ENVR-S335 - U5 Air Pollution Dispersion and Modeling

ENVR S335
Environmental Control,
Monitoring and Modeling
Unit 5
Air pollution
dispersion and modeling
211
OUHK Course Team
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Prof. K C Ho, OUHK
Developer:
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Cliff Hall, OUHK
Members:
Dr Chin-wing Chan, OUHK
Dr Gordon Maxwell, OUHK (Units 4–12)
External Course Assessor

Prof. C S Poon, Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Production
Educational Technology and Development Unit
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Contents
Introduction 1
Why air pollution modelling? 1
Meteorological factors 3
Wind speed and direction 3
Turbulence 4
Atmospheric stability 5
Temperature inversions 13
Air pollutant concentration models 16

Gaussian plume models 16
Plume rise 33
Other environmental models 37
Motor vehicles 41
Source of emissions 41
Modelling the dispersion of vehicle-emitted pollutants 46
Technological control of vehicle emissions 50
Summary 53
References 54
Feedback on activities 55
Unit 5 1
Introduction
For air pollution management in Unit 4, it was useful to have a set of
scientific models that can be used to assess the effects of air pollutant
emissions on human health and the environment. This unit, therefore,
focuses on understanding more about the mathematical description
of the transport and dispersion of pollutants after they are released
into the atmosphere. Scientific models of air pollution relate to air
pollutants as they travel between a particular source and a receiver.
The models generally accept as input the emission information such
as source location, source height, chimney diameter, gas exit velocity,
gas exit temperature, and emission rate; meteorological data such as
wind speed, wind direction, stability class, temperature, and mixing
height; topographical data; and receiver information. The models
then produce estimates of ambient air concentrations and material
deposited on surfaces at various distances as output. This output is
often used to analyse the effects of pollutants from proposed as well
as existing sources on sensitive receivers, and it is particularly useful
to study the air quality impact assessment of the pollutant source
under consideration, which is frequently called for as part of the
environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies.
Why air pollution modelling?

In order to maintain air quality at acceptable levels, many countries
have air quality standards that are only rarely allowed to be exceeded
by environmental regulations. The principal legislation air quality in
Hong Kong is the Air Pollution Control Ordinance (APCO). Air Quality
Objectives (AQOs), as introduced in Unit 4, are set for the whole
territory. These objectives specify the statutory concentration limits
for various criteria pollutants and the maximum number of times these
are allowed to be exceeded over a specified period. It is necessary to
obtain an environmental permit for the construction of a new facility
in Hong Kong as in most countries. Part of the environmental permit
application is to show that the new facility, when completed and
operating, will not violate the air quality standards for each regulated
pollutant. Applications of air quality modelling in Hong Kong
include environmental impact assessment, specified processes licence
application and renewal, plume impingement study, strategic planning
for setting policies and standards, and emergency releases of toxic
gases.
Since it is not possible to make air quality monitoring for facilities such
as highways, railways, power stations or an airport that has not been
constructed, air pollution modelling is the common way to estimate
this future impact. The models can also be used to help in both the
understanding of physico-chemical processes involved in atmospheric
dispersion and the management of the air pollutants being dispersed.
Therefore, by the end of this unit, we expect you to be a skilful model
user, familiar with basic concepts for applying and interpreting results
of commonly used air pollution models for improved decision-making
2 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling
in EIA studies. EIA is a tool for environmental planning of new

projects or for the expansion of existing ones, and as such needs to
be considered at the earliest stages of project planning and evaluation
of the project options and their environmental consequences. This is
described in EN320. Before discussing the concept of air pollution
modeling, you should note that modelling is only a tool for rational
air quality management; it is not the solution to the air pollution
problem. However, it is a must to know in advance, for example, the
implication of forcing particulate traps to all vehicles in Hong Kong, to
seek improvement in the air quality of particulate matter. If predictions
obtained by air pollution modeling show that particulate traps may
not be needed for all vehicles but only for diesel vehicles, then control
may be exercised only to that vehicular segment. Modelling exercises
here become a prioritization tool, since asking every vehicle in Hong
Kong to install a particulate trap will lead to major expense as well as
public resistance. Another example is that of the Lamma Power Station,
wherein a decision is to be taken to install a flue gas desulphurisation
(FGD) system to remove sulphur dioxide emissions. Air pollutant
concentration models are run to estimate the transport, dispersion and
chemical transformation of sulphur dioxide, SO2, from the 215-meter-
high chimney of the power station. Here, air pollution modelling is
used as a strategic tool to convince the industry that an investment in
the FGD will be necessary for safeguarding the health and well-being
of the community. Modelling in this example becomes a tool to justify
expensive air pollution control decisions.
In short, this unit:
• describes and explains the concepts of atmospheric stability;
• describes conditions leading to various stability patterns;
• illustrates the estimation of pollutant concentrations using the

Gaussian plume model; and
• applies the Gaussian model of dispersion and other environmental

models such as Rollback and Box models to air pollution
management problems.
Unit 5 3
Meteorological factors
In Unit 4, you learned about various types of air pollutant and how they
may affect the environment. Now you are going to study meteorological
factors, an important issue for the transportation of air pollutants. As
air pollutants are emitted from the source and then pass through the air,
the condition of the atmosphere is the major concern in transporting
them. The four meteorological factors — those concerning atmosphere
conditions — are as follows:
• wind speed and direction

• turbulence
• atmospheric stability
• inversions.
Let’s look at these four factors in more detail.
Wind speed and direction

The first and most obvious factor in the transportation of air pollutants
is the wind speed and its direction. A gaseous pollutant or suspended
particulate will take a similar motion of the air. The plume of effluents
from the chimney will carry them downwind. If the wind speed were
low or even if there were no wind, the concentration of the pollutants
would be high at the source. The stronger the wind speed, the greater the
dilution of pollutant from the source. The reason is that the strong wind
helps the pollutants to disperse in the air and causes the concentration
of the pollutants to drop. Air pollution models often assume that
concentration decreases as a result of the diluting effect of increasing
wind speed. Observations indicate that wind speed varies with height
above the ground as a function of atmospheric stability and surface
roughness (see Figure 5.1). Therefore, the wind speed and direction are
used to measure at the monitoring station at a height of 10 m, a height
specified by the World Meteorological Organization for meteorological
stations. You should remember that wind speeds are often obtained at 10
m above ground and designated as ground-level wind speeds.
Figure 5.1 Variation of wind speed with height for different roughness elements
(Liu and Liptak 1997)
Turbulence
Turbulence can be defined as the disturbed flow of air as measured
or felt by variations of wind speed and direction (north, east, south,
and west, as well as vertically). Turbulence consists of circular whirls
or eddies of all possible orientations. These turbulent eddies serve
to disperse pollutants by mixing with air having lower pollutant
concentrations. These turbulent eddies, or whirls, are mainly caused by
mechanical or buoyant generation of turbulence.
Mechanical turbulence
In general, wind flow can be considered streamline motion, i.e.

movement across the streamline occurs solely as the result of diffusion
on a molecular scale, and wind flow is steady. However, wind moving
past irregular, rough ground surface will create mechanical turbulence,
i.e. the presence of circulating currents results in transference of wind
on a larger scale, and cyclic fluctuations occur in the wind flow. The
stronger the wind, the greater the degree of mechanical turbulence
generated. Also, the larger the roughness elements on the surface,
the greater the mechanical turbulence generated. Let’s return to the
obstruction effects on pollutant dispersion in Unit 4. Mechanical
turbulence can also be created by wind shear, a slower moving
airstream next to a faster moving current. This occurs in the vertical as
wind is slowed near the earth’s surface by the friction of the surface.
At greater heights above the ground, the wind speeds are higher. The
shearing action between the variations of these two airstreams produces
mechanical turbulence. We will discuss the variation of wind speed with
height in the next section.
Unit 5 5
Buoyant generation of turbulence
The heating or cooling of air near the earth’s surface generates buoyant
turbulence. For example, at midday, when skies are clear and winds
are light, the sun’s heating effect creates an upward-rising thermal air
that may extend vertically on the order of 500 to 1000 meters. This
represents the generation of positive buoyant turbulence at its greatest.
In contrast, at night when winds are light, the outgoing infrared

radiation cools the ground and the air adjacent to it, resulting in a
downward heat flux at the surface. The air near the ground is, in its
turn, cooled, and its temperature is reduced below that of the air higher
up, thereby setting up an inversion (a layer of extreme stability that
resists vertical motions). The importance of this layer of the atmosphere
justifies us giving it separate consideration and refining the picture of
the atmosphere introduced in Unit 4. Under this condition, negative
buoyancy is being generated. This negative buoyancy will even tend to
damp out some of the mechanical turbulence.
Atmospheric stability
We understand that meteorology is the study of the dynamics of the
atmosphere. The layers of the atmosphere can be divided into several
regions. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, a stable layer of
very dry air that extends to about 50 km above the surface of the earth.
Little air movement occurs in stratosphere, and air pollutants that find
their way into this layer may stay there for years before they eventually
drift back to the troposphere and are dispersed. This is also where ozone
absorbs the short-wave ultraviolet energy from the sun and protects
us from excessive ultraviolet radiation. This layer, together with the
troposphere, accounts for about 99.9% of the total mass of the air. Thus,
when we are talking about air pollution in this unit, we mean the effects
in these two layers.
Vertical instability of the air is the second cause of turbulence. As the

height of the atmosphere increases, the temperature normally decreases.
The rate the temperature decreases is called the lapse rate. The wind
speed, direction and turbulence in the layer of air from earth’s surface
to about 1 km above the surface, where most pollutants are released, are
all strongly affected by the vertical atmospheric temperature structure.
The particular lapse rate of 1oC/100 m is called the dry adiabatic lapse
rate. Its importance in determining whether vertical motion in the
atmosphere is enhanced or suppressed is now examined.
Suppose an insulated balloon is released at some point in the

atmosphere, as shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 Atmospheric lapse rates and stability (Henry and Heinke 1996, 549)
1 Assume the balloon is stationary at the bottom level (Figure 5.2c

or d).
Since the balloon is stationary, the density of air inside the balloon,
ρp, must be equal to that in the atmosphere, ρA. So,
ρp = ρA
At the same time, the size of balloon has adjusted itself so that the
pressure inside the balloon, PP and that outside, PA, are equal. So,
PP = PA
The equation of state for a gas as introduced in Unit 2 relates

density, ρ, pressure, P, and temperature, T, is
P = ρRT
where R is the gas constant for air which can be checked from a
handbook of engineers. Re-order the equation:
For ρp = ρA and PP = PA at the bottom level, the temperature of air in

the balloon, TP, and that in the outside atmosphere, TA, are equal.
2 The balloon is now moved upward to the left (Figure 5.2c or d).
Similar as before, the size of balloon will adjust until ρp = ρA that is,
However, we know that TP < TA, from the above equation; ρp, must
be greater than ρA so that the pressure inside the balloon will stay
equal. Now we can estimate that the balloon will sink, since the
density increases.
Unit 5 7
3 Suppose the balloon is now moved upward to the right (Figure

5.2c or d).
Similar to (2), but here, TA > TP, from the equation,
, ρp must be smaller than ρA so that the pressure

inside the balloon will stay equal. Now we can estimate that the
balloon will rise, since the density decreases.
From the above examples, we observe that the balloon always rolls back
to the bottom level no matter what elevation it is. The atmosphere of
this kind is called ‘stable’, as shown in Figures 5.2c and d (that is, the
balloon always returns to the position from which you move it).
Somewhat similar to a balloon, the atmosphere could be visualized as

parcels of air moving up and down. These parcels lose very little heat
to their surroundings and adjust their density, pressure and temperature
following the equation of state, as does the balloon. Therefore, the
previous examples are applicable to air movement.
Some terminology has to be introduced for easy understanding. The

rate at which the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere decreases
with height is called the environmental lapse rate, γ. The temperature at
which a rising air parcel decreases with height at a rate of -1oC/100 m
is called the adiabatic lapse rate, ΓD. You will also come across the term
super-adiabatic lapse rate: the decrease in temperature with height is
greater than that of the adiabatic lapse rate.
In addition to the ‘stable’ case is a kind called ‘unstable’. This kind

of ‘unstable’ happens when γ > GD as shown in Figure 5.2b. Here, the
parcel of air moved vertically will accelerate as it moves farther from its
original height. Vertical motions are thus strongly enhanced, and we say
that the atmosphere is unstable.
When γ < ΓD, that is the stable case in the previous balloon example.
When γ = ΓD, the atmosphere of this kind is called ‘neutral’ as shown
in Figure 5.2a. That is, the temperature change with height in the
environment is the same as the dry adiabatic lapse rate. The effect of
ambient atmospheric temperature distributions on vertical motion is
depicted in Figure 5.2.
Note:
a Neutral, when γ = ΓD.
b Unstable, when γ > ΓD
c Slightly stable, when γ < ΓD
d Very stable, when the temperature in ambient atmosphere increases

with height instead of decreasing. Under this condition, vertical
motions and turbulence are strongly suppressed and the atmosphere
is classified as being very stable.
Practically, the adiabatic lapse rate, ΓD, can be determined by

measurements of temperature and density conditions of the atmosphere.
The environmental lapse rate, γ, can be determined from radiosondes so
the current conditions of the atmosphere can be determined.
To visualize the effect of atmospheric lapse rates and stability on the

dispersion of smoke coming out of a chimney or stack, Figure 5.3 shows
some interesting shaping of the plume. In Figure 5.3a — inversion
condition (fanning) — the atmosphere is stable and greatly restricts the
dispersion of the plume in the vertical direction, although it still spreads
horizontally. In Figure 5.3b — lapse inversion aloft (fumigation) —
emissions move downward much more easily than upward due to the
upper level inversion layer, which leads to greatly elevated downwind
and ground level concentrations. Since the chimney is to emit pollutants
into a neutrally stable atmosphere, we expect that the plume is relatively
symmetrical, as shown in Figure 5.3c — weak lapse condition (coning).
Good dispersion of air pollutants is achieved in a neutrally stable
environment. In Figure 5.3d — strong lapse condition (looping) — the
atmosphere is very unstable and there is rapid vertical air movement,
both up and down.
When the chimney is above an inversion layer, as in Figure 5.3e

— inversion — lapse aloft (lofting) mixing in the upward direction
is uninhibited, but downward motion is greatly restricted by the
inversion’s stable air. In this unit, we hope to equip you with the skills
you need to evaluate the advantages, disadvantages and constraints in
designing chimney strategies to meet air quality standards.
Unit 5 9
Figure 5.3 Effects of atmospheric lapse rates and chimney heights on plume
behaviour. The dashed line is the dry adiabatic lapse rate for
reference (Liu and Liptak 1997)
Atmospheric stability
Atmospheric stability can be classified by surface wind speed and solar

intensity. Table 5.1 describes the method for determining the stability
categories based on wind speed, time of day (radiation), and cloud
cover. These categories are very important, because they are commonly
used in many of the air pollution models for atmospheric dispersion.
Table 5.1 Stability categories (Henry and Heinke 1996, 555)
Surface wind speed Day radiation intensity Night cloudiness

at 10 m (m/s) Strong Medium Slight Cloudy (≥4/8) Clear (≤3/8)
<2 A A–B B E F
2–3 A–B B C E F
3–5 B B–C C D E
5–6 C C–D D D D
>6 C D D D D
Note: A: Very unstable; B: Moderately unstable; C: Slightly unstable; D:

Neutral; E: Slightly stable; F: Stable. For A–B, B–C, or C–D conditions,
average the values obtained for each. The sky is divided into eight
sections to determine cloud cover. If four or more sections have clouds,
the sky is considered cloudy; if three or fewer sections have clouds, the
sky is considered clear.
The letters A to F are used to describe the atmospheric stabilities. The

following paragraphs explain the conditions corresponding to these
stability classes.
Very unstable atmosphere: A
Weather conditions are very unpredictable. In this atmospheric

condition, wind speeds are normally below 1 m/s but are gusty
(suddenly windy). The temperature rapidly decreases with altitude.
This condition is called superadiabatic. For example, it is common
on a hot sunny day in summer for temperatures to be about 30oC.
Because of these conditions, a contaminated plume would loop and be
unpredictable.
Moderately unstable atmosphere: B
Weather conditions are still unpredictable but less so than class A. In

this atmospheric condition, wind speeds are normally below 2m/s and
are not gusty. The temperature still decreases, but not as rapidly with
altitude. Looping of a plume would still occur but is not as severe as
class A. This condition is common in Hong Kong on a warm sunny day
in spring at about 20oC.
Slightly unstable atmosphere: C
Weather conditions are somewhat unpredictable. In this atmospheric

condition, wind speeds are normally below 5 m/s. A little gustiness
may be expected. The temperature still decreases and looping of a
contaminated plume may occur but progressively less pronounced than
in categories A and B. This is an average day, slightly cloudy, so that
fewer than 4/8 sections have clouds.
Neutral atmosphere: D
Weather conditions are more predictable. In this atmospheric condition,

wind speeds are normally below 5 m/s with no expected gustiness.
The temperature still decreases with altitude, but the change is
less pronounced. At this point, the condition name changes from
superadiabatic to adiabatic. A contaminated plume is more predictable,
with minor looping. This condition is common on an overcast day or
night (heavy cloud, so that more than 4/8 sections have clouds).
Slightly stable atmosphere: E
Weather conditions turn more predictable than with class D. In this

atmospheric condition, wind speeds are normally below 3 m/s. The
temperature does not change with altitude. This condition is called
isothermic. A contaminated plume is easy to predict with this condition.
Coning of the plume occurs. This condition generally occurs at night
and is considered an average night (partly cloudy).
Unit 5 11
Stable atmosphere: F
Weather conditions become very predictable. In this atmospheric

condition, wind speeds are normally below 2 m/s. This is an inversion.
Temperatures increase with altitude. This condition is the opposite of a
class A. In this condition, little vertical dispersion occurs, i.e. the plume
doesn’t reach the ground rapidly.
Example 5.1
As an illustration of Table 5.1, we can consider a situation in Choi Hung

Estate during summertime, in which the mean wind speed is 1.5 m/s and
clear skies at 12:00 noon allow a high degree of solar radiation. Under
these conditions, the table suggests a stability category A. The opposite
extreme is classification F and corresponds to a clear night (less than
3/8 of the sky covered by clouds) with wind less than 3 m/s.
Activity 5.1
1 Using Table 5.1, determine the atmospheric stability category in
Hong Kong on the basis of the following observations:
a On November 24, two hours of total bright sunshine was

recorded, and the average wind speed was 1.5 m/s over the same
two-hour period.
b On July 15, eight hours of bright sunshine was recorded, and the
average wind speed was 20 km/hr.
c On January 2, four hours of cloudiness was recorded, and the

average wind speed was 3.5 m/s.
2 With your understanding on atmospheric stability theories, match

the plot of Height atmosphere against temperature (as shown in (i)–
(vi) below) with the plumes shown in Figures A to F. The unbroken
lines (—) mean environmental lapse rates, and broken lines (---)
mean adiabatic lapse rates respectively.


Unit 5 13
Temperature inversions
When the temperature of a rising air parcel increases rather than
decreases with altitude, the lapse rate is negative and the phenomenon
is called thermal or temperature inversion. Temperature inversion
represents a high degree of atmospheric stability; thus, almost no
buoyant vertical motion occurs. This is important from a pollution
control standpoint. Three types of inversion develop in the atmosphere:
radiational, subsidence and frontal. There are several causes of
inversions, but the two most important from an air quality standpoint
are radiational and subsidence.
Radiational inversions
Nocturnal cooling of the earth’s surface, especially in clear weather,

causes radiational (surface) inversions. In Hong Kong, this type of
inversion often occurs on winter nights at about 2 m/s and is caused by
rapid cooling of the ground by radiation.
The surface of the earth cools down at night by radiating energy toward
space. On a cloudy night, the earth’s radiation tends to be absorbed
by water vapour, which in turn re-radiates some of that energy to the
ground. However, on a clear night, the surface more readily radiates
energy to space, and thus ground cooling occurs much more rapidly. As
the ground cools, the temperature of the air in contact with the ground
also drops. As often happens on clear winter nights, the temperature
of this air just above the ground becomes colder than the air above it,
creating an inversion. The inversion begins to form at about dusk and
continues until the surface warms again the following day.
Initially, the temperature of the ground starts to cool because of the

absence of sunlight. After several hours, the inversion extends to a
higher and higher elevation, which can extend to 250 meters. Therefore,
any pollution emitted during the night is caught under this ‘inversion
lid’ until the morning sun warms the ground again, breaking up the
inversion from ground level to higher in the atmosphere.
We mentioned that radiational inversions occur mostly during the

wintertime in Hong Kong and begins at about the time traffic builds
up in the early evening, which traps vehicular emissions at ground
level and causes elevated concentrations of pollution such as carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate matters for passengers.
Another important consideration is that in the morning, the inversion
is slowly destroyed by solar heating; pollutants that have been trapped
in the stable mass of air are suddenly brought back to the ground, often
at high concentrations of pollution at ground level, producing a short-
lived fumigation. You should also recall the description of radiational
inversions from other courses in the Environmental Studies Programme,
especially S122.
Radiational inversions are also important in another context. For

example (Masters 1996, 398), fruit growers in places like California
have long known that their crops are in the greatest danger of frost
damage on winter nights when the skies are clear and radiational
inversion happens. Since the air even a few meters up is warmer than
the air at crop level, one way to help protect sensitive crops on such
nights is simply to mix the cool and warn air with large motor-driven
fans.
Subsidence inversions
A subsidence (elevated) inversion or inversion aloft is the result of

the compressive heating of descending masses of air in high-pressure
zones. Subsidence inversions are important in pollution control
because subsidence may last for several days. Subsidence inversions
are associated with either a high-pressure zone or a flow aloft of cold
air from an ocean over land surrounded by mountains. Descending
air causes subsidence inversion, as shown in Figure 5.4a. Since the
sinking air mass becomes warmer, it is able to hold more moisture as
it descends. Consequently, its relative humidity decreases, and there is
little chance that clouds will form. The result is that high-pressure zones
create clear, dry weather with lots of sunshine during the day and clear
skies at night. During the day, air under the inversion may be unstable
due to solar warming of the surface. Figure 5.4b shows this effect.
Radiational inversions may form under the subsidence inversion when
nights are clear, as shown in Figure 5.4c.
Figure 5.4 Subsidence inversions (Masters 1996)
Clear skies assure sufficient solar energy to power photochemical

reactions, the lack of rainfall eliminates that atmospheric cleansing
mechanism, and prolonged subsidence inversions concentrate the
pollutants. In Los Angeles, the ring of mountains around the city tends
to keep winds from blowing the smog away. This is related to the
geographic structure of the city. This is similar to what happens in Hong
Kong Island. For example, Causeway Bay and Central have lots of
skyscrapers, and behind these places is a hill blocking full circulation
through the area. This explains why smog sometimes covers the area.
The deterioration in visibility, which is a sign of photochemical smog,
is a common phenomenon in many areas in Hong Kong. Under the
stagnant high-pressure zone conditions, the pressure gradient is weaker
so that winds are light, which reduces the dispersion of pollutants.
Poor visibility due to air pollution is a disincentive to tourism and to
companies establishing or maintaining their operations in Hong Kong.
Unit 5 15
Frontal inversions
A frontal inversion is created when a mass of warm air overruns a mass

of cold air below, or a mass of cold air passes under a mass of warm
air. This type of inversion is not important from a pollution control
standpoint.
Air pollutant concentration

models
Environmental professionals often need a rough estimate of the
magnitude of an air emission and the resulting downwind concentration.
In order to plan and execute air pollution control programmes designed
to meet the requirements of environmental legislation, it is better to
predict the air pollutant concentration that results from any planned set
of emissions. Air pollution modelling is a technique for estimating by
calculation the concentration of a pollutant released into the air. A single
equation that can be solved using a calculator in a few minutes can be
used for a pollutant at a single downwind location. It becomes more
complex when the real situation needs to be considered. Factors include
buoyancy due to temperature of emission, effects of buildings, effects
of terrain, multiple emission sources and multiple pollutants. Many
types of model are available in Hong Kong such as ISCST3, CALINE4
and FDM, which model such situations. In very complex situations that
cannot be handled by the above models, more sophisticated models
have to be used, subject to prior agreement with the EPD. These models
are very complex and are not covered here. The underlying theory of
the models is based on simple equations that you can use as a design
and operating tool to estimate the impact of pollutant emissions, to
minimize nuisance or health effects from air pollutants. Among these,
Gaussian plume models, rollback models, and box models are the most
commonly used.
Activity 5.2
Why can’t field measurements be made for continuous observations
of air quality in the entire time domain and thereby avoid the inherent
inaccuracy of using air pollutant concentration models?
Gaussian plume models

Gaussian dispersion equations can be developed to describe the
atmospheric dispersion of a steady state plume from a continuous
source in three dimensions. Figure 5.5 shows a graphical representation
of the modelled emission. The emission leaves the chimney and travels
straight up above the chimney a distance, h. Then the emission is blown
straight downwind along the x direction, where the plume disperses in
the y and z directions until the effect becomes trivial. The x-axis is taken
to be along the centreline of the plume in the direction of the wind, y
(the horizontal axis), and z (the vertical axis), both perpendicular to
the plume centreline for the simplest model. It is assumed that a plume
travelling horizontally at a mean wind speed u disperses horizontally
(y) and vertically (z) so that the concentration of a pollutant at any
cross-section of the plume follows the normal Gaussian probability
Unit 5 17
distribution. The three-dimensional coordinate system established in

Figure 5.6, therefore, has the chimney at the origin, distance directly
downwind by x, distance off the downwind axis specified by y, and
elevation given by z. The pollutant is emitted from an elevated point
source with effective height H. H is given by H = h + Δh, where h is the
physical height of the source, and Δh is the plume rise.
Figure 5.5 Coordinate system showing Gaussian distributions in the horizontal

and vertical (Masters 1996)
For any point (x, y, z, H) in the plume, the concentration C of pollutants

at that point is such that:
C(x, y, z, H)α (u is the average wind speed )
C(x, y, z, H)α Q (Q is the source strength)
And
C(x, y, z, H)α G (G is the normalized Gaussian curve in the y and z

directions)
Then,
C(x, y, z, H) =
The expression for Gaussian function, Gy, normalizes so that the area
under the curve is unity is
And similarly for Gz so that
where σy and σz are the standard derivations of the dispersion in y and z

directions, respectively, x = 0 at the source (origin), and y and z are zero
on the plume centerline.
To relate this expression to the ground level rather than to the centerline
of the plume, it is better to make the height of any point P in the plume
a distance Z above the ground. Then the vertical height of point P above
the centerline of the plume becomes Z – H (please refer to Figure 5.6
for details).
The equation becomes:
Consider the plume does not impinge on the ground. The above equation
can apply for this assumption. However, sometimes the ground tends to
reflect rather than absorb pollutants. It is assumed that 100% reflection
of pollutants is used to account for the increased pollutant concentration
at ground level. Imagine there is a mirror at ground level to reflect all
the concentration from the plume, so the concentration of pollutants at
the imaginary point (at location Z + H) is added to the concentration in
the real plume. The dispersion equation now becomes:
where
C is the pollutant concentration at a receptor located at (x, y, z)
σy, σz are the diffusion coefficients in the y and z directions, respectively

(m)
u is the mean wind speed through the layer in which dispersion takes
place (the layer where dispersion took place is along the centerline or at
the effective height of the chimney) (m/s)
Unit 5 19
H is the effective height of the pollutant release (m)
Q is the source emission rate (kg/s)
However, for a source on the ground (H = 0), the above equation will
become:
where u is the mean wind speed normally at 10 m above ground (m) and
C is the pollutant concentration (kg/m3) at a receptor located at (x, y, z).
Figure 5.6 Definition sketch showing plume dispersion in the vertical direction
and the reflection of pollutants at ground level (Henry and Heinke
1996, 553)
Here, we focus on some important assumptions:
1 The rate of emissions from the source is constant.
2 The wind is uniform through the layer in which dispersion occurs,

i.e. the wind speed is constant both in time and with elevation.
3 The pollutant under consideration is not lost by decay, chemical

reaction, or deposition. The mirror used in the derivation of the
equation is to make sure that when the pollutant hits the ground,
none is absorbed and all is reflected.
4 The equation is applicable for flat terrain or open country.

Despite its limitations, the Gaussian equations have been most

commonly used in air quality impact assessments in Hong Kong, mainly
because of their simplicity and the fact that they give reasonable results.
In practice, the worst situations are normally assumed in running
the models, so that the pollutant concentrations are predicted at the
representative sensitive receivers and compared with the Hong Kong
AQO.
Some modifications of the basic Gaussian plume

equation
This equation
is for an elevated source (H), where x, y, z are the coordinates of the

location at which one wishes to calculate the concentration, C, and H is
the effective height of emission, and u is the mean wind speed at height
H. In the next section, you will see how to calculate the value of u at
any height H.
Downwind ground-level concentration
If we are concerned with receptors at ground level only, then the above
equation is less general than it can be and applies only for z = 0:
You should notice that the above-calculated concentrations would be

considered as the ‘downwind ground-level (z = 0) concentration’, where
the people are, in the areas of highest concentration. The concentration
at z = H is of limited use because there is no long-term exposure up
there. You should be cautioned against using this calculation for any
assessment.
Downwind ground-level concentration directly from

source
Most often we are also interested in the ground-level concentrations

directly downwind from the source (y = 0). The plume centreline gives
the maximum values. Then we not only substitute z = 0 but also y = 0
into the above equation to get the following simplified equation:
Unit 5 21
For a ground level source (H = 0), so that the emission source is located
at ground level with no effective plume rise, the above equation can be
reduced to the minimum, as follows:
Example 5.2
Compute the value of the term on the right in the equation
for stability class C, a distance
downwind of x = 0.5 km and H = 40 m. Given σy = 56 m and σz = 32 m.
Solution
If this calculation is repeated for a wide range of distances and effective

heights, we could make up a plot of u / Q against distance with effective
height as a parameter (see Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7 Ground level u / Q directly under the plume centerline, as a function
of downwind distance from the source and effective height H (m)
for stability class C only and L is the atmosphere mixing height (m)
(Nevers 2000)
Example 5.3
In the Hong Kong Chemical Waste Treatment Centre, a waste

incinerator emits 80g/s OS2 from a chimney that has an effective height
H = 100 m. The wind is blowing 3 m/s and stability class is C. Estimate
the ground-level concentration directly below the centerline of the
plume at the Hong Kong Technical College in Tsing Yi at a distance of
2.0 km downwind.
Unit 5 23
Solution
From Figure 5.7, at 2.0 km, is 6×10–6 / m2.
Thus,
In this example, we can get the concentration by using the ( )
factor and simple multiplication.
Activity 5.3
Imagine you are sitting on the 12th floor in an office of the Causeway
Bay Plaza I in Causeway Bay. A greasy fume is discharged from
a chimney of a restaurant kitchen located at ground floor, and the
pollutants cause discomfort on inhalation. What is the coordinate to
present an elevation of 30 m above the release point?
Guidelines on the choice of models by Environmental

Protection Department
For local application, you may find the guidelines on the choice of
models and model parameters on the EPD official website, http://www.
epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/guide_ref/guide_aqa_
model_g1.html.
Gaussian type models are most commonly used in air quality impact
assessments. They are designed for use in simple terrain under uniform
wind flow. Due to their ease of application and the conservative
estimates they provide, their shortcomings in precisely describing
a plume’s diffusion in the atmosphere is usually neglected. In some
circumstances, however, these models are not suitable for ambient
concentration estimates. In such circumstance, other types of model
such as physical, numerical or mesoscale models should be used.
The Gaussian model can only be used when topographic, terrain or
obstruction effects are minimal between source and receiver.
The following Gaussian models are generally accepted by the Hong

Kong EPD for regulatory applications and frequently used to estimate
the near-field impacts (< 1km from the source) of source types such as
dust, traffic and industrial emissions in Hong Kong. These frequently
used models have no regulatory status but form the basic set of tools for
local-scale air quality assessment in Hong Kong.
Model Applications
FDM For evaluating fugitive and open dust source impacts
(point, line and area sources)
CALINE4 For evaluating mobile traffic emission impacts (line
sources)
ISCST3 For evaluating industrial chimney releases as well as
area and volumetric sources (point, area and volume
sources); line sources can be approximated by a
number of volume sources
Fugitive dust model (FDM)
FDM is a Gussian plume model for fugitive dust sources. In Hong Kong,
the dust sources mainly come from construction sites, vehicle exhausts,
cement kiln facilities, quarries and power plants. It incorporates
transport, dispersion and deposition of pollutants in the atmosphere,
using input data for particulate matter and wind characteristics.
California line source dispersion model version 4

(CALINE4)
CALINE4 is a model to determine the concentrations of conservative

pollutants from highway traffic. It is a steady-state Gaussian model to be
used with uncomplicated topography. The model uses traffic emissions,
site geometry and meteorology to predict air pollutant concentration
for receivers located within 500 m of the roadway. Predictions can
be made for carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and
suspended particles. Options are available for modelling air quality near
intersections, parking lots, elevated or depressed highways and within
canyons.
Industrial source complex dispersion model — short-

term version 3 (ISCST3)
ISCST3 is based on a steady-state Gaussian plume model to assess the

concentrations of conservative pollutants from a wide variety of sources
associated with an industrial source complex out to a distance of about
50 km. ISCST3 includes modes for addressing building downwash
influences, dry and wet deposition models, and incorporates the
complex terrain screening models. ISCST3 has been commonly used for
predicting air quality with a view to addressing the following situations
in Hong Kong, the determination of (a) height restriction for new
buildings in areas subject to poor air quality aloft as result of elevated
emission sources nearby, and (b) acceptable location of fresh-air intakes
for centrally air-conditioned buildings.
Unit 5 25
However, there are some limitations on the uses of the FDM and
CALINE4 models. For example, both FDM and CALINE4 have a
physical height (h) of emission limit on elevated sources (20 m and 10
m, respectively). Emission source of elevation above these limits will
have to be modelled using ISCST3 or suitable alternative models.
The above models can be used to estimate both short-term (hourly and
daily average) and long-term (annual average) ambient concentrations
of air pollutants. The model results, obtained using appropriate model
parameters and assumptions, allow direct comparison with the relevant
air quality standards such as the AQOs for the relevant pollutant and
time averaging period as introduced in Unit 4. This means the models
can to a certain extent help industrial plants to regulate their emission
without violating the environmental legislation. The Modelling Section,
Air Policy Group from EPD, will consider any model that is not listed
above and is proposed for air quality applications in Hong Kong on an
individual basis.
Wind speed changes with elevation
Usually, wind speed is measured with an anemometer that is set up at

a height of 10 m above the ground, in order to relate wind speed at the
anemometer height of 10 m with the wind speed at any height Zn above
ground. The variation of wind speed with height can be described using
the power law. The following equation in the text, Section 13.5.1, page
551, can be used as an approximation:
where
un = wind speed at height Zn above the ground, m/s

u10 = wind speed at 10 m (ground-level wind speed), m/s
p = a dimensionless parameter that depends on surface roughness and
atmospheric stability (varies from about 0.15 to 0.6 in going from an
unstable to a stable atmosphere).
Table 5.2 gives values for p when there are rough surfaces in the vicinity
of the anemometer. For smooth terrains like flat fields or areas close to
bodies of water, 0.6 should multiply the values of p given in Table 5.2.
The stability class indicators A through F in the table have been clarified
in Table 5.1, when we described the atmosphere stability in the previous
section.
Table 5.2 Wind profile exponent p, for rough terrain
Stability class Description Exponent p

A Very unstable 0.15
B Moderately unstable 0.15
C Slightly unstable 0.20
D Neutral 0.25
E Slightly stable 0.40
F Stable 0.60
(After Masters, 1996)
Example 5.4
An anemometer located at a height of 10 m below the ground of Hong

Kong International Airport measures the wind speed at 3 m/s. Estimate
the wind speed at an elevation of 200 m in a rough terrain at Tung
Chung if the atmosphere is neutral.
Solution
From Table 5.2, the wind profile exponent for a neutral atmosphere
(stability class D) is 0.25.
6.3 m/s
The Gaussian dispersion coefficients
Table 5.1 shows the conditions corresponding to the six stability

classes. The stability class is important because it determines the
dispersion coefficients of σy and σz in the Gaussian plume equation. σy
and σz are really just the standard deviations required to calculate the
horizontal and vertical Gaussian distributions respectively. Smaller
values for a dispersion coefficient mean the Gaussian curve is narrower
and has a higher peak; larger values mean the opposite. The farther
from the source of emission, the larger the coefficients become. This
in turn causes the Gaussian curves to spread further and further. These
coefficients not only depend on downwind direction distance but
also on atmospheric stability. Knowing the atmospheric stability, it is
possible to determine the appropriate value of the dispersion coefficient
at a given distance by interpolation from the graphs shown below (see
Figure 5.8):
Unit 5 27
Figure 5.8 Gaussian dispersion coefficients as a function of downwind distance

from the source (a) horizontal or lateral coefficient, σy and (b)
vertical coefficient, σz (Henry and Heinke 1996, 555)
Sometimes it is not convenient to get the values of σy and σz in graphical

form as shown in Figure 5.8, especially if we want to use the computer
to work with air pollution models. A reasonable fit to Figure 5.8 can be
obtained using the following equations:
σy = ax0.894 and σz = cxd + f
where the constants a, c, d and f are given in Table 5.3 for each stability
classification. One point to note is that the downwind distance X must
be expressed in km, to give σy and σz in metres.
Table 5.3 Values of the constants a, c d, and f (Masters 1996)
Stability X ≤ 1 km X ≥ 1 km
Class a c d f c d f
A 213 440.8 1.941 9.27 459.7 2.094 -9.6
B 156 106.6 1.149 3.30 108.2 1.098 2.0
C 104 61.0 0.911 0 61.0 0.911 0
D 68 33.2 0.725 -1.70 44.5 0.516 -13.0
E 50.5 22.8 0.678 -1.30 55.4 0.305 -34.0
F 34 14.35 0.740 -0.35 62.6 0.180 -48.6
The magnitude of values of dispersion to a certain extent affects the

smoke distribution from the emission of chimneys. Figure 5.9 shows the
plume shape under different stability classes.
Figure 5.9 Plume under different atmospheric stability patterns. Solid and
dashed lines represent, respectively, instantaneous and time
averaged (over several minutes or hours) plume boundaries (Henry
and Heinke 1996, 550).
Activity 5.4
If the stability condition of D is used with 10 km downwind, what is the
corresponding σy and σz?
Maximum downwind concentration
We mentioned that the equation
can be used to determine the level of pollution resulting from the

emission source at different distances from the source. We could
repeat the calculation to produce a graph showing the variations in
ground-level concentration with distances, as Figure 5.7 illustrates.
However, a computer makes this very easy to do. In fact, computer
Unit 5 29
modelling is commonly used to estimate the maximum ground-level

air pollution concentration, and where it occurs, arising from ground
level or elevated releases of air pollutants. The effect on downwind
concentration of changes in effective chimney height has been plotted
in Figure 5.10a. The figure shows that the downwind ground-level
concentration is sensitive to changes in effective chimney height. For
example, increasing the effective chimney height from 250 to 350 m
reduces the maximum concentration by more than three times. One of
the tallest chimneys in the world is for a smelter in Subdury, Ontario;
its actual chimney height is as tall as the Empire State Building in New
York (380 m).
The effect of changing stability classes, while keeping chimney height

constant at 300 m, is also shown in Figure 5.10b. As the stability classes
change from A (very unstable) to F (stable), the plume takes much
longer to reach the ground, resulting in low maximum values from
the chimney. Therefore, the lowest maximum downwind ground-level
concentration occurs when the atmosphere is stable. In contrast, the
unstable atmosphere causes a relatively high maximum concentration
because the turbulence in an unstable atmosphere brings the plume to
ground level very soon after release from the chimney.
As you may have expected, it is difficult to derive a mathematical

solution to predict the maximum downwind concentration. You may
attempt the calculation by hand, but this approach would be far too
tedious. One way to predict the maximum level is to simply plot the
graphs of the sort using a computer.
Figure 5.10 The effect of variations in key parameters on SO2 plume for the coal
plant, (a) impact of changes in the effective chimney height for a
constant stability classification, and (b) effect of stability classification
given a constant chimney height (Masters 1996)
Figure 5.11 To determine the downwind concentration peak, enter the graph at
the appropriate stability classification and effective chimney height
(number of the graph in metres) and then move across to find the
distance to the maximum and down to find a parameter from which
the maximum concentration can be found. (Masters 1996)
Example 5.5
For the 2,500 MW coal-fired units, a power plant in Lamma with SO2
emission of 6.5 × 108 μg SO2/s and wind speed at a height of 300 m
(i.e. the effective height = 300 m) above the ground is 5 m/s. Use
Figure 5.11 to determine the distance downwind to reach the maximum
SO2 concentration. Then find that concentration.
Solution
Assume the stability classification is C and the given effective height

is 300 m. From Figure 5.11, the distance downwind, xmax, is about 4
km. Note the scales on Figure 5.11 are logarithmic, so be careful when
reading the values.
The point on the figure corresponding to stability class C and effective
height H = 300 m, looks to be about 1.5 × 10-6 m-2.
With un = 5 m/s, Q = 6.5 × 108 μg SO2/s, so that
= [(6.5 × 108 μg/s)/(5m/s)] × [1.5 × 10-6 / m2]

= 195 μg/ m3
Unit 5 31
More examples in uses of Gaussian plume equation
Example 5.6
On an overcast day, a chimney of an auxiliary boiler in the Hong Kong

Chemical Waste Treatment Centre with an effective height of 60 m is
releasing sulfur dioxide at the rate of 80 g/s. The wind speed is 6 m/s.
a The mean concentration of SO2 on the ground 500 m downwind.
b The mean concentration on the ground 500 m downwind and 50 m

crosswind.
Solution
a This is a continuous release.
By the general equation,
the ground concentration directly downwind is:
From Table 5.1, classification of atmospheric stability, the stability

class is D. The reason is that the wind speed is 6 m/s and it is
overcast (cloudy).
The dispersion coefficients are obtained from Figure 5.8: Plume

dispersion coefficients as a function of downwind distance from the
source. The resulting values are σy = 36 m and σz = 18.5 m.
b The mean concentration 50 m crosswind is found by setting y = 50.

The results from part (a) are applied directly,

= 1.26×10–5gm/m3
Example 5.7
An oil refining plant located in Yuen Long Industrial Estate emits 30 g/s
of SO2 at effective height H. The wind speed is 5 m/s. At a distance of
1 km downwind, the values of σy and σz are 20 m and 30 m, respectively.
What are the predicted SO2 concentrations at the centerline of the
plume, and at a point 70 m to the side of and 30 m below the centerline?
Solution
The centerline values are those for which y = 0 and z = H, so both of the
terms in the exponential are zero. Since exp 0 = 1, the exponential term
is unity. At the centerline:
At the point away from the centerline, we must multiply the preceding
expression by
Therefore,
Example 5.8
In Example 5.7, the concentration at point 30 m below the plume

centerline was computed ignoring the effect of ground. Repeat the
calculation when H = 30 m and when H = 40 m.
Solution
For H = 30 m we are computing the concentration at the ground level

itself. From equation,
we see that at z = 0 the two terms in the brackets at the right are
identical, and each is equal to the value that term had in Example 5.7.
Thus our answer is exactly twice that in the second part of Example 5.7.
Unit 5 33
For H = 40 m
Plume rise
So far, you have only dealt with the effective height H in environmental
monitoring and control. Although this height may be the physical height
of the source, because of density differences between exhaust gases and
the ambient air, there is likely to be some plume rise following release.
Remember that effective height H is given by H = h + Δh, where h is
the physical height of the source, and Δh is the plume rise. This plume
rise may be due to the buoyancy and momentum of the exhaust gases
and to the stability of the atmosphere itself. Buoyancy results when
exhaust gases are hotter than the ambient air and/or when the molecular
weight of the exhaust is lower than that of the air. Momentum is caused
by the mass of gaseous release times the exit velocity. However, the
effects of buoyancy, due to lower density of plume effluents due to
higher temperatures, is more likely to produce a great effect. One of the
common examples of point-source emission is from the chimney. The
two-dimensional coordinate system established in Figure 5.12 has the
chimney at the origin with a distance directly downwind given by x, and
elevation given by z.

∆

Figure 5.12 Plume dispersion coordinate system, showing plume rise and plume
dimension in the horizontal and vertical directions
Plume rise, Δh, is defined as the difference between the actual chimney
height h and the effective height H.
Δh = H – h
Briggs formula for plume rise
Stable buoyant rise
For stable conditions in the atmosphere (stability categories E and F),

the following equations can be used to calculate the plume rise:
To calculate the plume rise, the buoyancy flux, F with units of m4/s3
must first be calculated. It can be used for all stability conditions.
where
g = acceleration of gravity (9.8m/s2)

Ts, TA = temperatures of the exhaust gas and the ambient air, respectively,
at the point of emission (K)
W = exit velocity of the exhaust gas (m/s)
D = diameter of the chimney at the top (m)
u = mean wind speed at the height of the chimney (m/s)
To calculate the final plume rise, an intermediate variable, the stability
parameter, S with units of s-2, must be evaluated.
The quantity ΔTA/Δz represents the actual rate of change of ambient

temperature with altitude in oC/m.
Unstable-neutral buoyant rise
To determine the final rise under unstable and neutral conditions in the
atmosphere (stability categories A–D), the buoyant rise is determined
from
Unit 5 35
where x = distance downwind to point of final plume rise (m).
Since the above equation is used when conditions are neutral or

unstable, it may be difficult to define the distance downwind at which
the plume centerline stops rising. The following is sometimes used:
x = 120F0.4 if F ≥ 55m4 / s3
x = 50F5/8 if F < 55m4 / s3
Holland’s formula for plume rise
We use Briggs plume rise formula to estimate the value of Δh and hence
of H to use in Gaussian plume models and other more complex air
pollutant concentration models. Beyond the difficulty of defining the
final plume rise, a simpler form of the plume rise formula, Holland’s
formula for plume rise (Nevers 1995) is as follows:
where
W = exit velocity of the exhaust gas (m/s)

D = diameter of the chimney at the top (m)
u = mean wind speed at the height of the chimney (m/s)
P = pressure in millibars
Ts, TA = temperatures of the exhaust gas and the ambient air respectively (K)
Example 5.9
A proposed power station in Tuen Mun has a 200-m chimney with inside
diameter 4 m. The effluent velocity of the flue gases is 10 m/s at 420K.
The ambient temperature is 298K and mean wind speed at chimney top
is estimated to be 3 m/s. Calculate the effective height of the chimney
if (a) the atmosphere is stable with temperature increasing at the rate of
1.5 oC/km, (b) the atmosphere is slightly unstable (Class C).
Solution
The buoyancy flux, F is calculated by:

a With this particular atmosphere stable:
By equation:
Therefore, the effective chimney height is

H = h + Δh = 200 + 121 = 321m
b With an unstable atmosphere, Class C:
Since F > 55m4 / s3, the distance downwind to the point of final
plume rise that should be used is
x = 120F0.4 = 120×(114)0.4 = 798m
and by equation,
Therefore, the effective stack height is

H = h + Δh = 200 + 222 = 422m
Let’s compare the result from Holland’s formula for plume rise:
For part (a), and assume pressure = 1 atm
= 63 m
The difference between the calculations of the two approaches

was that Briggs formula takes into consideration the buoyancy
force. That explains why the Briggs formula is more accurate and
connected to real-life situations.
Unit 5 37
Activity 5.5
A proposed municipal incinerator in Tuen Mun has a 240 m chimney
and inside radius of 2.5 m. The exit velocity of the exhaust gases is
estimated at 15 m/s, at 413K. Ambient temperature is 298 K and winds
at chimney height are estimated to be 5 m/s. Estimate the effective
chimney height if (a) the atmosphere is stable with temperature
increasing at rate of 2 oC/km, (b) the atmosphere is slightly unstable,
Class C.
Other environmental models
Rollback models
This method uses a very simple empirical model relating air quality
projection to emission growth and historical ambient air quality data
(Technical for Inventory Validation, http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/eiip/
pm25inventory/newtopmC5.pdf). The term ‘rollback’ appears to be the
application rather than characteristics of the models. It is generally used
in air quality maintenance planning as a method of estimating emission
reductions required for compliance with standards in air quality
maintenance areas. The models in their simplest form are proportionality
relations between emissions changes and resultant concentrations. They
require a minimum of input data and computations.
The rollback model calculates future concentration by an expression of

the form
where
qp = present emission rate

q = future emission rate
Cp = present ambient concentration
C = future ambient concentration
Therefore, it assumes that the average future ambient concentration, C,

at any location is linearly proportional to the rate of future emission, q,
so that if q increases, C will also increase in direct proportion and vice
versa.
A projection for future concentration, C, with a background

concentration, Cb (for a substance is naturally present) on present
emission, qp and observed maximum pollutant concentration, Cp is
given:
The feature of this method is the need for data on existing levels
of emissions, qp and existing concentrations, Cp. If the data are not
available, existing emissions could be calculated using the emission
factor models. However, existing ambient concentration, Cp, may need
to be measured in the field.
Example 5.10
A chimney of a cement kiln of located in Tuen Mun emits combustion

gases at a rate of 5 m3/s (original rate) with SO2 concentration of
10 mg/m3 Assume the background concentration and original ambient
concentration of SO2 are 1 mg/m3 and 2 mg/m3. Calculate the ultimate
ambient concentration of SO2 if the ultimate emission rate is 4 m3/s.
Solution
Box models
Box models are commonly used to study air pollution problems in

urban areas. These models consist of a box with its base on the ground,
its top at the inversion surface (top of the mixing layer) and its sides
positioned to enclose the urban area. This model considers the average
concentration in an enclosed box covering a ground area of given
horizontal dimensions, length L and width W. The wind is assumed to
flow unidirectional, which is taken as x-direction. The height H of the
box depends on the atmospheric mixing height.

Figure 5.13 Schematic diagram of box model: Hong Kong vertical box style
There are two types of box model. In type 1, the pollutants disperse as
far as the inversion layer. This condition is likely to prevail if the area
considered is small and the wind speed is not too low. In type 2, the
vertical dispersion is affected by the inversion layer, which occurs for
stagnant wind conditions and large areas.
The system to be modelled is the airshed (or airspace) over a given

area (i.e. a city), and the problem is to relate air pollutant emissions
to resulting air quality. The model introduced here is the simplest of
Unit 5 39
the box models currently available. Therefore, it is purely to consider

a city whose rectangular boundary forms the base of a box-shaped
air container as shown in Figure 5.13 The height of the box, H, is the
mixing height, which means the height above the surface of the box
through which relatively vigorous vertical mixing occurs (i.e. complete
and total mixing of pollutants up to the mixing height and no mixing
above this height).
By conservation of mass, mass is neither created nor destroyed, so that

the mass going into the box must equal the mass going out, as shown in
the following equation:
where V = volume of box (volume)

C = pollution concentration in the box (mass/volume)
Q = air pollution emission rate of the box (mass/volume)
R = air flowrate (volume/time)
The steady-state solution to the above equation can be obtained by

simply setting dC/dt = 0, so that
The concentration profile of the above equation should be:

Therefore, the final concentration, C, is proportional to the emission rate

and inversely proportional to the mixing height, H:
where R = uLH and u = wind speed

Activity 5.6
Look again at the above equation and the terms included in it. Bearing
in mind the introductory paragraph to this section on box models, what
is your conclusion?
Example 5.11
For the Tseung Kwan O Industrial Estate having L = 3 km, H = 100 m,

and u = 5 km/hr and whose emissions equal 200,000 kg/day, use the box
model to calculate the steady-state carbon monoxide CO concentration
in mg/m3 (assume there is no conversion of CO to CO2).
Solution
u = 5 km/hr = 5,000m/hr = 1.39 m/s
L = 3 km = 3,000 m
H = 100 m
Q = 200,000 kg/day = 8.33×109 mg/hr = 2.31×106 mg/s
C = Q/uLH = 5.55 mg/m3
According to the AQO provided by EPD, the primary standard for CO

is 10 mg/m3 over an eight-hour period. Therefore, the emission does not
yet exceed the limit suggested.
Unit 5 41
Motor vehicles
In Hong Kong, air pollution problems arise mainly from three sources:
road transport (i.e. vehicular emissions), industrial (i.e. quarries, cement
kiln facilities, industrial furnaces and boilers) and utilities (i.e. power
plants, aircrafts and ships). Of all these sources, road transport is
considered to cause major air pollution problems in Hong Kong, mainly
by the large number of motor vehicles, especially diesel vehicles, on
Hong Kong streets. At the end of 2002, the total number of vehicles
licensed in Hong Kong was 525,551, a 38.5% increase over the 1991
figure. Therefore, an important factor to consider in developing new
traffic routes is the effect that the changed traffic pattern would have on
the quality of air in the surrounding area. Such a consideration applies
both to the construction of new roads and to the upgrading of existing
ones. Use of air pollution models allows comparisons to be made among
possible strategies. Several models can be used to predict dispersion
of gaseous pollutants from a roadway by treating it as a line-source.
The model CALINE4 was particularly developed to model vehicular
emissions and is well accepted by the EPD for this purpose. Examples
for application of the model are during the construction and operation
phases of the Island Eastern Corridor, West Kowloon Highway, North
Lantau Highway, Kwun Tong By-Pass, Hung Hom By-Pass, and the
Princess Margaret Road Link. The aim of this section is to present
Gaussian-type models for line sources as well as technological control
of the vehicle emissions.
Source of emissions
In Hong Kong, one cause of air pollution is motor vehicles emissions.
The exhaust emissions are a main source of five primary pollutants:
nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC),
sulphur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter.
The emission of pollutants is from combustion cylinders in which the

combustion process takes place from petrol and air. Petrol is a mixture
of hydrocarbons, equivalent to a single component, octane (C8H16).
If there is enough air and ignition source, the combustion exists as
follows:
Energy + + Energy
output
Assume that the ratio of oxygen to nitrogen in the air is 1:4 and the
products of combustion only are carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen
where there are no pollutants. As the combustion process is exothermic,
the temperature inside the chamber increases so that some oxygen and
nitrogen will combine to produce nitrogen oxides (NOx). The most
important NOx in the atmosphere are nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2). Emissions from power stations and motor vehicles
(diesel vehicles in particular) are the two major sources of NOx in Hong
Kong. NOx emissions from motor vehicles are of great concern due to
their dominant effect on the roadside air quality. NO2 is formed from
oxidation of NO emitted from fuel combustion. AQO for seven major
components of air pollution has been discussed in Unit 4. The AQOs
serve as benchmarks for the quality of air needed to protect public
health and as measurable targets to be achieved in the fight against air
pollution. The EPD operates a network of 14 air quality monitoring
stations for measuring the major air pollutants. It consists of 11 stations
for monitoring general air quality and three stations for roadside air
quality across the territory, as shown in Figure 5.14.
In 2007, all general stations complied with the annual AQO for NO2.
Non-compliance was observed at the Kwai Chung, Kwun Tong,
Causeway Bay, Central and Mong Kok roadside stations for 24-hr
average AQO limit of 150 g/m3. This indicates that road transport is
considered to cause major NO2 problems in urban areas.
Sulphur dioxide is formed primarily from combustion of sulphur-

containing fuels. Although vehicles are not the major source of SO2 in
Hong Kong, they are the most important source of SO2 at roadside. All
monitoring stations complied with all relevant AQOs for SO2 during the
year, because cleaner diesel of 0.2% sulphur content was introduced in
April 1995.
Ozone (O3), a major constituent of photochemical smog, is formed by

a series of complicated photochemical reactions of oxygen, nitrogen
oxides and volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight and
warm temperature. Ozone was measured at all 11 general monitoring
stations. In 2007, Tung Chung, Tap Mun, Central/Western, Sha Tin and
Yuen Long stations breached the one-hour average AQO value of 240
µg/m3.
CO remains in the exhaust of the combustion when CO to CO2 is not

complete. Generally, the reason for this is insufficient oxygen supplied.
Hydrocarbon remains in the exhaust when the reaction of combustion is
not completed. The reason is the same as above — insufficient oxygen.
Normally, the air to fuel ratio should be maintained at 15:1. In Hong
Kong, CO mainly comes from vehicular emissions, although a small
amount may also come from incomplete combustion of fuels from
factories and power stations. All monitoring stations complied with the
one-hour and eight-hour AOQ.
Unit 5 43

Figure 5.14 Location of EPD’s Air Quality Monitoring Stations (Air Quality in
Hong Kong 2007)
Total suspended particulates (TSP) are small airborne particulates

such as dust, fumes and smoke with diameters less than 100 µm. In
Hong Kong, major sources of TSP include power stations, construction
activities and vehicle exhaust. In 2007, the highest annual averages
were recorded at Kwun Tong, Kwai Chung, Mong Kok and Yuen Long
roadside stations, which breached the annual AQO value of 80 µg/m3.
This indicates that TSP emitted from motor vehicles is more significant
than that from power plants and construction sites.
Respirable suspended particulates (RSP) are suspended particulates with

nominal aerodynamic diameters of 10 µm or less. Combustion sources,
in particular diesel vehicle exhaust and emissions from power plants,
are the major sources of RSP. In 2007, the highest 24-hour average was
recorded at Tung Chung roadside station, which breached the 24-hour
AQO limit of 180 µg/m3 in the year. The highest annual averages were
recorded at Causeway Bay, Central, and Mong Kok roadside stations,
which also breached the 24-hour AQO limit of 55 µg/m3 in the year.
The sale and supply of leaded petrol, which is a known major source of
lead from vehicular emissions, was banned from 1 April 1999 in Hong
Kong. Therefore, all monitoring stations were well within the relevant
limit of 1.5 µg/m3 in 2007.
Once pollutants such as NO2, O3, TSP, RSP and hydrocarbon are
produced, they can have major adverse effects on the environment, e.g.
they can trigger asthma attacks in people sensitive to RSPs. As vehicular
exhaust pipes are located near the ground, they are a major contribution
to the pollutant concentrations on people, in many roadways (see
Figure 5.15).
Vehicle exhaust pipe

at low levels produce
high concentration
of pollutants at
ground level.
Figure 5.15 Pollutants emitted from a low level and short exhaust pipe
Activity 5.7
Suppose someone suggests that the exhaust pipe be relocated at an
elevated position for dispersion of the pollutant as shown in Figure 5.16.
What other environmental problem do you see in using a tall exhaust pipe
for diluting the pollutant concentration before it reaches the ground?
The exhaust pipe is located at

an elevated position so that
the exhaust emissions are
well dispersed and carried
away from the roadway.
Figure 5.16 Pollutants emitted from a high-level exhaust pipe
Example 5.12
There are about 530,000 licensed vehicles in Hong Kong (see

Table 5.4). It is estimated that the average NOx emission rate from the
cars is 3.1 g/km, and the hydrocarbon (HC) emission rate is 1.6 g/km.
Each car travels about 30 km round trip per working day. Calculate the
amount (volume) of NOx (NO and NO2) and the amount of HC put into
the city atmosphere each working day.
Solution
The NOx produced is 530,000 × 30 × 3.1 = 111.6 × 106 g/day NOx =

111.6 tonnes/day NOx. The HC produced is 530,000 × 30 × 1.6 = 25.4 ×
106 g/day HC = 25.4 tonnes/day HC. Since the molecular weight of NO2
= 46 g/mol volume = 46 g/22.4 L, it follows that the volume of NO2
produced is
Unit 5 45
The molecular weight of CH4 = 16 g/mol volume = 16 g/22.4 L. So the

volume of CH4 produced is
Thus the total volume of NO2 and HC produced is 13.5 × 104 m3/day.
Table 5.4 Vehicles registered and licensed in 2005-2006
Vehicle registered Vehicle licensed
Vehicle class At year end Change Percent At year end Change Percent
over changed over changed
2005 2006 2001 (%) 2005 2006 2001 (%)
Motorcycle 45941 47987 +2046 +4.5 34023 35915 +1892 +5.6
Motor 2 5 +3 +150 2 5 +3 +150
Tricycles
Private car 388311 393756 +5445 +1.4 350753 360427 +9674 +2.8
Taxi 18138 18138 0 0 18010 18031 +21 +0.12
Public Bus 13054 12958 -96 -0.74 12794 12753 -41 -0.32
Private Bus 493 486 -7 -1.4 477 472 -5 -1.0
Goods 122911 123607 +696 +0.57 111983 112749 +766 +0.68
Vehicle
Public Light 4350 4350 0 0 4347 4349 +2 +0.046
Bus
Private Light 1897 1900 +3 +0.16 1857 1871 +14 +0.75
Bus
Government 6394 6408 +14 +0.22 6394 6408 +14 +0.22
Vehicle
Total 601491 609595 +8104 +1.3 540640 552980 +12340 +2.3
(Annual Transport Digest 2007)
Activity 5.8
Can you deduce any trends from this data? Discuss your thoughts with
your classmates and tutor.
Modelling the dispersion of vehicle-emitted

pollutants
Under normal conditions, the dispersion of vehicle-emitted pollutants
can be considered a line source, which is viewed as an indefinite number
of point sources. However, you should note that vehicles are a point
source only when stationary. Line sources include heavily travelled
highway facilities. The pollutant concentrations can be given by the
equation
(5.1)
Then, the pollutant concentration from a line source is obtained by

integrating in the horizontal direction
(5.2)
where Q here is the emission rate per unit length of roadway, u is the
wind speed perpendicular to the road and h0 is the plume center height
at the distance x from the road.
The coefficient of z, σz, used are derived from the formula
(5.3)
θ is wind direction to perpendicular, and where F(θ) is defined as
(5.4)
and a, b, c, β and γ are the parameter for neutral, stable and unstable
conditions if u > 1 ms-1, h0 is taken as source height; otherwise, an
alternative form is in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Parameters used for line source
Stability a b c β γ α (1) u1(2) u0(2)

Stable 1.48 0.15 0.77 5.82 3.57 20.7 0.18 0.23
Neutral 1.14 0.10 0.97 3.46 3.50 11.1 0.27 0.38
Unstable 1.14 0.05 1.33 3.46 3.50 11.1 0.27 0.63
1 For u < 1 ms-1, there is a plume rise of ; x is
horizontal distance from the road and F1 is taken as 0.052 m3s-3.

Unit 5 47
2 u1 and u0 are wind speed corrections to the ambient crosswind speed;

u0 for u ≥ 1ms-1 and u1 for u < 1ms-1
For simplicity, we could consider only a continuous source along the

line at ground level, and winds blowing perpendicular to the line as
shown below:
Figure 5.17 Showing the geometry of a line source, such as a straight section
of highway and the receptor located x distance from the source
(Masters 1996)
Under these circumstances, the ground-level concentration of pollution

at distance x from the line source can be described by the following:
where q = vehicle emission rate along the line (g/ms)
Example 5.13
The international emission standard for CO from vehicles is 3.4 g/mile.

The Western Kowloon Highway has an average of 20 vehicles per
second passing a given spot. Assume each emits 3.4 g/mile of CO. If the
wind is perpendicular to the highway at 2.2 m/s on a cloudy day, predict
the ground-level concentration of CO from the highway.
Solution
A cloudy day, this belongs to stability class D. By the formula,
Substitute the above values to

Area-source models
Many approaches can be taken to estimate pollutant concentrations

for distributed pollutant sources. If there is only small number of
point sources, it is reasonable to use the point source Gaussian plume
equation for each source to predict its contribution to the overall
emission. Multiple use of the Gaussian line source equation is another
approach. Or, divide an area into a series of parallel strips and then treat
each strip as a line-source. The total concentration on any strip can be
estimated. Why not estimate the pollutant concentration over an area
instead? This is a much simpler method. Now, consider the airshed over
a given area to be represented by a rectangular box of base dimensions
L and W and height H shown on the graph:

Figure 5.18 Box model for an airshed over a given area
Assume the air blowing into the box on the upwind side has pollutant
concentration Cin and that none is lost through the sides parallel to the
wind flow or through the top of the box. Also assume that the pollutants
are rapidly and completely mixed in the box with uniform average
concentration C, which is also the concentration leaving the box in the
wind flow. Moreover, the pollutant would not decay or react inside the
box.
Again apply the mass balance of pollutant
where
C = pollutant concentration in the airshed, mgm-3

Cin = concentration in the incoming air, mgm-3
qs = emission rate per unit area, mgm-2s-1
H = mixing height, m
Unit 5 49
L = length of airshed, m
W = width of airshed, m
u = average wind speed against one edge of the box, ms-1
At a steady state, the pollutant entering the box is balanced by the rate
of pollutant leaving the box. Hence dC/dt = 0, so that
If the air entering the box contains none of the pollutants under
consideration, the value of Cin is zero. Therefore, the steady-state
concentration C(∞) at time t = infinite, is proportional to the emission
rate qs and inversely proportional to the ventilation coefficient uH. If
the air entering the box is not clean, we need to add the effect of the
incoming concentration. Solve the following equation to obtain the
time-dependent increase in pollution above the box:
It is possible to solve the above equation in order to find the pollutant

concentration C(t) in the unsteady-state condition at time = t.
If C(0) is the concentration in the airshed above the box (i.e. the city) at
time t = 0, the solution becomes
One special case is that the incoming wind blows has no pollutant, and
the initial concentration in the box is zero. Then the equation can further
be simplified to
When t = L/u, the exponential function becomes e-1 and the

concentration reaches about 63% of its final value. That value is called
time constant.
Example 5.14
Suppose within Hong Kong Island, 15 km on a side, 300,000 cars are

on the road, each being driven 30 km between 4 pm and 6 pm, and each
emitting 3 g/km of CO. It is a clear winter evening with a radiation
inversion that restricts mixing to 20 m. The wind is bringing clean air at
a steady rate of 1.0 m/s along an edge of the island. Use a box model to
estimate the CO concentration at 6 pm if there was no CO in the air at
4 pm and the only source of CO is cars. Assume that CO is conservative
and that there is complete and instantaneous mixing in the box.
Solution
The emissions per m2, qs, would be
Using the equation,
Technological control of vehicle emissions

In Hong Kong, air pollution from motor vehicles is controlled through
fuel and emission controls. The permitted sulphur content of motor
diesel has been progressively tightened from 0.2% in 1995 to 0.005%
from 2002, and Hong Kong is the only Asian city where this ultra-
low sulphur diesel is widely available. Unleaded petrol was introduced
in 1999. The benzene level in petrol was tightened from 5% to not
more than 1% in 2000. Since vehicle emissions contain a number of
pollutants, such as CO, NOx, carbon soot and HC, a suitable treatment
should be installed in order to make the exhaust clean. In fact, diesel
vehicles are a major source of air pollution on Hong Kong streets and
emit a considerable particulate matters and nitrogen oxides in their
operation on Hong Kong streets.
The catalytic converter acts as a reactor to oxidize those pollutants. It is

located on the exhaust pipe of a vehicle. The inside of the converter is
shown in Figure 5.19. Its baffles direct the exhaust gas along one side
of the catalyst chamber, and it is coated with precious metals, such as
platinum and palladium, which act as catalysts to help the process of
cleaning up the exhaust gases.
Unit 5 51
Figure 5.19 Catalytic converter using platinum and palladium as catalyst (Nevers
2000)
The removal of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide involves oxidation

shown as follows:
By comparison, the removal of NOx involves reduction process:
Early catalyst systems were either oxidation or reduction systems, but

the modern approach combines both. In the converter, the platinum and
palladium as shown in Figure 5.19 enhance the oxidation process; the
rhodium helps the reduction process. The dependence of the converter
efficiency on the air-to-fuel ratio with optimize is 15:1.
The removal efficiency of NO should be high at low air-to-fuel reaction.

The removal efficiency of CO, HC should be high at high air to fuel
ratio. For efficient operation, the air-to-fuel ratio must be accurately
controlled near the stiochiometric conditions as discussed in Unit 2
or close to 15:1 ratio. Normally, this is achieved by incorporating an
electronic feedback control system that monitors the composition of
exhaust gas. The control system feeds information to a micro-processor-
controlled carburetor or fuel injection system. Diesel vehicles emit
considerable particulate matters and nitrogen oxides in their operation
on Hong Kong streets.
According to the EPD, a one-year programme to help owners of pre-

Euro light diesel vehicles to retrofit their vehicles with catalytic
converters or particulate traps was completed in 2001. More than
24,000 light diesel vehicles are now fitted with catalytic converters or
particulate traps. Particulate traps are effective in controlling the carbon
core of the particulate and in some cases exceed a 90% reduction in
particulate (see Figure 5.20).
The HKSAR
Government provides
financial assistance to
owners of pre-Euro
light diesel vehicles
for the installation of
particulate traps.
Figure 5.20 Particulate trap (Y H Yau & Associates)
The EPD also introduced legislation in 2003 to require all pre-Euro

diesel light vehicles up to four tonnes to be installed with suitable
particulate removal devices. A similar programme was also carried out
on 41,000 pre-Euro medium and heavy diesel vehicles to help vehicle
owners to retrofit their vehicles with these devices in 2002 (see
Figure 5.21).
Figure 5.21 Bus companies have retrofitted about 2,000 older buses of
pre-Euro or Euro 1 models with diesel catalytic converter
(http://www.epd.gov.hk)
Unit 5 53
Summary
This unit gives a brief introduction to air pollution modelling and shows
how to apply simplified equations using worked-out examples. To
use the equations, you have to make some assumptions based on your
location and meteorological conditions.
The currently available models are not ideal, because complicating

factors such as hilly or mountainous terrain, building interference,
intermittent operation, and long-term operations affect the accuracy of
the modelling.
Air pollution modelling is unlikely to solve air pollution problems

only by dispersion, but it is likely to solve the problems by process
modifications or reduce the pollutant emissions.
Predictions of ambient air concentration can be made using air pollutant

concentration models.
Pollutant concentration models are based on known emission strength

and meteorology. These models play a crucial role in the air quality
management type of air pollution control strategy currently used in
Hong Kong.
The meteorological data of greatest interest to environmental

professionals are atmospheric stability and the wind speed.
Stable atmospheres and low wind speeds lead to the highest pollutant
concentrations. Unstable atmospheres and high wind speeds lead to the
lowest pollutant concentrations.
A wind speed is always obtained at 10 m above ground and designated

as a ground-level wind speed.
A wind speed at a higher altitude, Zn is often obtained from the ground-
level wind speed, u10 by using the equation

References
Air Quality in Hong Kong 2002, Environmental Protection Department,
HKSAR.
Environment Hong Kong 2002, Environmental Protection Department,

HKSAR.
Guideline on Assessing the ‘Total’ Air Quality Impacts (2002)

Environmental Protection Department, HKSAR.
Guideline on Choice of Models and Model Parameters (2002)

Environmental Protection Department, HKSAR.
Guideline on Estimating Height Restriction and Position of Fresh Air

Intake Using Gaussian Plume Models (2002) Environmental Protection
Department, HKSAR.
Guidelines on the Use of Alternative Computer Models in Air Quality

Assessment (2002) Environmental Protection Department, HKSAR.
Liu, H F and Liptak B G (1997) Environmental Engineers’ Handbook,

2nd edn, New York: Lewis Publishers.
Masters, G M (1996) Introduction to Environmental Engineering and

Science, 2nd edn, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall International
Inc.
Nevers, D (2000) Air Pollution Control Engineering, 2nd edn,

Singapore: McGraw-Hill International Editions.
Unit 5 55
Feedback on activities
Activity 5.1
1 a With 2 hours of bright sunshine (i.e. slight day radiation) and a
wind speed of 1.5 m/s, the stability category is B.
b With 8 hours of bright sunshine (i.e. strong day radiation) and a

wind speed of 20 km/hr (i.e. 5.5 m/s), the stability category is C.
c With 4 hours of cloudless night (i.e. clear night) and a wind

speed of 3.5 m/s, the stability category is E.
2 (i) = D; (ii) = C; (iii) = A; (iv) = E; (v) = B; (vi) = F
Activity 5.2
Field measurement can at most tell about the existing status of air
quality. However, it is unlikely to tell the changes in air quality with
regard to new or future scenarios of sources and meteorology. Air
pollution modelling is at the present moment the best method to assess
whether a pollution source will have impacts. Another advantage
of air modelling is its economic cost vs high prediction effects. The
calculations of an air model can be applied to thousands of locations at
the price of only a single measurement.
Activity 5.3
[x, y, z] where x and y represent the coordination at the ground surface
and z represents the height from the release point. Since the coordinate
of the release point is [0, 0, 0], the receiver on 12th floor is [0, 0, 30].
Activity 5.4
Within the condition D and 10 km downwind,
10 km = 10, 000 m
By equation, σy = ax0.894
σy = 68×100000.894 = 256,158.58
by equation, σz = cxd+ f
σz = 44.5×100000.725 + (–1.7)= 35,345.91
Activity 5.5
The buoyancy parameter F:
By equation
F = 163.7 m4/s3
a The atmosphere is stable,
= 0.0004/s2
= 112.9 m
Therefore the effective stack height is H = h + Δh = 240 + 112.9

= 352.9 m
b For unstable atmosphere class C and F > 55 m4 /s3, the distance

downwind to the point of final plume rise is
x = 120F0.4 = 120(163.7)0.4 = 922 m
and
165.8 m
Therefore the effective stack height is H = 240 + 165.8 = 405.8 m
Activity 5.6
The expression of the equation is reasonable because it shows that the
concentration, C, increases as the emission, Q, increases or if the mixing
height, H, or wind speed, u, decreases.
Activity 5.7
While the pollutant concentration at ground level can be reduced, it
could create a noise pollution problem due to the elevation of the noise
source.

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Air pollutant concentration models 16

Why air pollution modelling?

in EIA studies. EIA is a tool for environmental planning of new

In short, this unit:

• describes and explains the concepts of atmospheric stability;

• describes conditions leading to various stability patterns;

• illustrates the estimation of pollutant concentrations using the

• applies the Gaussian model of dispersion and other environmental

• wind speed and direction

Let’s look at these four factors in more detail.

Wind speed and direction

In general, wind flow can be considered streamline motion, i.e.

Buoyant generation of turbulence

In contrast, at night when winds are light, the outgoing infrared

Vertical instability of the air is the second cause of turbulence. As the

Suppose an insulated balloon is released at some point in the

1 Assume the balloon is stationary at the bottom level (Figure 5.2c

The equation of state for a gas as introduced in Unit 2 relates

For ρp = ρA and PP = PA at the bottom level, the temperature of air in

3 Suppose the balloon is now moved upward to the right (Figure

Similar to (2), but here, TA > TP, from the equation,

, ρp must be smaller than ρA so that the pressure

Somewhat similar to a balloon, the atmosphere could be visualized as

Some terminology has to be introduced for easy understanding. The

In addition to the ‘stable’ case is a kind called ‘unstable’. This kind

a Neutral, when γ = ΓD.

b Unstable, when γ > ΓD

c Slightly stable, when γ < ΓD

d Very stable, when the temperature in ambient atmosphere increases

Practically, the adiabatic lapse rate, ΓD, can be determined by

To visualize the effect of atmospheric lapse rates and stability on the

When the chimney is above an inversion layer, as in Figure 5.3e

Atmospheric stability can be classified by surface wind speed and solar

Table 5.1 Stability categories (Henry and Heinke 1996, 555)

Surface wind speed Day radiation intensity Night cloudiness

Note: A: Very unstable; B: Moderately unstable; C: Slightly unstable; D:

The letters A to F are used to describe the atmospheric stabilities. The

Very unstable atmosphere: A

Weather conditions are very unpredictable. In this atmospheric

Moderately unstable atmosphere: B

Weather conditions are still unpredictable but less so than class A. In

Slightly unstable atmosphere: C

Weather conditions are somewhat unpredictable. In this atmospheric

Weather conditions are more predictable. In this atmospheric condition,

Slightly stable atmosphere: E

Weather conditions turn more predictable than with class D. In this

Weather conditions become very predictable. In this atmospheric

As an illustration of Table 5.1, we can consider a situation in Choi Hung

a On November 24, two hours of total bright sunshine was

c On January 2, four hours of cloudiness was recorded, and the

2 With your understanding on atmospheric stability theories, match

Nocturnal cooling of the earth’s surface, especially in clear weather,

Initially, the temperature of the ground starts to cool because of the

We mentioned that radiational inversions occur mostly during the

Radiational inversions are also important in another context. For

A subsidence (elevated) inversion or inversion aloft is the result of

Figure 5.4 Subsidence inversions (Masters 1996)