CHAPTER 3: EARTH: STRUCTURE AND SUBSYSTEMS

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

 Explain how earth differentiated into layers as it cooled from its molten state
 Describe the seismology methods for studying the Earth’s interior
 Differentiate the layers of the earth through their properties, characteristic and activity

INTRODUCTION

Have you ever tried cutting a multi-layered cake before? If you were to cut earth, how would it
compare to the layers of the cake? Just like a cake, will the layers be also made of different materials?
Earth has many layers because it was shaped by the geologic processes that began at the start of
Earth’s origin. The differences each layer are based on the components that make them up.

Earth’s Formation and Layer

Recall the formation of the Aolar System based on solar nebular theory. The initial nebula
consists of mixtures of grain (rocks) and ices. Through the process of accretion, different types of planets
are formed—from small terrestrial planets to large Jovian planets. The process of accretion can be
described into four steps as show in table.
Steps in the Formation of Earth Through Accretion

Step 1 Accretion of dust particles

 Step 2 Physical collision

Step 3 Gravitational accretion

Step 4 Molten protoplanet due to heat of

accretion

The final step is differentiation of the Earth. Heavy or dense materials like nickel (Ni) and iron
(Fe) sink to the center of the Earth. Light or dense materials rose to the surface.
Earth consists of layers made up of different densities. Earth’s center is the core composed of
dense metals nickel and iron. The outermost layer, called the crust, is made up mostly of light elements
such as silicon, oxygen and aluminum. The middle layer consisting of rocks is called the mantle.
 Layers of Earth consisting of different densities

Core: Inner and Outer

The study of Earth’s interior is most difficult because it is inaccessible. The formation about
Earth’s core is from seismic information and computer models.
Inge Lehmann, a seismologist, discovered in 1936 that Earth has solid inner core. Furthermore,
studies showed that the hot spherical solid has a radius of 1250 kilometers. It consists mainly of iron-
nickel alloy and is magnetic. It has a temperature of about 6000°C, almost as hot as the surface of the sun.
The pressure in the inner core is so great that the alloy cannot melt. For this reason the inner core is
mostly solid.
The outer core is made mostly or iron and nickel. The outer core is approximately 2 300 km
thick. It is very hot; the temperature is between 4000 and 5000°. Because of t very high temperature, the
outer core is liquid. The boundary between the outer and inner core is sometimes referred to as Lehmann
discontinuity.
Earth's molten metallic core gave rise to magnetic field. The magnetic field is attributed to
dynamo effect of circulating electric current. The nature of the dynamo are not known in detail, however,
it is always linked to the rotation of Earth.
INNER CORE AND OUTER CORE

Inner Core Outer Core

 Iron and Nickel  Iron and Nickel
 Magnetic  Magnetic
 Solid  Liquid
 1250 km  Cause of Earth’s Magnetic
Field
 2300 km.

Mantle: Lower and Upper

The mantle is the longest part of Earth. It is the intermediate layer of the Earth and is subdivided
into lower and upper mantle. It is made up of molten rocks called magma. The magma circulates in
currents determined by the cooling and sinking of heavier minerals and the heating and rising of the
lighter minerals. The mantle has a total of thickness of 2900 km.
The lower mantle is hot and exhibits plasticity. The higher pressure in the layer causes formation
of minerals that are different from these of the upper layer. Gutenberg discontinuity is detected between
Earth's lower mantle and the outer core as observed by changes in the seismic waves. It is 2,240 km thick.
The uppermost mantle and the Earth's crust together form the lithosphere and are relatively rigid. The
upper boundary that separates the upper mantle from the Earth's crust is defined by the sudden increased
in seismic velocity which is called Moho discontinuity (noted by Andrija Mohorovičić in 1909). Moho is
5-10 kilometers below the ocean floor and 20 to 90 kilometers with an average of 35 kilometers, beneath
typical continents.
 The asthenosphere is the layer that lies after the lithosphere (100-250 km) beneath the Earth's
surface. The name was given by British geologists J. Barrell in 1914. The balance between temperature
and pressure is such that the rocks have little strength (weak) and easily deformed, it is believed that
asthenosphere plays a critical role in the movement of plates on the surface of the Earth according to the
plate tectonic theory.
LOWER AND UPPER MANTLE

Lower/Mid-Mantle Upper Mantle

 Asthenosphere  Lithosphere
 Soft/magma  Rigid/solid
 Exhibits “plasticity”  Moho discontinuity
 Convection currents  660 km
 2240 km

Cross-section of Earth’s outer layers Discontinuities of Earth’s layers

Crust
There are two types of Earth crust that make up the surface of the lithosphere these are the
oceanic crust and the continental crust the following table shows the comparison between the two types of
Earth's crust.

OCEANIC CRUS AND CONTINENTAL CRUST

Oceanic Crust Continental Crust

 Dark-colored  Light-colored
 Rock sample:  Rock sample:
Basalt Granite
 More Dense  Less dense
 Thin layer  Coarse- Comparison of oceanic and continental crust.
 50 km textured
 Thick layer
 40-70 km

Earth’s Subsystems
In your study of Earth, you found out that our planet is dynamic and each part of Earth--land,
water, air, and life-are interconnected and continuously interact with one another. The interactivity parts
that form a complex whole defined a system. The interacting parts in the Earth's system are called
subsystems.
There are four subsystems Earth include: lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the solid outer section of the Earth. It includes the entire Earth's crust and the
rigid upper mantle. The two crusts are the continental and oceanic crust. You learned from the previous
lesson that the two are different in composition:
The lithosphere is not a continuous layer. It is divided into a number of huge plates that move in
relation to one another. It is believed that at the beginning of the Earth, the continents are all locked up
into a huge landmass called Pangaea as proposed
by Alfred Wegener. They broke apart and
gradually drifted to their present position. Do you
know that the plates drift sideways at the rate of
12 cm per year? This seems to be slow but
imagine how much the plates had moved in 100
years, 1000 years, or 1 million years.
 The large-scale movement of the Earth's plate is explained by plate tectonic theory, Plate tectonic
theory proposes that the lithosphere is divided into major plate and smaller plates nesting upon the lower
soft layer called asthenosphere. The mechanism of movement is probably related to the convection
current within the Earth’s mantle.
Do you know that there are 15 major tectonic plates? However, experts today count more than 50
Pangaea continent map
plates. The Philippine plate has been changed to Philippine Sea plate.

Basic plate map

The border between tectonic plates is called boundary. Tectonic plates are moving in different
direction. Because of these differences tectonic plate boundaries are grouped into three main types:
convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries.

The three types of tectonic plate boundaries: (a) divergent, (b) convergent, and (c) transform.
 In general, volcanoes and earthquakes help define the boundaries between the plates. Volcanoes
are formed mostly at converging and diverging plate boundaries. Earthquakes occur at three types of
boundaries.
Are continents the same as plates? The answer is no. Continents are large, continuous, discrete
masses of land separated by expanses of water. Continents are part of the plates. Some continents occur in
the middle of plates, not at their boundaries or edges. The plates are layers of rigged, solid rocks that are
moving. For example, Asia, is a continent found in Eurasian Plate, North American Plate, Arabian Plate
and Indo-Australian Plate. Continents have moved by “riding on the tops" of plates for millions and
millions of years.
There are seven continents in the world: North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa,
Antarctica and Australia.

Continents of the world

Atmosphere
The early Birth was very different from the Earth today. It was very inhospitable. There were
frequent imparts from asteroids and meteorites as well as much frequent volcanic eruption. The
temperature was still very high causing hydrogen (H,) and helium (He) escaped to space. The early Earth
atmosphere has lots of water vapor but no oxygen.
Later, frequent volcanic eruptions produced gases such as water (H,O), carbon dioxide(CO 2)
carbon monoxide (SO,), nitrogen (N,), hydrogen (H.), ammonia (NH,), and methane (CH). Still there was
no free oxygen.
As the Earth cooled, water condensed to form oceans, Carbon dioxide (CO) dissolved into oceans
forming carbonates, nitrogen (N,) became its major component of the atmosphere.
Two component processes changed the Earth's atmosphere. First the radiation from the Sun
caused water (H,O) as split apart 2H,0 2H,0+0, hydrogen (H,) escaped each to outer space and oxygen
(O,) accumulated in the atmosphere, Second, a type of organism called cyanobacteria evolved and began
carrying our photosynthesis. Photosynthesis utilized carbon dioxide and energy co produce sugar and
oxygen. CO, + H,0 sugar +O, Oxygen (O,) released during photosynthesis supplied the rest of oxygen in
the atmosphere.
Development, evolution and growth of life increased the quantity of oxygen in the atmosphere,
since there was enough oxygen in the atmosphere, ozone (O,) layer terrestrial life from ultraviolet
radiation. As a result terrestrial lite developed and flourished.
The atmosphere does nor only have a relatively stable composition. It also has a structure based
on temperature.

Troposphere
The lowest layer is the troposphere.. Most of
the water vapor present in the atmosphere is found in
the troposphere. All weather-associated cloud types are
found in this layer.
Refer to figure. The troposphere extends from the
Earth’s surface to the average height of about 12 km. 9
km at the poles, and 17 km at the equator.
Temperature decreases as altitude increases
because at higher altitude, the atmosphere becomes
thinner and absorbs less solar radiation. The

The layers of the atmosphere is determined

by the changes in temperature as it goes
temperature stops decreasing at the tropopause. It is found at the top of the troposphere. The lowest part
of the troposphere (Earth’s surface) is the warmest part.

Stratosphere
Above the tropopause is the stratosphere. It is the second lowest layer of Earth’s atmosphere. The
layer extends from the top of the troposphere at 12 km above the Earth’s surface to the stratopause, with
an altitude of 50 km. Refer to the figure. What happens to the temperature as the altitude increases? The
temperature increases, the temperature increase is due to the presence of ozone (O,). Ozone absorbs the
ultraviolet rays from the sun and releases some of this energy in the stratosphere. It protects life on Earth
by absorbing the ultraviolet radiation. It is also the layer where jet planes fly. At the stratosphere,
temperature stops increasing. It is found at the top of the stratosphere
The stratosphere lacks the weather-producing air turbulence and is almost completely free of
clouds and other forms of weather

Mesosphere
The mesosphere is the third layer of the atmosphere. It extends from the stratopause at an altitude
of 50 km to the mesopause at around 80 km. The layer with decreasing temperature as altitude increases
is the mesosphere. The coldest region in the atmosphere is in the upper mesosphere. This layer protects
the Earth from the meteoroids. Most meteoroids that enter the atmosphere burn up due to the intense
friction that builds up between to air and the meteoroid. Burning meteoroid is seen on Earth as “shooting
star" or "burning meteors." The streak of light is caused by the hot, glowing gas from a burning
meteoroid. Meteoroids that manage to reach Earth are called meteorites. Temperature stops decreasing at
the mesopause.

Thermosphere
It is the second highest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, It extends from the mesopause at an
altitude of 80 km to the thermosphere at around 700 km. Beyond the mesosphere is the thermosphere.
From the figure you will notice that temperature increases as altitude increases. Nitrogen (N,) and oxygen
(O2) absorb a great deal of ultraviolet radiation and turns it into heat. The temperature in this layer can to
as high as 1500°C.
The portion of the thermosphere between 80 and 550 kilometers above the Earth is called the
ionosphere. It is a layer consisting of highly ionized gas. The ionized gas is formed when ultraviolet rays
knocked off electron from nitrogen and oxygen.
The ions in the atmosphere form bands or layers. These layers reflect ordinary radio waves back
to the Earth by reflecting Figure 3-13. Aurora showing colorful display of light ordinary waves back to
earth over and over again. These layers help the radio waves pass around the Earth. The layer of the
ionosphere that reflects radio waves is called Kennelly-Heaviside layer. At the poles, the ions interact
with air molecules to form aurora. Auroras are colorful display of light: aurora borealis or northern lights
and aurora Australia or southern lights.

Exosphere
The exosphere it is the outermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere. It extends at about 700 km to
about 1000 km above sea level, Most of the orbiting satellites as well as low density elements like
hydrogen and helium are found in this layer.

ACTIVITY Layers of the Atmosphere

Objectives

 Determine how the atmosphere is divided into different layers.

Materials:
 graphing paper
 pencil
 flexible ruler

Procedure:
1. Plot the average temperature readings at various altitudes in Earth’s atmosphere.
2. Label the different layers and the separating boundaries between each layer and locate the ozone
layer.

Average Temperature Reading at Various Altitudes

Altitude (km) Temperature (℃ ) Altitude (km) Temperature (℃ )
0 15 52 -2
5 -18 55 -7
10 -49 60 -17
12 -56 65 -33
20 -56 70 -54
25 -51 75 -65
30 -46 80 -79
35 -37 84 -86
40 -22 92 -86
45 -8 95 -81
48 -2 100 -72
QUICK QUIZ

1. If you could reach the atmosphere, would you feel hot? Why or why not?

2. How did scientists determine the layers of the atmosphere?

Geosphere

Beneath the atmosphere is the solid region of Earth—geosphere. It does not only comprise the
visible solid layer, it also extends to the center of Earth. It has a depth of 6400 km, making it the largest
sphere of Earth. It is divided into different layers: crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core.

Hydrosphere
From the previous lesson you learned that in the Earth early history, the volcanic eruptions
spewed gases such as water (H,O), carbon dioxide (CO,), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO,),
and other gases. As the Earth cooled, water vapor condensed to form the early ocean while the other gases
remained in the gaseous state to make up the early atmosphere.
 At a glance of the globe or a view of the Earth from space, you will notice that Earth consists
mostly of water. 1his is the reason why Earth is called blue planet. Nearly 71% of its surface is covered
by ocean.
The world’s ocean can be divided into four main ocean basins. There are: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic
Ocean, Indian Ocean, and Artic Ocean.
The terms ocean and sea are often used interchangeably, sea is a part of an ocean and is partially
surrounding by land. It is totally surrounded by land, it is called Island Sea. An ocean is a body of salt
water with almost no boundaries and limitless volume.
Ocean water or seawater has an average salinity of 35%. Salinity refers to the proportion of
dissolved salts to pure water expressed in parts for thousand.
To help you understand salinity, refer to the figure 3.15. The amount may seem small but the
actual quantity is huge. If all the water in the ocean were evaporate, a 60 m layer of salt will cover the
entire ocean floor.
Compositions
Ocean water or seawater has an
average salinity of 35%. Salinity refers to the
proportion of dissolved salts to pure water
expressed in parts for thousand.