OTC 16677
Gas Hydrate Deposits: Formation and Development
Dr. Y. F. Makogon, Texas A&M University, Dr. S. A. Holditch, Texas A&M University, K. F. Perry, Gas Technology
Institute, Dr. J. C. Holste, Texas A&M University
Copyright 2004, Offshore Technology Conference
This paper was prepared for presentation at the Offshore Technology Conference held in
Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 3–6 May 2004.
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Abstract
Naturally occurring hydrates were discovered only 39
years ago (Makogon, 1965). Gas hydrates that contain large
volumes of hydrocarbon energy accumulated in a few
hundreds of meters of sediments near the earth surface. The
potential volume of gas-in-place in a hydrated state is
estimated to exceed 1.5×1016 m3. A single m3 of natural gas
hydrate contains about 150-160 m3 of gas. About 98% of all
gas hydrate deposits are found offshore in deep water in upper
sedimentary layers. The most prospective regions are in the
oceanic slopes. The thickness of hydrate-bearing rock may
reach hundreds of meters, and in some conditions exceed 1
kilometer. Large amounts of free gas or liquid hydrocarbon
can accumulate under the impermeable hydrate roof. Such
coexistence of deposits can be very efficient for
hydrocarbon production.
There are many problems to be solved before we can
produce gas from hydrate deposits. Natural gas hydrate
research is currently being conducted in a number of
countries, such as USA, Japan, Russia, and India.
International collaboration will accelerate and increase the
effectiveness of mastering these new resources of mineral
energy accumulated in gas hydrate deposits. Knowledge of
conditions of formation, stability and decomposition of
hydrate and seawater and the mass ratios of gas and water
during phase transition appears to be quite important.
Introduction
Natural gas in geological sediments can exist as free gas,
gas dissolved in reservoir water, or gas in the solid state. The
distribution of gas among these phases is determined by
thermodynamic conditions and the composition of the gas and
water. Natural gas hydrates are a metastable mineral whose
formation, stable existence and decomposition depend upon
pressure, temperature, composition and other properties of the
gas and water. The volume of gas in the sediments depends
upon the geologic conditions in the regions and changes in
those geologic conditions over time.
The total potential resource of natural gas is over 3×1016
3
m . This is further categorized as:
− Free gas – proved resource of natural gas - 1.56×1014
m3 (BP data, 2003).
− Solid hydrates - 1.5×1016 m3 (Makogon, 1984;
Kvenvolden, 1988).
Gas hydrates are clathrate inclusion compounds in which
molecules ranging in size from 0.35 nm to 0.9 nm are hosted
in a crystalline lattice formed by hydrogen-bonded water
molecules. The formation, decomposition, and stable
existence of hydrates depends upon the pressure, temperature,
composition and other properties of the gas and water. Some
hydrate properties have significant implications for energy
production. One volume of water enclathrates 207 volumes of
methane in the hydrate state, but because the specific volumes
of hydrates are 26-32% larger than that of liquid water, one
cubic meter of hydrate contains 164 m3 of methane at standard
conditions. Hydrate formation is an exothermic process;
therefore, hydrates release heat during formation and absorb
heat during dissociation. Approximately 6-12 % of the energy
contained within the gas hydrate is required to decompose that
hydrate in natural conditions. Also, dissociation of methane
hydrate to gas and water in a closed volume can generate very
high pressures.
Scientists have been aware of gas hydrates for more than
200 years (Priestley, 1778; Davy, 1811). Research by the oil
and gas industry dates back over 70 years (Hammershmidt,
1934). However, experimental studies of natural gas hydrate
formation in real core samples began only in the middle of the
last century (Makogon, 1965-1966).
The first known natural gas hydrate deposit, Messoyaha,
was discovered in 1967 and brought into commercial gas
production in 1969 (Makogon et al., 1971). This field in
Siberia has provided more than 30 years experience in the
production of gas from hydrate deposits at well production
rates varying from 5,000 to 500,000 m3/day. The maximum
total daily production was 4.4×106 m3/day, and the total
production to date is 12.5×109 m3. Recently, two large
deposits have been surveyed by drilling in the Mackenzie
Delta region (Canada) and in the Nankai Trough (offshore
Japan). Initial production tests were carried out in these fields
in 2002 and 2003. Natural gas production from hydrate
2 OTC 16677
deposits such as those in Canada and Japan should be
important in the next 25 years.
Naturally occurring gas hydrates are widespread on Earth,
with more than 200 hydrate deposits identified to date. Figure
1 shows the geographic distribution of the most significant
discoveries. The potential gas accumulation in naturally
occurring gas hydrates exceeds 14×1012 TOE (tons of oil
equivalent), or 1.5×1016 std m3. Gas hydrate deposits are
located in cold regions of sedimentary rock both on land and
offshore. A typical hydrate formation zone can be 200 m to
600 m thick or more. Nearly 98 % of these reserves are
located offshore, mainly in continental shelf-oceanic slope
transition zones. While only about 2 % are found on land, in
permafrost zones, that two percent could represent more than
300×1012 std m3 of gas in place, which is twice the current
proven world reserves of natural gas.
For example, a small hydrate field in Alaska, Kuparuk,
contains 1.2×1012 std m3 of gas in the hydrate state (Collett,
1997); and a small offshore gas hydrate field in the Nankai
Trough has a resource of hydrated gas over 600 m3 of gas per
square meter, with a total resource possibly as large as
21×1012 std m3. The first set of general seismic data acquired
in the Andaman region indicates reserves of hydrated and free
gas in four structures of approximately 200×109 std m3.
According to the USGS, the total potential proven reserve of
gas in hydrate state on US territory is more than 9×1015 std m3
(Taylor, 2002). The geographic distribution of the US
reserves is shown in Figure 2. Four years ago, a large hydrate
deposit covering 8×1010 m2 was discovered near Australia at
the water depths of 1000 to 4000 m. The field lies 240 km off
the western coast of New Caledonia and about 600 m below
the seabed. The reserve of hydrated gas in this field is
estimated to be between 10×1012 and 200×1012 std m3 (OGJ
Newsletter Nov.15, 1999). Because hydrate deposits often are
diluted with large amounts of sediment, not all of the gas
present as hydrates can be recovered. Preliminary calculations
indicate that 15 to 20 % of the total resources eventually may
be recoverable.
Although gas hydrates represent rich reserves of mineral
hydrocarbon energy, they also increase the cost and difficulty
of conventional production. Gas hydrates commonly form in
oil and gas production and transmission systems. Even though
more than $2 million per day of chemicals are injected to
prevent formation of hydrate plugs, more than 51 solid plugs
have formed in the Gulf of Mexico alone in the last ten years
(Alvarado, 2003).
Effective means of exploring for and surveying gas
hydrate deposits currently are under development.
Sophisticated seismic methods, measurements of local
gravimetric fields, heat flow, and magnetic fields in a region
can be used to locate gas hydrate deposits. Detailed analyses
of hydrate deposits can be accomplished by drilling wells to
obtain core samples. Open hole geophysical logs and core
analyses are used to characterize hydrate deposits.
Recognition of the enormous potential reserves of energy
present as gas hydrates has led to the recent initiation of a
number of national programs for hydrate development
throughout the world. The increased research resulting from
these programs has elucidated some important properties of
hydrate-saturated deposits. We use tools and technology
based on known hydrate properties to discover hydrate
deposits. However, many basic characteristics of natural gas
hydrates remain unknown. The formation and dissociation of
hydrate deposits is a complicated problem that depends on
many geologic factors and thermodynamic conditions. One
important basic question is the natural gas-reservoir water
phase relationship; that is, the solubility of gas in water under
hydrate formation conditions. In this paper we show some
results of experimental solubility measurements of pure and
natural gases in pure and seawater over a range of
temperatures and pressures. The experimental results are very
important because they provide insight that allows us to
predict locations of gas hydrate deposits and of free gas fields
under hydrate saturated layers.
Gas solubility in water
Free gas deposits form only from free gas in the bulk water
phase. However, gas hydrate deposits can form from dissolved
gas in the bulk phase. This property of gas hydrates led to the
storage of large volumes of natural gas over geologic time.
Analysis of real geologic conditions shows that most regions
of the world have pressure, temperature and thermal gradient
conditions corresponding to diffusion of migrated gas into the
ocean (and ultimately the atmosphere) from 1000-1500 m.
The level of gas saturation in reservoir water is a critical
parameter. Although the literature contains a great deal of gas
solubility data for temperatures above the equilibrium
temperature of gas hydrate formation (Culberson & McKetta,
1951; Kobayashi, Katz, 1953; Namiot, 1991), the first
reported measurements comparing gas solubility in water at
metastable conditions before hydrate formation and at
equilibrium conditions after hydrate formation were done in
1971 (Makogon et al., 1971; 1974). The gas content in liquid
water is significantly lower in the presence of hydrate
(equilibrium state).
Gas composition plays an important role in the formation
of hydrate deposits. Resource and technology development of
gas hydrate deposits depend on gas and reservoir water
composition. Although many hydrate deposits contain 97 to 99
% methane, the gas composition can vary widely, as shown in
Table 1. The presence of heavy gas components in the hydrate
deposit is a good indicator that oil exists in the region
Figure 3 shows the general dependence of gas-water
relationships in hydrate conditions. Line A-B - gas solubility
in water before hydrate formation; C-D - in hydrated state, and
E-F - in water after hydrate formation.
Both liquid and solid (ice or hydrate form) water are
structured and have a certain concentration of cells (vacancies)
occupied by molecules of dissolved gas. The number of
vacancies is defined by pressure, temperature and structure of
the gas molecules and water in the system. After the formation
of hydrate, the structure of the water molecules in contact with
the hydrate sharply changes, the number of vacancies is
reduced, and the volume of dissolved gas decreases. In
hydrate-bound water, the number of cells occupied with gas is
defined by the structure of the hydrate. With changes in
pressure and temperature, the relative concentrations of water
and gas in solid (hydrate) and liquid phases change. Figure 4
OTC 16677
shows the dependence of the molar ratio on pressure and
temperature in the metastable liquid before the hydrate forms.
New experimental results are presented in Figure 5, which
shows the variation of methane solubility in seawater with
pressure and temperature under hydrate conditions. Methods
for measuring solubility of different gases in pure water and in
seawater have been described elsewhere (Makogon &
Holditch, 1998,1999; Makogon et al., 2001) and are not
provided here.
Natural gas content in seawater before hydrate formation
(metastable condition) for P=25 can be described by
ϕ = 0.01 T2 – 0.448 T + 10.96 (1)
and, at the gas-seawater interface after hydrate formation, by
ϕ = 0.002 T2 + 0.0222 T + 3.695 (2)
where ϕ = gas solubility in sea water, cm3/g
P = pressure, Mpa
T = temperature, oC
The error of ϕ is within 2.5%.
The decrease in gas solubility that accompanies hydrate
formation (Figure 5) plays a very important role in the
formation of free gas.
The data in Figures 4 and 5 allow prediction of free gas
accumulation and GHD formation. Gas and water
composition, as well as the solubility of gas under reservoir
conditions and the geothermogradient at different sediment
depths, are also needed.
Role of dynamics of geothermogradients for GHD
formation
The amount of gas dissolved in reservoir water depends on
the temperature and pressure, the rate of vertical and lateral
water and gas migration in the layers, diffusion rate, regional
tectonic transitions, and gas and reservoir water composition.
In general, accumulation or dissipation of gas in the reservoir
can be described by
dqg dqdis
> (3)
dt dt
for accumulation, and
dqg dq
< dis (4)
dt dt
for dissipation, where qg is the rate at which gas is generated
or migrates into the gas hydrate stable zone, and qdis is rate at
which gas dissipates from gas hydrate stable zone. If dqg/dt is
greater than dqdis/dt in the hydrate-stable zone, then the
conditions that favor hydrate formation and free gas cannot
exist under the hydrate-saturated layers in the hydrate
formation zone (HFZ). If dqg/dt is less than dqdis/dt, then the
conditions that favor hydrate dissociation and free gas can
3
exist under the hydrate-saturated layers, if the rate of
dissolution and migration by lateral and vertical diffusion is
less than the hydrate dissociation rate.
Figure 6 shows the conditions for the Nankai Trough area
(Japan), and illustrates why there is no free gas under the
hydrate-saturated layers. These data were obtained by
measuring temperature in the well after drilling and testing
(Kawamura et al., 1998).
When porous media contains 25-30% hydrate, the
formation is usually impermeable to fluid flow. In some
cases, free gas or oil can accumulate under hydrate deposits
(Makogon, 1974,1981). The existence of hydrate-saturated
layers may lead to dramatic changes in fluid transport in the
reservoir sediments; gas diffusion coefficients can be two
orders of magnitude lower in hydrate-saturated layers than in
water-saturated layers. In real geologic settings, the dissolved
volume of gas in reservoir water at hydrate formation
conditions depends upon pressure, temperature and the
thermal gradient of the sediment. Changes in the thermal
gradient and the water’s gas content occur on the same time
scale. Depending on real pressure and temperature conditions,
gas hydrates can form or dissociate. When hydrates dissociate,
free gas can accumulate under the hydrate-saturated layers. If
we know the value of the geothermal gradient, and we can
calculate the solubility of real gas in the reservoir water on the
basis of pressure and temperature data, we can predict the
location of free gas or hydrate saturated deposits at different
sediment depths.
Figure 7 shows the influence of gas solubility in reservoir
water and change of geothermal gradient on conditions of
formation or dissipation of gas hydrate deposits for the Nankai
Trough region. Line A-B-C shows the solubility of gas in the
reservoir water at the different depths of sediment as a
function of pressure and temperature. For this region, from the
depths of 2200 m up to 1550 m, conditions are such that
dissolved migrated gas discharges from the water and can
form free gas accumulations. However, past point B on the
line B-C, the solubility of gas in reservoir water increases.
Free gas migrated past point B will dissolve. For depths from
1550 m to the seabed, free gas cannot accumulate. Line B-D
reflects the solubility of gas in reservoir water after hydrate
formation. As shown in Figures 3 and 5, solubility decreases
significantly after hydrate formation. This characteristic of the
gas-water system is very important for understanding the
formation and stable existence of gas hydrate deposits in
real settings.
Formation of Gas Hydrate Deposits
The rate of hydrate formation in sediments depends on many
thermodynamic and geologic conditions, including the
quantity of gas dissolved in sediment pore water, the gas and
water compositions, pressure, temperature, rate of gas
diffusion through sediments, rate of gas diffusion over gas
hydrate zone, and mass and heat transfer at the hydrate
formation boundary.
For the purpose of model development, it is assumed that
the temperature of the sediment is constant during hydrate
formation. It is also assumed that gas is supplied to the hydrate
4 OTC 16677
formation zone only by diffusion. The amount of gas supplied
is expressed by the following equation (Makogon et al, 2001).
⎛ dC ⎞ ∂2C
⎜ ⎟ =D 2
⎝ dt ⎠diffusion ∂z
where D is diffusivity of gas in water, z is the vertical
dimension, and (dC/dt)diffusion is the rate of change of gas
concentration in water due to diffusion.
The gas hydrate formation rate can be expressed as a
function of the difference between the gas solubility in the
absence and presence of gas hydrates (Clarke et al., 1997):
E
⌠ −
[( ) (
dN hyd
= ⎮ k oe RT C T ,P pore − C hyd T , P pore dz
dt ⌡
where (dNhyd/dt) is the hydrate formation rate per unit volume,
R is the gas constant, C concentration of gas in the water, Chyd
is the equilibrium concentration of gas in water in the presence
of hydrate, ko is reaction coefficient, and Ppore is the pressure
within the pore. The pressure in the pore is related to the bulk
pressure by
2σ
2σ
∆P = cos θ
r
P pore = P − cos θ
r
where σ is the surface energy per unit area (or surface
tension), θ is the wetting angle, and r is the radius of the pore.
Note that temperature and pressure are functions of depth.
If the geothermal gradient is constant throughout the hydrate
formation zone, temperature can be expressed as a function of
depth by
T = T o + α (z − z o )
where To is temperature at the shallowest hydrate formation
zone (z = zo) and α is the geothermal gradient. Similarly, it is
assumed that the pressure gradient is constant with respect
to depth.
Hydrate Dissociation Pressures
Dissociation of hydrates in a closed volume can produce very
high pressures. For example, consider the hydrate of pure
methane, originally formed at P = 3.0 MPa and T = 0 °C.
After it warms to 50 °C, the equilibrium state is liquid water
and methane gas. At the original conditions, the hydrate
density is 910 kg/m3, so that one cubic meter of methane
hydrate contains 910 kg (117 kg of methane and 793 kg of
water). The density of water at 50 °C and 300 MPa is
approximately 1,090 kg/m3; therefore, the liquid water
occupies approximately 0.73 m3. This leaves 0.27 m3 for 117
kg of methane gas so that the methane density must be
approximately 430 kg/m3 to maintain constant overall volume.
At 50 °C, a pressure of approximately 300 MPa (~45,000 psi)
is required to compress methane to this density. This pressure
is sufficiently large to damage process equipment or some
sedimentary formations, but it may be useful for
scientific investigations.
Summary and Conclusions
Naturally occurring gas hydrates, whose existence was proven
only 39 years ago, contain great amounts of hydrocarbon
(5) energy accumulated in layers of sediments a few hundred
meters that are located near the earth’s surface. The potential
reserves of natural gas present as hydrates exceed 1.5×1016 m3.
As much as 20% of this hydrated gas may eventually be
produced, but new technologies will be required.
At the present time in different world regions, gas hydrate
deposits may form, dissociate, or exist in stable conditions in
sediments, depending on the thermodynamic conditions.
Approximately 98% of all gas hydrate deposits are located
)]
offshore in upper sedimentary layers. The regions with
(6) greatest potential for gas production from hydrates are on
oceanic slopes, where the thickness of hydrate-bearing rock
may reach hundreds of meters, and in some conditions exceed
1 kilometer. In addition to the gas present as hydrates, large
amounts of free gas or liquid hydrocarbons can accumulate
under impermeable hydrate layers, thereby providing even a
larger potential energy resource. Such coexistence of deposits
is very efficient for hydrocarbon production.
Large accumulations of gas in a hydrate state have been
found in virtually every part of the world where it has been
(7) sought. Geologic and thermodynamic conditions characteristic
of many offshore formations are potentially compatible with
formation and existence of gas hydrate deposits. Research on
natural gas hydrates is underway in a number of countries,
including the USA, Russia, Canada, Japan, India, Korea, and
China. We consider it worthwhile to combine the efforts of
scientists and industries of the countries working on this
problem. International collaboration will accelerate and
increase effectiveness of mastering these new resources of
(8)
mineral energy accumulated in gas hydrate deposits. With
dedicated efforts to identify and develop gas hydrate deposits,
many countries could be producing some gas from gas
hydrates in the next 25 years.
References
1. Alvarado A. US Mineral Management Service, Flow Assurance:
A Holistic Approach, 2003, May 15, Houston, Texas
2. Booth J.S., Rowe M.M. Offshore Gas Hydrate Sample
Database. Open-File Report 96 - 272, Woods Hole, 1996
3. Brooks, J.M., and W.R. Bryant. 1989.Report USGS, DOE MC,
21088
4. Clarke M. A., Pooladi-Darvish M, and Bishnoi P. R., 1999. A
Method To Predict Equilibrium Conditions of Gas Hydrate
Formation in Porous Media, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. Vol. 38,
2485-2490.
5. Coffin R., Methane Hydrate Formation & Stability in GOM,
NGHW, Washington, 2002
6. Collett T.S., Gautier D.L., Dolton G.L. et al., Gas hydrate
resources of the United States. USGS, DDS 30, Denver, 1995
7. Culberson L., McKetta J. AIME Trans 1950, 189,1
8. Davy, H. 1811. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London. 101, p.1.
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CO2 Mixtures in Water under High Pressure. Ind. Eng. Chem.
Res. 1999, 38.
10. Hammershmidt E.G. 1934. Formation of gas hydrates in natural
gas transmission lines. Int. Eng. Chem. 26:821-855.
11. Kawamura K., Ishikawa Y., Urano T., Chiang J. Development
of Downhole T & P Simulation Program for Drilling… JNOC-
TRC, Japan, 1998
OTC 16677 5

13. Kobayashi R., Katz D.L., I & EC, 1953, 15, 440
14. Kvenvolden K.A. Methane hydrate-a major reservoir of carbon
in the shallow geosphere? Chem. Geol. 1988, 71:41-51
15. Lee M.W., Hutchinson D.R., Dillon W.P., Miller J.J. Method of
estimating gas hydrates in deep marine sediments: Marine and
Petroleum Geology, V.10. 1993
16. Makogon Y.F. Hydrate Formation in Gas-Bearing Layer in
Permafrost Conditions, Gas Industry, No.5, 1965
17. Makogon Y.F. Peculiarities of Gas-Field development in
Permafrost Zone. 1966, Moscow, Nedra
18. Makogon Y.F., Trebin F.A., Trofimuk A.A., Cherskiy N.V.
Finding a gas deposit in the hydrate state. Doclady Academy
Nauk (DAN) USSR. Vol.196, N1, 1971.
19. Makogon Y.F., Koblova I.D., Chalikov G.A. 1971. Solubility of
gases in water at phase transition conditions. Mining business.
Alma-Ata, Kasachstan
20. Makogon Y. F. Natural Gases in the Ocean and the Problems of
Their Hydrates. Moscow, VNIIEGasprom, Express-Information,
No.11, 1972
21. Makogon Y. F. Perspectives of the World Oil and Gas Industry.
Gas Industry, No.7, 1984
22. Makogon Y. F. Hydrates of Natural Gases. 1974, NEDRA,
Moscow;1981,PennWell,Tulsa, USA
23. Makogon Y. F. Hydrates of Hydrocarbons (1997) PennWell,
Tulsa, USA
24. Makogon Y. F., Holditch S. A. Measurement of gas solubility
24.in water under high pressure and low temperature. Annual
Report, 1998. Texas A&M University
25. Makogon Y.F., Holditch S.A. Gas solubility in water, kinetics
and morphology of gas hydrates. Annual Report, 1999. Texas
A&M University
26. Makogon Y. F., Holditch S.A., Lee S., Natural Gas Solubility
and Gas Hydrate Deposits formation. IGRC, Amsterdam, 2001
27. Mazurenko L., Soloviev V. The Nature Hydrate-Forming Mud
Volcano Fluids. IV Int. Gas Hydrate Conference, 2002, Japan
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Techniques for Natural Gas Hydrate - Bearing Formation.
Methane Hydrates. Japan, 1998
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30. Priestley J. 1778 Verssuche und Beobachtungen Uber
Verhiedene Gattungen der Luft, Th. 1-3, 3:359-362.
Wien-Leipzig.
31. Sea water: Its Composition, Properties and Behavior, 1995,
Open University in association with Pergamon
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Dekker, Inc. New York
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The solubility of gas in water at and near hydrate conditions,
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Surfactants. 2nd International Workshop on Methane Hydrates.
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Hydrates Conference, Japan
Corresponding Author:
Yuri F. Makogon
Phone/fax: 979-690-8871 / 979-845-4066
Email: makogon@spindletop.tamu.edu

Table 1. Gas composition in several hydrate deposits

Gas Hydrate Deposit C1 C2 C3 i-C4 n-C4 C5 + CO2 N2

Haakon Mosby MV 99.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Bush Hill White* 72.1 11.5 13.1 2.4 1.0 0.0 0.0
Bush Hill Yellow* 73.5 11.5 11.6 2.0 1.0 0.3 0.2
Green Canyon White* 66.5 8.9 15.8 7.2 1.4 0.2 0.1
Green Canyon Yellow* 69.5 8.6 15.2 5.4 1.2 0.0 0.0
Bush Hill* 29.7 15.3 36.6 9.7 4.0 4.8 1.6
Messoyaha, Russia 98.6 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.7
Mallik, Canada 99.7 0.03 0.27
Nankai Trough, Japan** 94.3 2.6 0.57 0.1 0.8 0.23 1.4
* Kohin, 2002
**Waseda, et al., 2002
6 OTC 16677

Figure 1. World Map of Known Gas Hydrate Deposits

11
Figure 2. USGS Estimates of U.S. In-Place Methane Contained
3
Within Gas Hydrates(Tm )

914
17

2074
1170
609
1521
208 857
611
1083
OTC 16677 7

Figure 3. Gas concentration in water before and after Figure 5. Natural gas solubility in water after hydrate formations
hydrate Formation
5.5
PT-NG-W
FH5
FH-10
5 FH-15
FH-20
FH-25
4.5

Gas content, cm /gr

3
3.5

2.5

1.5

1
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
o
Temperature, C
Fig. 5 Natural Gas Solubility in Water after hydrate fomations
PT-NG-W - equilibrium Pressure-Temperature line for
hydrates. F-gas solubility, cm3/g

Figure 4. Natural gas solubility in water at hydrate conditions Figure 6. Nankai Gas-Hydrate Situation
3

11 2 2.5 3 3.5 Gas solubility, cm /gr 4

PT-NG-W P=5 Mpa 900
D E C
10 P=10 Mpa P=15 Mpa 1000
P=20 Mpa P=25 Mpa 1100 g
f L-I
9 1200
e d L-III
1300
8
Gas content, cm /gr

1400
3

B
7
Depth, m

1500

1600
6
1700

1800
5
1900
4 2000

2100
3
2200 A
Fig. 6 Nankai Gas-Hydrate Situation
2

1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 131415 16171819 202122 2324
Temperature, oC
Fig.4 Natural Gas Solubility in Water at hydrate
conditions (PT-NG-W - equilibrium hydrate line;
P-Pressure, Mpa; T-Temperature, K
8 OTC 16677

Fig. 7 Hydrate formation zone - Nankai- Trough

Temperature, oC
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
0
S
100
200
300
M
400 m
500
600
Depth, m

700
800
900 A Sea bed
1000
o
1100 GTG=23 C/km
B Top of GHD
1200
C Bottom of GHD
1300 LNGSw
1400 GTG
Top GHD GTG=22 oC/km D
1500 E
Bottom GHD
1600
Fig. 7 Hydrate formation zone - Nankai-Trough (M-N-equilibrium P-T hydrate N
line; ABE-GTGradient