highest in
the heart, brain, liver and kidney. In addition, enzymes that are responsible for
connective tissue proteins formation (collagen and elastin) require copper.
Copper is necessary for the development and maintenance of blood vessels, skin,
bones and joints.It helps in preserving cells of the nervous system.Copper is
involved in the release of iron from their depot, the creation of bone marrow and
maturation of red blood cells.Copper is essential for the synthesis of
phospholipids of cell membranes and thus maintain myelin that separates the
nerve cell from the environment and regulates the levels of the neurotransmitters.
Copper is very important in creating the immune response to infection. During
the inflammatory process or infection, the mobilization of the two compounds in
their structure include ion copper superoxide dismutase and ceruloplasmin.
Copper is also necessary for the maturation and function of T cells.It also plays
an important role in the contraction of the heart muscle, as well as in the healthy
functioning of small blood vessels that control blood flow, nutrients and waste
products. It affects the normal functioning of muscles and blood vessels involved
in the lining of blood vessels.

8) Cd ion –

Cadmium is a non-essential element that negatively affects plant growth and

development. It is released into the environment by power stations, heating
systems, metal-working industries or urban traffic. It is widely used in
electroplating, pigments, plastic stabilizers and nickel-cadmium batteries.
Cadmium has no known function in higher organisms, but a cadmium-dependent
carbonic anhydrase has been found in some marine diatoms. Administration of
cadmium to cells causing the oxidative stress and increase the levels of
antioxidants to protect the cells against macro molecular damage.
 SIDE EFFECTS DUE TO HIGH CONCENTRATION

1) Na ion –

Low blood sodium is common in older adults, especially those who are
hospitalized or living in long-term care facilities. Signs and symptoms of
hyponatremia can include altered personality, lethargy and confusion. Severe
hyponatremia can cause seizures, coma and even death. Hypernatremia, a blood
sodium level above 145 mEq/L, causes thirst, and due to brain cell shrinkage may
cause confusion, muscle twitching or spasms.

2) K ion –

potassium can cause stomach upset, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, or intestinal gas.
Too much potassium is UNSAFE and can cause feelings of burning or tingling,
generalized weakness, paralysis, mental confusion, low blood pressure, irregular
heart rhythm, or death. In hypokalemia, the level of potassium in blood is too
low. A low potassium level has many causes but usually results from vomiting,
diarrhea, adrenal gland disorders, or use of diuretics. A low potassium level can
make muscles feel weak, cramp, twitch, or even become paralyzed, and abnormal
heart rhythms may develop.

3) Mg ion –

When taken in very large amounts (greater than 350 mg daily), magnesium is
possibly unsafe. Large doses might cause too much magnesium to build up in the
body, causing serious side effects including an irregular heartbeat, low blood
pressure, confusion, slowed breathing, coma, and death. People with diabetes,
intestinal disease, heart disease or kidney disease should not take magnesium
before speaking with their health care provider.
4) Ca ion –

Calcium can cause some minor side effects such as belching or gas. But calcium
is possibly unsafe when taken by mouth in high doses. The Institute of Medicine
sets the daily tolerable upper intake level (UL) for calcium at 2000 mg for adults
ages 19-50 years and 2000 mg for adults 51 years and older. Calcium supplements
cause few, if any, side effects. But side effects can sometimes occur, including
gas, constipation and bloating. In general, calcium carbonate is the most
constipating. You may need to try a few different brands or types of calcium
supplements to find one that you tolerate the best.

5) Ni ion –

Excess of nickel cause allergies, Nickel allergy signs and symptoms include. Rash
or bumps on the skin. Itching, which may be severe. Redness or changes in skin
color. Dry patches of skin that may resemble a burn. Blisters and draining fluid
in severe cases.

6) Fe ion –

Excess of iron in our body can cause side effects such as stomach upset and pain,
constipation or diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. Taking iron supplements with
food seems to reduce some of these side effects. However, food can also reduce
how well the body can absorb iron. Iron should be taken on an empty stomach if
possible.

7) Cu ion –

Exposure to higher doses can be harmful. Long-term exposure to copper dust can
irritate your nose, mouth, and eyes, and cause headaches, dizziness, nausea, and
diarrhea. Copper toxicity is rare in healthy individuals who do not have a
hereditary copper homeostasis defect.
8) Cd ion –

Breathing in cadmium can result in Flu-like symptoms, such as body aches, chills,
weakness, Vomiting, Diarrhea, Abdominal pain, Shortness of breath, Swelling of
the nose, pharynx, and larynx—with chronic inhalation. Cadmium and its
compounds are highly toxic and exposure to this metal is known to cause cancer
and targets the body's cardiovascular, renal, gastrointestinal, neurological,
reproductive, and respiratory systems.
 CONCLUSIOn

It is known that metals are important ingredients in life, just as the organic
molecules. For instance, the divalent magnesium and calcium ions play important
regulatory roles in cells. Metallothionins are proteins rich in metal ions found in
living systems. Metals such as iron, zinc, and copper all perform important roles
in many of the enzymatic reactions that fuel the body's metabolism. For instance,
ions such as Fe2+ can bind to the hemoglobin and myoglobin protein to help
transport oxygen to organs in the body. Current organisms require redox reactions
to induce metabolism and other life processes. Metals have a tendency to lose
electrons and are important for redox reactions. ... Metals are also toxic so a
balance must be acquired to regulate where the metals are in an organism as well
as in what quantities.

One British researcher may have proven that theory, potentially rewriting the
book of life. Lee Cronin of the University of Glasgow has created lifelike cells
from metal — a feat few believed feasible.

The list of the metal elements that are today considered essential for humans
includes Na, K, Mg, Ca, Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn, Mo, whereas some others such as
V, Ni and Sn, are presumed but not ascertained to be essential for humans.

Some heavy metals such as Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, and Zn are considered as
beneficial for plant growth and development. Plants require them in a limited
quality. Whereas, at high level these metal ions tends to create differential level
of toxicity in plant that in turn leads to inhibited plant growth, halt enzymatic and
metabolic pathways and also create damages to plant morphology and physiology
that eventually reduced overall plant productivity.
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