WEEK 6-8

CHAPTER 4: EARTH’S MATERIALS: ROCKS AND MINERALS

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Explain the process within the rock
 Distinguish between sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks
 Differentiate intrusive magma from extrusive magma
 Describe the process of minerals solidifying crystals
 Describe the different forms of intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks
 Explain why lava flows differ from one another
 Explain how tephra are expelled from volcanoes

INTRODUCTION

The different rock formations found on Earth were formed by the external and internal processes,
which took hundreds and thousands of years. With that much amount of time, rock formations contain
information about the events that happened throughout Earth’s History.

Rock-Forming Minerals
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. They have been used for basic necessities and for
decorative purposes since prehistoric times. These minerals that are common and abundant on Earth's
crust are known as rock-forming minerals.
The use of the term "mineral" is not exclusive to geology. It is also used in health sciences as a
substance that is beneficial to the body. In the mining industry, any substance that has been extracted
from a mine is also called mineral. For geologists, a mineral is a naturally-occurring inorganic solid that
exhibits a crystalline structure and can be represented by a chemical formula.Thus, to determine if an
Earth mineral is a mineral, it should exhibit the following characteristics:
1. Naturally-occurring- It is a mineral if it has been formed by geologic processes without any
human intervention.
2. Inorganic-A mineral is inorganic if it is formed by inorganic processes and does not contain any
organic compounds. However, minerals like calcite and other shell-forming materials are formed
through organic processes but are still considered as minerals if they become part of a rock.
3. Solid- A mineral should exhibit stability at room temperature, which can only be attained if it is
solid.
4. Crystalline structure- Minerals look like crystals since the arrangement of their atoms is ordered
and repetitive. Thus, naturally-occurring, inorganic solids, such as obsidian, cannot be considered
a mineral since they lack a crystalline structure.
5. Can be represented by a chemical formula - Most minerals are chemical compounds and can
therefore be represented using a fixed or variable chemical formula. An example of a mineral
 with a fixed chemical formula is quartz (SiO 2,). This indicates that the mineral quartz contains
one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms. Olivine is mineral that has a variable chemical formula.
It can be represented as either Mg2Sio4 or Fe2SiO4.
The characteristics of minerals are used to differentiate a mineral from a regular rock. But a mineral is
further identified by its unique sets of properties due to its crystalline structure and chemical
compositions. These properties help in identifying what kind of mineral is found. The properties of a
mineral include optical properties (such as luster, light transmission, color, and streak) mineral strength
(such as tenacity, hardness, cleavage, and fracture), and specific gravity.

Optical Properties
1. Luster is the quality of light that is being reflected by the surface of a mineral. It can be metallic
Luster (minerals that look like metals and are shiny), submetallic luster (minerals that develop
dull coating and are not as shiny), and nonmetallic luster (minerals that are described as glassy,
earthy, pearly, or greasy).

galena amber quartz

Examples of minerals with different luster: galena has metallic luster, amber is resinous, and quartz is glassy .

2. A mineral's ability to transmit light determines whether it is opaque, translucent, of transparent. A

mineral is opaque when the light that strikes the object does not pass through. When light strikes
a translucent mineral, some of the light passes through. When light strikes a transparent mineral,
almost all the light will completely pass through.

3. Color is the property of a mineral that is easiest to identify. It is als0 considered an unreliable
property when it comes to identifying the mineral since slight impurities can affect color.

smoky
rose quartz
quartz purple amethyst clear quartz
Mineral quartz that exhibits a variety of colors: rose, smoky, purple amethyst and clear
 4. Streak is the color of the mineral in its powdered form. This
property is often used in identifying the mineral since it is
very consistent unlike color. Streak can be obtained by
rubbing the mineral across a streak plate or a piece of
unglazed porcelain. However, minerals that are harder than
Streak plate is unglazed porcelain
porcelain cannot produce streak.
that shows the streak of a
mineral.

Mineral Strength
Mineral strength determines how easy the mineral breaks
SCIENTIST OF TIME
or deforms when exposed to stress. This can be determined
by the chemical bonds between each crystal lattice. The
terms used to describe mineral strength are tenacity,
hardness, cleavage, and fracture.

1. Tenacity refers to the minerals resistance to breaking

or deforming. These minerals can either be brittle,
malleable, sectile, or elastic.

2. Hardness is the measure of a minerals resistance to

abrasion or scratching. To determine the hardness of
a mineral, a comparative hardness scale assigning Friedrich Mohs
numerical values to the hardness of a mineral was
(1973-1989)
made by Friedrich Mohs. The Mohs hardness scale
assigned 1 to talc, which is the softest, and assigned Friedrich Mohs is a German
0 to diamond, which is the hardest mineral. mineralogist who devised a scale to
determine the hardness of minerals. He
selected 10 common minerals and
determined their hardness, which
Mohs Scale of Hardness became the basis for determining the
hardness of unknown minerals.
Hardness Mineral
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Feldspar
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond
 3. Cleavage is exhibited when a mineral breaks and smooth flat surfaces are formed from the
breakage.

The different cleavage that a mineral can exhibit.

4. Fracture is exhibited if the mineral does not have a cleavage plane. This is usually due to the
equally strong chemical bonds between atoms of the mineral.

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is a measurement done by mineralogists to describe the density of the mineral. It
represents the ratio of the mass of the mineral to the mass of equal volume of water. Most rock forming
minerals have a specific gravity that is between 2 and 3.

Other Properties

Carbonate minerals like calcite, dolomite, azurite, malachite react with hydrochloric acid (HCI).
Minerals containing iron like magnetite and hematite and attracted by a magnet.
Gold, silver, and copper minerals are good conductors of electricity.

Mineral Resources in the Philippines

 Do you know that the Philippines have large reserves of various kinds of minerals? In fact, it is
the fifth most mineral-rich country in the world for gold, nickel, copper and chromite. The reason for its
abundance is because of our location along the Circum-Pacific Rim, where the processes of volcanism
and plate convergence caused the deposition of both metallic and non-metallic minerals.

The Mines and Geosciences Bureau estimated that the country has around $840 billion worth of
untapped mineral wealth from metallic and non-metallic minerals. Suppose you change the dollars to
pesos, the amount is staggering.
The metallic minerals include gold, copper, nickel, chromite, and iron.

Benguet, Masbate, Camarines Norte, Compostella Valley, Agusan Del Sur, and Surigao Del
Norte have large deposits of gold with silver. Copper with gold and silver deposits are found in Benquet,
Cebu, Zamboanga Del Norte, and Nueva Vizcaya. Chromite deposits are located in Surigao del Norte and
Samar. Large deposits of nickel are found in Palawan, Zambales, Surigao Del Norte, and Surigao Del Sur
as well as Dinagat Island. Iron deposits are located in Leyte, Bulacan, Camarines Sur, and Zamboanga.

The nonmetallic minerals include limestone, marble, gravel and sand and other quarry materials.
Limestone deposits are found in Guimaras Island, La Union, Pangasinan, and largest marble deposit is
found in Romblon. It is called the marble capital of the Philippines. Cobrador island has deposits of rare
black, gold and green marbles.

DO THIS ACTIVITY

Find out if there are mineral deposits in your region. Prepare a report on the pros and cons of
mining industry in your region or near your region.

The Rock Cycle

 A rock is any solid that is naturally found on Earth. It may consist of minerals, other pre-existing
rocks, mineral-like matter, or organic debris. Some rocks can contain just one mineral while others can
include a composite of several minerals. But even if a variety of minerals are found in one rock, the
minerals retain their individual chemical and physical properties. For rocks to contain these different
materials, they should undergo processes that would change their form. The process wherein rocks
change into sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock, and igneous rock is the rock cycle.

Materials on the surface of Earth change their form through the rock cycle.

From Mountain Ranges to Sediments

The surface of Earth is full of breath-taking landscapes such as mountain ranges. These mountain
ranges are constantly interacting with the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. This interaction can
physically break the rocks apart and chemically change their composition through the process of
weathering. Weathering is the process of disintegration (physical) and decomposition (chemical) of rocks.
The end result of this continuous weathering is loose fragments of rocks and minerals that cover the
surface of Earth, which are collectively known as regolith.

The breaking down of rocks can occur physically or chemically. If the smaller rocks have the
same chemical composition with the bedrock where they are from, the rock has undergone mechanical
weathering or physical weathering.

There are different agents that can lead to physical weathering. Physical weathering may be
through water, such as in the case of frost wedging (figure 2-6). Rocks usually have small cracks in their
surface where water can enter and freeze or thaw depending on the weather. Water has a special
characteristic that as it freezes, it expands. Thus, the continuous freezing-thawing cycle of the water
would gradually increase the size of the cracks and, in time, break the rock apart.
 Another agent would be the presence of precipitate that comes from the dissolved materials in the
groundwater. Instead of ice, it is the salt crystals that grow larger and break the rocks apart. Fire can also
lead to physical weathering since the intense heat causes the rocks to expand, fracture, and break. Also,
the sudden release from pressure causes the formation of fractures on rocks. As this unloading continues,
the outer rocks generate onion-like layers called sheet which would later fall off the main rock. Lastly,
plants and burrowing animals can also cause physical weathering. As trees grow, the roots spread deeply
into the soil and break rocks along the process (figure 2-8). Burrowing animals need to break the rocks on
their way for them to move underground.

Rocks look like onion skin layers due to unloading. A plant breaks the rock in half as it grows.

Chemical reactions change the chemical composition of the rocks, which can lead to their
breakdown. This process is known as chemical weathering.
 Stalactites and stalagmites are effects of The
chemical
distinct features of the statue have
weathering in rocks. been chemically weathered over time.

Water is not only an agent for physical weathering but it is also the main agent for chemical
weathering. Although pure water is nonreactive, the combination of dissolved materials and water
produces weak acids. For example, carbonic acid is produced when rainwater is combined with
atmospheric carbon dioxide. Carbonic acid may be a weak acid but it is enough to wear down the calcite,
the mineral found in lime stones and marbles. Granite is also chemically-weathered by carbonic acid. The
acid wears down the mineral potassium feldspar and produces a residual clay mineral, a soluble salt, and
some silica. Aside from potassium feldspar, quartz is another main component of granite resistant to
carbonic acid; thus, it can survive chemical weathering process.
QUICK QUIZ

Physical weathering is an entirely different process compared to chemical weathering. How can
these two processes work together to speed up the weathering process?
 Weathering that occurs on mountains detaches large slabs
of rocks. These large slabs of rocks would then move down due
to the force of gravity. The resulting movement is called mass wasting. Mass wasting is often triggered by
natural phenomena, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and heavy rainfall. Volcanic eruptions can
cause earthquakes, which in turn, would loosen the land materials. Since the land is no longer held
together tightly, gravity would then cause the large mass of land to move downslope. Heavy rainfall, on
the other hand, saturates the land with water, making it unstable and more fluid-like, which can easily be
influenced by gravity. Humans may also cause mass wasting if the natural slopes have been severely
modified.

Mass wasting can be classified according to the type of movement and the material involved. The
types of movement are falls, slides, avalanches, flows. Falls occur when materials located in a steep slope
move downward without contact with the ground until they reach the foot of the slope. Slides move the
materials as one following a nearly straight line down the slope. Slumps are like slide but they move along
a curved surface. Avalanches are the most rapid moving type of mass wasting where loose materials move
incoherently or in a chaotic fashion. Lastly, flows are the movement of materials when they become
saturated with water thus moving like a liquid.

Materials that move following a curved

The smaller fragments that resulted from weathering and erosion are generally not transported by
surface is called a slump.
the influence of gravity. Rather, the rocks and sediments are transported with the help of wind, water, and
ice.

A fluid's capacity to transport sediments depends on its speed. The faster-moving fluids tend to
transport a lot more sediments, including the heavy particles, than the slower-moving fluids. Abrasion or
the scraping of materials occurs as the sediments are being transported. The sediments that have been
transported farther have undergone more abrasion, making the sediments smoother and more rounded.
Thus, erosion can sort and alter the shape of these sediments. After the sediments have been transported,
accumulation will occur in low-lying areas as a result of deposition.

The processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition in the rock cycle are responsible for shaping
Earth’s surface. After the sediments have undergone these processes, they then undergo lithification to
become sedimentary rocks. Lithification comes from the Greek word lithos, which means “stone." Hence,
lithification means "stone making.

For sediments to transform into a sedimentary rock, the sediments must first be bound closely
together. This can occur if more sediments are deposited over the ones that have accumulated earlier, or if
these sediments get involved in tectonic processes. Both processes subject the sediments to a higher
pressure, binding the sediments closer and making them more compact.

After compaction has occurred, lithification can occur through cementation or recrystallization.
Cementation happens when the groundwater that has seeped in between the sediments evaporate, leaving
behind precipitates such as silica and calcium carbonate to cement the sediments together.
Recrystallization, on the other hand, occurs when mineral grains interlock themselves in the existing
rocks, where they continue growing. An example of recrystallization occurs in limestone which forms
coral reefs.
 Both lithification processes would produce a sedimentary rock, a rock that is most easily
identified because of its strata (layers) and the fossils it contains. Since sedimentary rocks preserve the
remains of a living organism, they are useful in studying Earths geologic history.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are classified and identified according to texture, nature and shape of the
sediments, and presence of cement. The main classifications of a sedimentary rock are elastic or detrital
sedimentary rock and chemical sedimentary rock.

Clastic sedimentary rocks are those that are formed by accumulation, compaction, and
cementation of different solid particles that came from mechanical or chemical weathering. These rocks,
therefore, contain rock particles of different shapes and sizes. These are further classified into five
classes, namely, conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, siltstone, and shale.

Examples of clastic sedimentary rocks.

Chemical
Conglomerate sedimentary rock Breccia
mostly contains materials that are formed by chemical precipitation
Sandstone Siltstone
of minerals as a direct result of physical processes or an indirect result of life processes of water- dwelling
animals. Examples of chemical sedimentary rocks formed directly from physical processes are halite,
rock gypsum, and dolomite. All of these are formed when evaporation occurs and the minerals left behind
are deposited as solid. Limestone is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock that is formed as part
of the life processes of water-dwelling animals. Varieties of limestone formed in this manner include
coquina, which is characterized by seashells being cemented together, and chalk, which is composed of
hard parts of microscopic organisms, which are said to have a biochemical origin.

Limestone Dolomite Halite Rock gypsum

Examples of chemical sedimentary rocks

From Old to New Rocks

Pre-existing rocks may sometimes be involved in tectonic processes wherein they are subjected to
higher pressures and temperatures that transform them into metamorphic rocks. These preexisting rocks
undergo the process of metamorphism while in solid form, thereby retaining some of their original form
and details of the events that changed them. Since metamorphism only occurs in solid rocks, the rocks
change their mineralogy, texture, and sometimes their chemical composition without melting.
 The changes caused by metamorphism depend on the environment the rock is exposed to.
Minimal or low-grade metamorphism occurs at 150°C to 550°C and at relatively low pressures. Shale, a
sedimentary rock, undergoes low-grade metamorphism to become slate. Shale and slate are sometimes
difficult to distinguish because the changes are so gradual that their difference is produce extreme
changes to the parent rock, since the surrounding temperatures are above 550°C and the pressure is
relatively higher.

The setting where the process occurs determines the kind of metamorphism that happen. The
three kinds of metamorphism are contact metamorphism, burial metamorphism, and regional
metamorphism. Contact metamorphism happens when magma intrudes a cooler rock, exposing the rock
to higher temperatures but not to higher pressures. Higher temperatures can also be attained when the
rocks are buried too deep on the ground. This is called burial metamorphism. In this setting, the rocks
undergoing metamorphism experience not only high temperatures but also uniform stress. Lastly, most
metamorphic rocks are formed via regional metamorphism, which occurs during mountain-building.
Regional metamorphism occurs when a large mass of rocks is exposed to differential stress and to high
temperatures.

Contact metamorphism occurs when rocks are in contact with magma. Regional
metamorphism occurs on large masses of rocks involved in mountain building.

Although heat and pressure are the main agents of metamorphism, chemically-active fluids are
also a part of the process. Rocks are exposed to these three agents simultaneously but in varying degrees,
depending on the type of metamorphism. Among the three agents, heat is the most important because it
triggers the recrystallization and formation of minerals. This heat can be from the intrusion of magma or
from being buried too deep, since temperature increases with depth.

Aside from temperature, pressure also increases with depth. In burial metamorphism, the rock is
subjected to compressional stress. The rock is squeezed equally on all sides, making it more compact.
Rocks formed by burial metamorphism may seem like an unaltered sedimentary rock, but the difference
lies in their mineral assemblages. In regional metamorphism, the rock is subjected to differential stress
(tensional, compressional, and shear) greater than what rocks can withstand, which causes deformation.
Tensional stress pulls the rock apart, making it elongated, compressional stress squeezes the rock, making
it shortened; and shear stress applies pressure on the different sides of the rock, making it twisted or
crumpled. These processes produce different textures since the parent rocks behave differently under
differential stress. If the parent rock is originally from the surface, differential stress tends to fracture,
grind, and pulverize the brittle parent rock. This is called brittle deformation since the stress caused the
chemical bonds that hold the material together to break. But if the parent rock is formed in high
temperature environments, ductile deformation occurs. In ductile deformation, the stress causes the rock
to flatten or elongate without breaking it.

Aside from pressure and temperature, chemically-active fluids serve as catalysts for
recrystallization. These fluids, which are never pure water, are often present in the pores of the
preexisting rocks. Under high pressures and temperatures, the composition of the pore fluid changes.
Constituents of the pore fluid may move to the area of the minerals and start growing new minerals. It is
also possible that the minerals may move into the pore fluid. This exchange hastens the chemical
reactions that happen during metamorphism.

Metamorphic Rocks

Different kinds of metamorphism produce different

mineralogy and texture on the metamorphic rock. These are then
used to classify metamorphic rocks into either foliated metamorphic
rocks or non-foliated metamorphic rocks.
Foliation refers to the arrangement of the mineral crystals in
the metamorphic rock and is often exhibited by those that are formed by regional An example of a foliated
Figure 2-18. An example of a foliated metamorphic metamorphism. Foliated metamorphic rock is gneiss.
metamorphic rocks exhibit parallel alignment of minerals. Others may
also have evident compositional banding wherein light and dark minerals
generate a layered appearance. An example of a foliated metamorphic
rock is schist. Schists are platy, primarily composed of muscovite and
biotite, and can be split into thin sheets.

Not all metamorphic rocks are foliated. Non-foliated

metamorphic rocks are produced when there is very little deformation and when the parent rock has
equidimensional crystals. The resulting metamorphic rock has a non-foliated metamorphic large
interlocking crystal that is randomly oriented and is formed from the recrystallization An example of a non-foliated
of the smaller crystals. An example is marble, which is from the sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock is marble.
limestone.

From Molten Materials to Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed when preexisting rocks are exposed to higher temperatures
temperature, melting occurs. This produces molten
rocks called magma. The molten rocks that have
crystallized become igneous rocks.
 The high temperature mainly comes from the heat, which is generated internally by Earth through
radioactive decay. Earth contains a lot of radioactive elements like uranium. Since these radioactive
elements are unstable, they continue to break down until they reach a more stable state. As the materials
break down, energy is released in the form of heat, which is then transferred to the other layers of Earth
by conduction or convection. Aside from the radioactive decay, high temperature can also be attained as
one moves deeper into Earth since temperature increases with depth.
For a rock to melt, factors such as temperature, pressure, and presence of water or water vapor are
important. At the surface, the temperature must Basaltic magma is freely flowing and creates lava
reach around 800°C to 1000°C for rocks to melt fountains but releases very few pyroclastic materials.
since they have different compositions. But within This is mostly found in the volcanoes of Hawaii.
Earth's interior, as rocks move further down,
pressure increases along with temperature and the rocks' melting point. However, due to high pressure at
a depth of 100 km, rocks no longer melt even though the temperature goes as high as 1000°C. Thus, for
melting to occur, a decrease in pressure is needed. This process is called decompression melting. In
subduction zones, it is the presence of water, which aids in the melting of rocks, since water decreases the
rocks' melting point.

Since rocks melt at different temperatures, it is possible that the melting will be incomplete. The
part of the rocks that are partially melted will have a different density from that of the parts that have not
melted, causing them to separate. If the melted rock solidifies, the composition of this new rock would be
entirely different from that of the original rock. This process is called partial or fractional melting. It is
responsible for the variations of igneous rocks that are formed.

Magma is mostly composed of 45% to 75%

silica (SiO2) in weight and the remaining percentage
is from the other abundant elements on Earth. Traces
of dissolved gases, such as water vapor and carbon
dioxide, are also present. These two components,
together with temperature, determine the properties
and type of the resulting magma.

There are three common types of magma:

basaltic magma, andesitic magma, and rhyolitic
magma. Basaltic magma is the most common magma
on Earth. It is characterized by its low silica content,
high temperature, low viscosity, and low gas content. Rhyolitic magma has high silica content, low
An explosive eruption, releasing an andesitic to rhyolitic temperature, very high viscosity, and high gas
magma. content-the exact opposite of a basaltic magma.
Andesitic magma, on the other hand, is the magma
with properties that are in between basaltic magma and rhyolitic magma.

The magma would then be exposed to an environment where crystallization would occur,
resulting to the formation of igneous rocks. Crystallization is the process of the formation and growth of
individual mineral crystals. The environment where the crystallization occurs determines the type of
igneous rock that will be formed. If the formation occurred underneath Earth's surface, then it is called
intrusive or plutonic igneous rock. On the other hand, if the formation of the igneous rock took place on
the surface of Earth, then it is called extrusive or volcanic igneous rock.
 Types of intrusive rocks and extrusive rocks according to where they are formed.

Aside from the location where the rock crystallizes, the color and texture of the rock are also used
to classify igneous rocks. The color of the rock depends on the minerals that are present in it. Light
coloration is an indication of high concentration of feldspar, which is rich in aluminum. This rock is then
identified as felsic from the words "feldspar" and "silicon." Dark-colored rocks have high concentration
of olivine and pyroxene which are rich in magnesium and iron. This rock is called mafic from the words
"magnesium" and "ferric."

The other characteristic of igneous rocks that is used for classification is texture. Texture
describes the overall appearance of the rocks based on the size and shape of the crystals and their
arrangement. The size and shape of the crystals are affected by the rate of cooling. If the lava cooled
quickly on or near Ear surface, the rock would have an aphanitic or fine-grained texture. Aphanitic
igneous rocks have individual crystals that are hard to see with unaided eye. On the other hand, when the
magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface, it would result to a phaneritic or coarse-grained texture. In
this type of igneous rock, individual crystals are large enough so that the minerals can be identified with
the unaided eye.

The path that started from the formation of sedimentary rocks to metamorphic and igneous rocks
is just one of the many paths that rocks may follow as they move through the geosphere. An example of
an alternative path is when a sedimentary rock is exposed to extreme temperature and pressure that it
melts rather than become a metamorphic rock before being crystallized as igneous rock.

The processes involved in the rock cycle are also responsible for shaping Earth. The external
processes, such as weathering, erosion, and deposition that create the sedimentary rocks are the very same
processes that helped in landscaping the surface of Earth. The geologic processes that created
metamorphic and igneous rocks also gave the majestic landforms, such as mountains and volcanoes.

SECTION REVIEW

1. Refer to the rock cycle. Describe how the following rocks are formed.

a. Igneous rock
 b. Sedimentary rock

c. Metamorphic rock

2. Compare and contrast

a. Intrusive and extrusive igneous rock

b. Chemical and detrital sedimentary rock

 c. Lithification and metamorphism

3. Name three common rocks and given their uses.

4. How is mineral different from rock?

5. Suppose you are given different minerals, how will you easily identify minerals?