ENVR S335

Environmental Control,
Monitoring and Modeling

Unit 10
Sludge handling and
facility design

211
OUHK Course Team
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Dr Gordon Maxwell, OUHK (Units 4–12)

External Course Assessor

Prof. C S Poon, Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Production
Educational Technology and Development Unit

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2014.
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Contents

Introduction 1

Characteristics of sludge 3
What is sludge? 3
The properties of sludge 3

Sludge treatment processes 7

Thickening processes 7
Digestion applications 15
Dewatering 22
Final disposal or alternative uses 26

Water treatment systems and process train schemes 30

Water treatment processes 30
Considerations for designing water treatment plants 31
System layouts 33

Wastewater treatment systems and process train schemes 35

Wastewater treatment processes 35
Process selection 38
Sewage strategy of Hong Kong 41

Summary 44

Feedback on activities 45

References 48
 Unit 10 1

Introduction
In recent years, the problems associated with primary effluent and
sludge discharges in Hong Kong’s harbour have raised a lot of public
concern. Accordingly, the government and local scientists have conducted
some studies on the matter, and various solutions have been proposed.

Figure 10.1 Hong Kong’s harbour has become a sink receiving discharges from
untreated effluents and sludge.

As noted in Unit 9’s discussion of the commissioning of the Harbour

Actions and Treatment Scheme (HATS) Stage I, about 70% of the
sewage flowing into Hong Kong’s harbours, previously only treated by
screening and degritting, is now receiving chemical treatment. Such
elevation in the levels of treatment to Hong Kong’s sewage is bringing
about a significant reduction in the pollution of the harbour. The HATS
Stage I work includes the construction of a 23.6 km-long deep tunnel
conveyance system to carry sewage collected from Kowloon (stretching
from Tsuen Wan in the west to Tseung Kwan O in the east) and from the
northeast areas of Hong Kong Island (comprising Chai Wan and Shau
Kei Wan) to Stonecutter’s Island. At Stonecutter’s Island, a treatment
works plant treats sewage by using chemical processes using ferric
chloride. After treatment, the effluent is discharged via a 1.7-km long
submarine outfall to the western approach of Victoria Harbour.
2 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

The effects of effluent and sludge discharges on the harbour and beaches
are particularly noticeable and acute. By studying Reading 10.1, you
may understand why marine dumping of sludge is no longer permitted
in any location of Hong Kong’s harbour. The article by a columnist
of the South China Morning Post is related to a trip led by Prof. K C
Ho and his students to study the water quality and sewage and sludge
disposal strategy in Hong Kong. It comments that Hong Kong’s harbour
should no longer be a giant toilet for urban sewers, and the sludge and
effluent once flushed away by tidal currents should be treated before
being discharged.

Reading 10.1
Terry, E (2004) ‘How murky waters can create a clear identity’,
South China Morning Post, 7 April

The last part of Unit 9 examines water quality and water and sewage
treatment. In this unit, as a follow-up, we look at the problems
associated with sludge handling and treatment.

Specifically, this unit:

• explains the basics of sludge treatment and the options for sludge
disposal.

• describes the processes of sludge treatment.

• assesses the problems of disposing of water treatment sludge and

wastewater treatment sludge.

• examines treatment process train layouts for water, wastewater and/

or industrial water treatment.
 Unit 10 3

Characteristics of sludge
In this first section of the unit, we define and describe sludge and look
at various types of sludge. We also look at the chemical properties of
sludge. In particular, we discuss the characteristics of sludge from water
treatment processes and the characteristics of sludge from wastewater
treatment processes.

What is sludge?
Residues, from both water and wastewater treatment processes, are
known as ‘sludge’. Water treatment sludge is the residues from water
resulting from various processes. These residues include the turbidity-
causing solids from raw water, organic/inorganic materials, algae,
bacteria, viruses, colloids, and precipitated chemicals from incoming
water and from the treatment processes. Sludge from wastewater
treatment plants is residue from the primary sedimentation basin,
secondary clarifiers, chemical precipitation, nitrification-denitrification
tanks, screening and grinding, and/or from filtration units.

The properties of sludge

The properties and characteristics of sludge can be described by general
chemical analyses, which specify the overall composition of the sludge,
or by more specific parameters, which give information directly relevant
to the structure of the sludge. General chemical analyses such as volatile
solids content, ash content, and nitrogen content are the conventional
parameters used to design and operate wastewater treatment processes.

Sludge contains large volumes of water. The small portions of solids

in the sludge are highly offensive. The handling and disposal of sludge
pose several problems, to which there is no simple solution. In Hong
Kong, sludge has to be disposed of by transporting it away from the
treatment plant and then sending it to landfill sites. You should note that
transportation of voluminous sludge is a costly business. In general,
raw sludge has water content of over 90%. Therefore, eliminating or
reducing the water content of sludge can reduce the costs involved in
transporting it. For example, reducing the water content of sludge from
95% to 60% would reduce the volume to 10% of its original size. This
reduction of volume can highly reduce the costs of transporting sludge
for disposal.

Sludge from water treatment processes

Various solid wastes are generated from different water treatment

processes. These wastes include:

• sand and silt from screening or sedimentation,

• alum sludge/polymer from coagulation and flocculation,
4 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

• solids from filter backwash water, and

• activated carbon.

The characteristics of sludge from water treatment works are shown in

Table 10.1.

Table 10.1 Characteristics of sludge from water treatment

Sources Characteristics
Settled residue from raw Silty suspended solids from gravity
water separation
Alum sludge Brownish aluminum sulphate with
very poor settlement properties
Lime softening White lime and soda toothpaste settled
particles
Filter backwash Brownish yellow agglomerated solids
with poor settlement properties
Iron sludge Reddish brown ferrous or ferric salts
with poor settlement properties
Powdered activated carbon Black powdered activated carbon
which can absorb small particles of air

Sludge from water treatment works usually has a high water volume.
For example, sludge from screening or sedimentation may contain 40 to
70% moisture content. Solids agglomerated within the filter media from
filter backwash may have up to 90% moisture content. In coagulation
and softening sludge, the solid content may be 10%. Given the high
water content of these types of sludge, it is most economical to dewater
them by using drying beds, gravity-thickening vacuum processes, or
pressure conditioning. The volume of alum and lime softening sludge
can be reduced by centrifuges or pressure filters.

Sludge from wastewater treatment processes

The majority of wastewater treatment processes must produce waste

sludge if they are to provide effective reductions in their loads, which
pass to receiving waters. Several different side-stream products are
produced during the wastewater treatment process, depending on
the design of the wastewater treatment plant. Sludge from various
wastewater treatment processes is highly offensive and contains a lot
of water. To stabilize and reduce the volume of wastewater treatment
sludge, it is vital to treat it effectively. Wastewater treatment sludge
consists of organic and inorganic solids. Sludge is the materials that
are separated in the underflow from sedimentation tanks in wastewater
treatment plants. Screening and grit can be disposed of by incineration
or landfilling; they contain little degradable organic material and are of
low moisture content.
 Unit 10 5

The simplest way to classify different kinds of wastewater sludge is by

the process from which they are produced.

Primary or raw sludge is drawn from the primary sedimentation tanks.

It contains all of the readily settleable matter from the wastewater, has
a high organic content, and is mainly faecal matter and food scraps.
Primary sludge comes from municipal wastewater and is thus highly
putrescible. In its fresh state, raw sludge is grey and has a heavy faecal
odour. Both colour and odour intensify with prolonged storage under
anoxic conditions, leading rapidly to the onset of putrefaction and
extremely unpleasant odours, often evident in small works when sludge
is drawn from the sedimentation tanks into open pits for transfer to the
digestion tanks.

Industrial wastewaters, which are separated by primary settlement, will

tend to produce inorganic sludge, described as chemical sludge.

Secondary sludge results from secondary treatment and contains

chemical or biological solids. Sludge from chemical precipitation tanks
is usually dark coloured and has an objectionable smell.

Activated sludge is brown and has a less offensive smell. It is usually

drawn off the return sludge system from the underflow of the final
sedimentation tanks in the activated sludge process. It consists of light
flocculants, and biological solids with a significant demand for oxygen
largely due to the respiration of the sludge microorganisms. The mass of
excess sludge produced each day represents the net growth in biomass
and is related to the loading rate of the process. Activated sludge
typically has much higher moisture content than does other organic
wastewater sludge and exhibits greater dewatering problems.

Digested sludge is the product of either aerobic or anaerobic

digestion and is well-stabilized material able to be dewatered on
open drying beds without producing severe odour problems. Well-
stabilized anaerobically digested sludge has a black appearance and
a tarry odour, is non-putrescible, and no longer attractive to flies and
other insects. Aerobically digested sludge is lighter in colour than
anaerobically digested sludge, and normally has only a slight sludgy
odour. In practice, aerobic digestion is more widely used for industrial
organic wastewater sludge stabilization, whereas municipal sludge is
conveniently digested anaerobically.

The specific gravity of inorganic solids ranges from 2 to 2.5; that of

organic solids ranges from 1.2 to 1.3. The characteristics of sludge from
municipal wastewater treatment plants are shown in Table 10.2.
6 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Table 10.2 Characteristics of sludge from wastewater treatment

Primary Activated Digested

Parameter
sludge sludge sludge
Total dry solids, % 3–8 0.5–1.0 5.0–10.0
Total volatile solids (TVS), 60–90 60–80 30–60
% dry wt
BOD/TVS 0.5–1.1 – –
COD/TVS 1.2–1.6 2.0–3.0 –
Alkalinity, mg/l as CaCO3 500–1500 200–500 2500–3500

Sludge moisture-mass-volume relationships

In general, most kinds of sludge contain only between 1% and 10%

solids, and their major component is water. As sludge solids are often
denser than water, the water content accounts for most of the volume of
wet sludge. Sludge moisture content is therefore the single parameter
that has the greatest effect on the volume of sludge to be processed at
a given waste treatment plant. Therefore, it is useful to examine sludge
moisture-mass-volume relationships.

The volume of wet sludge can be represented by the equation:

, where

VW = volume of wet sludge (m3)

MW = mass of wet sludge (kg)
ρW = density of wet sludge (kg/m3)

The key concern of sludge from water and wastewater treatment is its
voluminous nature. The removal of water could greatly reduce storage
volume, improve the efficiency of subsequent treatment processes,
minimize transportation costs, and minimize the nuisance to people and
disposal sites. The main treatment processes for sludge are discussed in
the next section.
 Unit 10 7

Sludge treatment processes

In 2003, Hong Kong produced 364 tonnes of dewatered sludge each
day. To handle this waste, the HKSAR Government has been providing
landfills for disposal of the sludge. Sludge treatment processes are used
to render the sludge suitable for ultimate disposal to the land or the
ocean, and for incineration, to the air and the land.

In general, sludge treatment processes should:

• Prevent nuisances caused by the decomposition of organic material

in sludge. Usually this is achieved by converting the sludge to a
more stable form.

• Reduce the volume of the sludge, which can be achieved by

reducing the organic content and the moisture content of the sludge.

• Reduce the number of pathogenic organisms in the sludge.

• Convert the sludge into useful by-products such as methane and soil
conditioner.

Several processes are used to treat sludge. These include thickening

processes, digestion, and dewatering. In this section, we discuss each
process in turn, and then discuss the final disposal methods of sludge.

Thickening processes
Sludge thickening is the use of physical methods to increase the total
solid concentration of sludge from its initial value to some higher value.
Thickening may increase the solid content of sludge to about 10 to 12%
of its total weight. The thickening process generates thickened sludge
and a liquid side stream. The thickened sludge is usually pumped to
subsequent processes, and the liquid side stream is returned to the head
of the treatment process.

There are three major approaches to thickening:

• gravity thickening,
• flotation thickening, and
• centrifugal thickening.

Gravity thickening

Gravity thickening is the use of conventional sedimentation tanks

to settle out heavier suspended sludge particles. A typical circular
sedimentation tank is used, influent feeder pipes feeding sludge to
the centre of the tank. Sludge is allowed to settle out with a bottom
rotation scraper collecting concentrated sludge while supernatant flow
overflows at the periphery weir of the circular tank (see Figure 10.2 for
an illustration of the gravity-thickening process).
8 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Figure 10.2 Schematic representation of gravity thickener: (a) plan and

(b) section A-A (Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991, 803)

You should note the vertical pickets on the scraping mechanism which
serves to gently agitate the sludge and aid in the release of trapped
gases and water, thereby opening up channels for water to escape and
promoting densification. The underflow concentration is controlled by
the height of the sludge blanket in the tank. Therefore, the higher the
blanket, the thicker the solids. In practice, excessive solids retention
times may lead to anaerobic activity, and the buoying of light solids to
the surface may occur.
 Unit 10 9

Activity 10.1
Discuss with your tutorial group members why the retention times of
excessive solids in the gravity thickener will lead to the buoying of
solids to the surface of the thickener.

Considerations when designing and operating gravity

thickeners

One important criterion in thickener design and operation is the mass

loading or solids flux expressed as kilograms of solids fed per squared
meter per day. The limiting flux, GL, that produces the desired underflow
for a given area, A, must equal the solids loading rate, M, to the
thickener:

, where

Qo = influent flow (m3/day)

Co = influent solids (kg/m3)
M = solids loading (kg/day)
GL = limiting solids flux (kgm–2day–1)
A = area (m2)

In practice, the limiting flux can be obtained from a batch process or a

continuous process.

1 Batch process
The capacity of a thickener for removing solids under batch condition
can be expressed by the equation:

GB = CiVi, where
GB = batch flux (kgm–2day–1)
Ci = solids concentration (kg/m3)
Vi = settling velocity at Ci (m/day)

2 Continuous process
In a continuous thickener, the solids are removed both by gravity and by
the velocity resulting from the removal of sludge from the tank bottom.
This can be expressed by the equation:

GC = CiVi + CiU, where

GC = continuous solids flux, (kgm–2day–1)

U = downward sludge velocity due to sludge removal (m/day)
10 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

From the above equation, you should be aware that G can be varied by
controlling U, because this is determined by the underflow-pumping
rate, QU. Assuming total solids removal from the tank bottom, the
following equation can be derived:

, where

QU = underflow (m3/day)
CU = underflow concentration (kg/m3)

From the above equation, the required thickener area, A, is then

computed from . You should note that the selected

underflow concentration CU must be less than the ultimate concentration

attainable, C∞. C∞ can be determined from the thickening studies as:

, where

Co = initial solids concentration

Ho = initial height
C∞ = final or ultimate concentration
H∞ = final height

Example

Waste sludge from a chemical coagulation process is to be gravity-

thickened from 0.5 to 4%. The average sludge volume is
2000 m3/day with a variation of 1700 to 2700 m3/day. Determine the
thickener area required and the underflow solids concentration at
minimum flow. The relationship between zone settling velocity and
suspended solids concentration is shown in Table 10.3.

Table 10.3 Batch settling data

Solids concentration (%) Settling velocity (m/h)

0.50 2.3
0.75 1.7
1.00 1.3
1.25 1
1.50 0.5
2.00 0.15
4.00 0.03
 Unit 10 11

Solution

Plotting the flux, G, versus its corresponding concentration, can develop

the batch flux curve.

For 0.5% solid, we can derive the following solution:

= 276 kg/(m2day)

Repeating the above calculation for other solid concentrations, we can

derive the batch flux curve, which is shown in Figure 10.3 below.

Figure 10.3 Batch flux curve

For the desired underflow concentration of 4%, the limiting flux is

found from the batch flux constructing a tangent which extends from
4% solids to the limiting flux of GL = 140 kg/(m2day). The required
thickener area is then calculated by:

0.5% solid concentration = (assume the water density of

)
12 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

= 96.43 m2

When the sludge flow to the thickener is 1700 m3/day, the solids flux, G,
will become:

= 88.15 kg/(m2day)

We can see from Figure 10.2 that the underflow concentration at this
loading will be 5.8%.

Flotation thickening

Dissolved air flotation is presently the most widely used method of

thickening waste-activated sludge. The system uses air buoyancy to
literally float solids to the surface of a tank (see Figure 10.4).

Figure 10.4 Flotation thickener (Eckenfelder 2000, 499)

Flotation thickening is a good method for removing very light particles,

such as waste-activated sludge solids. This kind of sludge has a density
very close to that of water and thus is readily buoyed to the surface. The
tank is designed with a returned sludge flow (recycle flow) combined
with air and then pressurized to about 4 to 5 kg/cm2. As air is soluble
in water with increasing pressure, large quantities of air combine with
the returned sludge flow. The next stage is to allow this returned sludge
flow to depressurize as it is mixed with influent sludge. The reduced
pressure in the tank permits the air in the return sludge flow to come
out of solution and float the solids to the surface. Therefore, a large
quantity of tiny bubbles results, and these are attached to the surface of
the sludge particles. The sludge particles then rise to the surface and are
skimmed off.
 Unit 10 13

You should note that the liquid extracted from the sludge in thickeners
(that is supernatant in a gravity thickener, and underflow in flotation
thickeners) also contains finely divided suspended solids, and these
have a fairly high BOD. This liquid usually must be returned to the head
of the treatment plant for further removal.

Considerations when designing and operating flotation

thickeners

Flotation thickeners should be designed on the basis of laboratory or

pilot testing. The important design variables are the air/solids ratio
(A/S), the tank surface area (A), the detention time and the recycle ratio.
Typical air/solids ratios range from 0.005 to 0.06, and 0.02 the most
common for activated sludge thickeners. The air/solids ratio may be
calculated from the equation below:

, where

A/S = air/solids ratio

Cs = saturation concentration of air in waste flow at l atm
f = fraction of saturation actually achieved (range from 0.5 to 0.8)
P = pressure, atm (usually 3.5 to 5)
R = recycle rate (the ratio of pressurized flow to waste flow)
C = concentration of solids in incoming sludge

Example

A flotation tank installed in Yuen Long Water Treatment Plant operates

at the saturation concentration of 25 mg/L, recycle rate of 0.15. Given
the actual fraction of saturation achieved is 0.54, the pressure imposed
to the pressurized flow is 4 atm, and incoming solid concentration is
measured to be 10g/L. Calculate the air to solids ratio.

Solution

= 4.35×10–4

Centrifugal thickening

Centrifugal thickening makes use of centrifugal force to separate

solid particles within the sludge. The centrifugal force applied is
about 500 to 3000 times the force of gravity. Centrifugal thickening
performance depends on the type of sludge to be processed and the use
of polymer. In general, the resulting sludge is about 4 to 12% solids
14 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

content. Maintenance and power costs for centrifugal thickening can

be relatively high when compared with other thickening processes.
Therefore, the process is usually attractive only at large facilities with
limited space and where skilled operators are available. Centrifugal
thickening is therefore used for sludge that is difficult to thicken by
other means. The two basic types of centrifuge currently used for sludge
thickening are solid bowl and imperforate basket centrifuges (depicted
in Figure 10.5).

Figure 10.5 Centrifuges used for the thickening of sludge: (a) solid bowl and
(b) imperforate basket (Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991, 805)

The performance of a centrifuge is often quantified by the percent

capture, which is defined as:

Percent capture = , where

Cr = concentration of solids in rejects wastewater or centrate (mg/L or %)

Cc = concentration of solids in the cake (mg/L or %)
Cs = concentration of solids in sludge feed (mg/L or %)

From the above equation, you should note that the percent capture
increases as the concentration of solids in the centrate decreases, Cr. In
 Unit 10 15

concentrating sludge solids, capture is important if a minimum amount

of solids is to be returned to the treatment process.

Example

A solid bowl centrifuge has sludge feed of 2% and the concentration of

solids of 30% in the cake and 0.1% in the reject wastewater. Calculate
the percent capture.

Solution

Percent capture =

Percent capture = = 95.32%

Activity 10.2
Discuss with your tutorial group members why many centrifugal
thickening systems are designed with standby polymer systems for use,
when the above capture rates have to be increased.

Digestion applications
Concentrated wastewater sludge represents a considerable hazard to
the environment and must be rendered inert before disposal. The most
commonly used method of stabilizing is by biological degradation,
which is intended to convert all biological particles into non-living
matter. The term digestion is commonly applied to this process.
Therefore, the main objectives of sludge digestion are to stabilize in
order to reduce odour, make sludge less putrescible, and to eliminate
pathogens. Digestion reduces the volatile or organic portion of the
sludge through biological activity. The application of digestion with the
presence of air or oxygen is known as aerobic digestion; the process
without air or oxygen is known as anaerobic digestion. The preferred
stabilization process must be compatible with the final use or disposal
option.

Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a common process for dealing with wastewater

sludge containing primary sludge. As mentioned in the first section of
this unit, primary sludge contains large amounts of readily available
organics that would induce a rapid growth of biomass if treated
aerobically. Anaerobic decomposition produces less biomass than
aerobic processes. The function of anaerobic digestion is to convert
16 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

as much of the sludge as possible to end products such as liquids and

gases, while producing as little residual biomass as possible. The gases
produced in anaerobic digestion consist of 60 to 70% methane by
volume, the remainder being carbon dioxide and traces of ammonia,
nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide, and hydrogen. Anaerobic digestion, despite
the advantages over aerobic waste treatment methods, has limitations.
The advantage and disadvantages of anaerobic digestion processes are
listed below:

Advantages:

• low energy requirement

• production of methane as a by-product
• low production of excess (stabilized) sludge
• low nutrient requirements
• high organic loading rates can be used
• acclimated sludge can be stored for long periods without
deterioration
• small land requirements
• less offensive odour

Disadvantages:

• The initial start-up, using sewage sludge as seed may take eight to
16 weeks.

• Anaerobic treatment, used for primary processing, is used for pre-

treatment only.

• Reduction of nitrogen by anaerobic digestion is not possible.

• The process is sensitive to factors such as finely dispersed colloidal

material, excessive oil and grease, and excessive fibrous material,
which adversely affect sludge settleability.

Anaerobic digestion of sludge is a two-step complex biochemical

process. There are many controlling parameters for such a process:
physical parameters are dependent on temperature, detention time,
organic loading, solid concentration, and the degree of mixing; chemical
parameters are dependent on pH, alkalinity, volatile acid level, nutrients
and presence of toxic substances. During the first step of the digestion
process, acid-forming microorganisms known as facultative bacteria
break down complex organic waste sludge (protein, carbohydrates,
lipids) into simple organic fatty acids. These end products are mainly
acetic acid with a fraction of propionic acid. The next stage in anaerobic
condition is methane-forming bacteria, during which the fatty acids
are further broken down into methane, carbon dioxide, and other
trace gases. The bacteria in this second step are very sensitive to
environmental factors and slow in nature, and so it is the controlling
process of the overall anaerobic digestion. The overall anaerobic process
may be depicted schematically, as in Figure 10.6. In general, about 50
 Unit 10 17

to 60% of organics are metabolized, and less than 10% converted to

biomass.

Figure 10.6 Metabolic pathways in anaerobic digestion (McGhee 1991, 491)

An airtight tank is used for anaerobic digestion in which anaerobic

microorganisms digest organic matter and produce methane, carbon
dioxide, ammonia etc. The advantage of anaerobic digestion is that the
digested sludge is stable, inoffensive, and low in pathogen count and
suitable for agricultural use. However, this process requires high capital
costs. It is also easy to upset operations, and it can produce poor-quality
supernatant.

There are essentially two types of anaerobic digester: the standard-

rate digester, and the high-rate anaerobic digester. The standard-rate
anaerobic digester consists of a single-stage operation and does not use
sludge mixing, but rather the digester contents are allowed to stratify
into zones, as illustrated in Figure 10.7.

Figure 10.7 A standard-rate anaerobic digester (Benefield and Randall 1980, 461)
18 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Sludge is fed into the digester on an intermittent basis, and the

supernatant is withdrawn and returned to the secondary treatment unit.
The conical bottom facilitates sludge withdrawal.

The standard-rate digester’s volume is determined by loading rates, its

digestion period, the solids reduction, and sludge storage. These can be
expressed by the following equations:

, where

V = volume of the digester (m3)

V1 = raw sludge loading rate (m3/day)
V2 = digested sludge accumulation rate (m3/day)
t1 = digestion period (day)
t2 = digested sludge storage period (day)

Example

The thickened sludge from gravity thickener is known to be about 65%

organic and 35% inorganic in nature. Approximately 55% of the organic
fraction is converted to liquid and gaseous end products after a
25-day period. The digested sludge has a solid content of 4% and
must be stored for periods of up to 80 days. Determine the volume
requirement for a standard rate, single-stage digester. Given the total
mass of solids is 3000 kg/day, raw sludge loading rate is 70 m3/day.

Solution

Total mass of solids = 3000 kg/day

Organic fraction = 3000×0.65 = 1950 kg/day
Organic fraction remaining = 1950×0.45 = 877.5 kg/day
Inorganic fraction remaining = 3000×0.35 = 1050 kg/day
Total mass remaining = 877.5 + 1050 = 1927.5 kg/day

Digested sludge accumulation rate:

= 48.2 m3/day

From equation,

V = 5333.5 m3
 Unit 10 19

Modern anaerobic digesters are both heated and mixed. The temperature
is normally maintained at close to 35oC and mixing is sufficient to
completely intermix the contents once daily. In the high-rate system,
two digesters separate the functions of fermentation and solids-liquid
separation (see Figure 10.8).

Figure 10.8 High-rate anaerobic digester (Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991, 422)

The contents of the first-stage high-rate unit are mixed more thoroughly
by recirculated gas from the headspace above the mixed liquor to the
bottom of the tank, or by mechanically driven propellers mounted in
draft tubes. The primary functions of the second-stage digester are
solid-liquid separation and residual gas extraction.

You should note that the major advantage of the high-rate anaerobic
digester is its higher efficiency., and it often requires less tank volume
than standard-rate anaerobic digesters. The design parameters for the
digesters are listed in Table 10.4.

Table 10.4 Design parameters for anaerobic digesters

Parameter Standard rate High rate

Solids retention time, day 30–90 10–20
3
Volatile solids loading, kg/m /day 0.5–1.6 1.6–6.4
Digested solids concentration, % 4–6 4–6
Volatile solids reduction, % 35–50 45–55
Gas production, m3/kg VSS added 0.5–0.55 0.6–0.65
Methane content, % 65 65
20 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Activity 10.3
Table 10.4 shows us that anaerobic digesters produce a high level of
methane from sludge. Methane can supply heat energy, and theoretically,
this energy could be used to maintain the digesters’ operation. Assume
you are the engineer assigned to design the digester.

1 Do you think that the methane gas should be recovered as fuel for
electricity generation? Support your answer with reasons.

2 If the methane were used, what additional processes might have to

take place?

Aerobic digestion

Aerobic digestion requires oxygen for the biological breakdown

process by many different microbials via various pathways; therefore,
it is less susceptible to biological upsets by toxic substances. In
comparison with anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion produces fewer
BODS in the supernatant, has fewer operation problems, and requires
lower capital expenditure. However, the operation costs of aerobic
digestion are higher than those of anaerobic digestion, and it occurs
without producing the useful gas that results from anaerobic digestion.
Furthermore, the digested sludge is not easy to dewater.

Activated sludge biomass is often expressed as C5H7NO2, and under

prolonged aerobic digestion, it will oxidize into carbon dioxide, water,
and nitrate.

C5H7NO2 + 7O2 → 5CO2 + 3H2O + H+ + NO3-

From the chemical formula, we see that the reaction requires 1.98 mg of
oxygen per mg of cell mass for the oxidation. Under normal operation,
2 mg of oxygen is recommended for efficient digestion. In general,
aerobic digestion is used at small treatment plants with package-
type activated sludge plants. The process consists of aerating sludge
in circular tanks with depths from 3 to 6 m. The key operating cost is
the power for supplying oxygen and mixing the sludge. To ensure no
significant odour, dissolved oxygen should be maintained above
1 mg/l. In the practice of aerobic digestion, you should note the
following points:

• It is relatively simple to implement.

• It requires relatively less capital than does anaerobic digestion.
• It does not emit unacceptable odour during proper operation.
• It reduces pathogenic organisms to a low level.
• It lowers oil, grease, or hexane solubles.
• It produces supernatant with low BOD.
 Unit 10 21

• The operating costs are relatively high because it requires an oxygen

supply.
• It is a relatively complicated, high-energy process, and so is of high
operation and maintenance cost.

For activated sludge maintained at 20oC or above with a retention time

of 10 to 12 days and dissolved oxygen levels up to 1 to 2 mg/l, there is a
30 to 50% reduction in volatile solids. For sludge temperature dropping
to 10oC and 5oC, the retention time should be 20 days and 30 days
respectively. The design criteria of aerobic digestion are presented in
Table 10.5.

Table 10.5 Design criteria of aerobic digestion

Parameter Value
Retention time:
Activated sludge only 15–20 days
Activated sludge plus primary 20–25 days
Air required (diffused air):
Activated sludge only 20–35 L/(min/m3)
Activated sludge plus primary 55–65 L/(min/m3)
Power required (surface air) 0.02–0.03 kW/m3
Solids loading 1.6–3.2 kg Volatile solids/m3day

Example

Convert the BOD concentration of 155 mg/L in the primary effluent

into BOD loading rate in kg/m3. If this is used for 24 hours of high-rate
aeration, what is the rate for six hours aeration?

Solution

BOD loading rate in kg/m3:

= 155 g/m3
= 0.155 kg/m3

The loading rate for six hours aeration:

22 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Dewatering
As previously discussed, the objective of dewatering of sludge is the
removal of water content by natural or mechanical means to form sludge
cakes for final disposal. This helps to reduce the volume (and cost) for
the transportation of sludge to landfill sites. Different approaches can be
used for dewatering, including natural evaporation; percolation to dry
out the water content; or mechanical force, such as squeezing, filtration,
centrifugal treatment, compaction, vacuum withdrawal, or capillary
action. Currently in Hong Kong, a number of methods are used, such as:

• drying on sand beds,

• using belt filters,
• using vacuum filters, and
• using centrifuges.

Sand beds
Digested or conditioned raw sludge is usually dewatered on drying beds
(see Figure 10.9).

Figure 10.9 Section of a sludge drying bed (McGhee 1991, 502)

The dewatering process involves drainage and evaporation on the sand

beds. Sand beds are the oldest sludge dewatering technique, and the
moisture content is usually reduced to the range of 40 to 75%. The
drainage of the sludge occurs in the first two days, and later, water
removal is mainly by evaporation. Drying beds are usually 8 × 30 metre
rectangular sections with a 15 to 25 cm deep layer of coarse sand on top
of a layer of graded gravel with perforated pipe underdrains. Sludge is
placed on the bed in 20 to 30 cm layers and allowed to dry. The drying
period is about 10 to 15 days, depending on the local climate. The
sludge cake from drying beds contains 20 to 40% solids.
 Unit 10 23

Belt filters

Belt filters have become the most popular sludge-dewatering device

in new installations in Hong Kong. Their capital cost and operating
cost are generally less than for other mechanical techniques such as
pressure filters, vacuum filters, and centrifuges, and they produce a
sludge that can be handled as a solid. Belt filters are continuous-feed
sludge-dewatering devices that involve the application of chemical
conditioning, gravity drainage, and mechanically applied pressure to
dewater sludge (shown in Figure 10.10).

Figure 10.10 Schematic of belt filter (Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991, 864)

The chemically conditioned sludge is fed to an open belt surface on

which gravity drainage occurs as the belt moves forward. At the end of
stage 2 (gravity drainage), the solids content should be 10% or more,
provided the sludge has been properly conditioned. At this moisture
content, it behaves as a solid and can be subjected to pressure, shear,
and vacuum in subsequent stages of the dewatering process. A second
belt is usually brought down toward the moving sludge at the end of
the stage 2. This second belt gradually applies pressure to the solids,
squeezing out additional moisture. As the paired belts move around the
rollers, their speed relative to each other varies and the sludge mass
is sheared, aiding in the release of free water. The belts then separate,
and the dewatered sludge cake is dislodged by passing it around a very
small radius roller. The product can be expected to have a solids content
in the range of 20 to 40%.
24 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Pressure filters

Pressure filters consist, in most instances, of a filter press similar to that

shown in Figure 10.11.

Figure 10.11 Filter press (Tchobanoglous and Burton 1991, 869)

Filter presses are round or rectangular recessed plates that form hollow
chambers when they are pressed together. Each plate is mounted with
a filter geotextile, sludge pumped into the chamber under high pressure
350 to 1,570 kN/m2. You may recall this device and process from the
EN320 video, ‘EIA: The Hong Kong Way’. The water content of the
sludge is squeezed through the filter medium, and solid cake is left
behind on the surface of the geotextile. Pumping is continued until the
flow virtually ceases. The frame is then opened, the plates are separated,
and the cake is removed. You should note that the entire cycle could
be automated, including dislodging the dried cake with air. The solids
content of the cake is often as high as 50%, but 30 to 40% is more
likely. For very high solids content, addition of filter aids such as lime,
ferric chloride, and polymers is required.
 Unit 10 25

Vacuum filters

Vacuum filters can be used to dewater either digested or conditional

sludge. The filter is a rotating drum with layers of filter medium,
or sometimes geotextile is mounted on filters that are then partially
immersed in a vat of sludge. An internal vacuum is applied to the rotating
drum as it moves on. Sludge is drawn against the filter, and therefore
liquid is drawn through the filter medium, leaving the solid behinds.
The performance of the vacuum filters depends on characteristics of
the sludge, cake formation time, viscosity, vacuum applied, specific
resistance of the sludge cake, and the type of filter medium.

Filter presses are round or rectangular recessed plates which when

pressed together form hollow chambers. Each plate is mounted with
a filter geotextile, and sludge is pumped into the chamber under high
pressure 350 1570 kN/m2. The water content of the sludge is squeezed
through the filter medium, the solid cake left behind on the surface of
the geotextile. A typical vacuum filter is shown in Figure 10.12.

Figure 10.12 Vacuum filter (McGhee 1991, 508)

Centrifuges

Centrifugation of sludge is a dewatering process that uses force

developed by the fast rotation of a cylindrical drum to separate solid
portions away from the liquid portion of the sludge. The centrifugal
design is based on a very simple principle. As sludge is introduced to
the rotating chamber, density differences cause the sludge solids and the
liquid to separate into two distinct layers. The sludge solids cake and
the liquid centrate are then separately discharged from the plant. The
rotating chamber is in general worked at 1,600 to 2,000 rpm, the sludge
cake containing 20 to 35% solids. A typical solid-bowl horizontal
centrifuge is illustrated in Figure 10.13.
26 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Figure 10.13 Solid-bowl horizontal centrifuge (McGhee 1991, 509)

The screw conveyer or scroll rotates at a speed slightly higher than that
of the bowl, and thus carries the solids through the device and up the
ramp to the sludge cake outlet. The variables subject to control include
the bowl diameter, length, and speed; the ramp slope and length; the
pool depth; the scroll speed and pitch; the feed point of sludge and
chemicals; the retention time; and the sludge conditioning. Recovery
of fine particles and light sludge can be improved by reducing the
clearance between the scroll and ramp, sometimes by pre-coating with
gypsum.

Final disposal or alternative uses

For reasons of public hygienic, the ultimate use or disposal of waste
sludge is quite restricted. It is unrealistic to recycle waste materials from
sludge because of the heterogeneous nature of the waste. A common
reuse of sludge includes using sludge ash (for building materials).

Final disposal of the sludge and solids that are not beneficially used
usually involves some form of land disposal. Ocean disposal of sludge
to coastal areas is not a good option, since this results in water pollution.
In addition to spreading the sludge on land, methods of final disposal
include:

• landfilling,
• lagooning, and
• incineration.

These methods are each considered in the following sections.

Landfilling

In Hong Kong, landfills are currently used for the disposal of sludge,
filter cakes, and other solids. In some cases, stabilization may be
required to prevent the generation of unexpected pollutants. For
example, some waste generators such as leachate treatment plants
and industrial wastewater treatment plants are required to sample and
analyse the dewatered sludge for TCLP metals to check whether it falls
 Unit 10 27

under the classification of chemical waste, before landfill. Dewatering

of sludge is usually required to reduce the volume to be transported and
to control the generation of leachate from landfill. In general, solids
concentration is an important factor in determining the acceptability of
sludge in landfills. In Hong Kong, the minimum dry solid content for
the sludge to be disposed of from all landfills is 30% by weight.

As mentioned in Unit 3 of this course, careful consideration must be

given to selecting a land disposal site. The following factors should be
considered:

1 The site should not be an environmentally sensitive area such as

wetlands, or a habitat for endangered species.

2 Runoff control to surface water must be borne in mind.

3 Groundwater protection must be considered.

4 Air pollution from dust, particulates and odours should be avoided.

5 Disease vectors should be considered.

6 Safety in relation to toxic materials, fires and access must be

ensured.

Moreover, vehicles carrying wet sludge and grit should be able to

reach the site without passing through heavily populated areas such as
Polam Estate, King Lam Estate, Ming Tak Estate in Tseung Kwan O;
or business districts such as Tsimshatsui, Central, or Wan Chai. After
several years, during which the wastes are decomposed and compacted,
the land may be used for recreational or other purposes for which a
gradual subsidence would not be objectionable.

Lagooning

A lagoon is an earth basin into which untreated or digested sludge

is deposited. In untreated sludge lagoons, the organic solids are
stabilized by anaerobic and aerobic decomposition, which may result
in objectionable odours. The stabilized solids settle to the bottom of the
lagoon and accumulate. Excess liquid from the lagoon is returned to the
plant for treatment.

Incineration

After dewatering, the sludge cake must be disposed of. This can
be accomplished by hauling the cake to a land-disposal site, or by
incineration. In Hong Kong, the three old municipal waste incinerators
have been closed. Planning is underway for development of bulk waste
reduction facilities over the next decade. These may include waste to
energy incinerators for municipal waste and for sewage sludge. These
can reduce the volume of organic waste up to 90%. In fact, the variables
to be considered in incineration are the moisture and volatile content
of the sludge cake and the thermal value of the sludge. As discussed
28 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

in Unit 2, the moisture content is of primary significance because it

indicates whether the combustion process will be self-supporting or
whether supplementary fuel will be required. In general, the thermal
values of sludge may vary from 1.16×107 to 2.33×107 J/kg.

As you learned in Unit 2, incineration involves drying and combustion.

In the incineration process, the sludge temperature is raised to 100oC,
at which point water is evaporated from the sludge. The water vapour
and air temperature are increased to the ignition point. Some excess
air is required for complete combustion of the sludge. Self-sustaining
combustion is often possible with dewatered sludge, once the burning
of auxiliary fuel raises the incinerator temperature to the ignition point.
The primary end products of combustion are carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide, and ash.

A multiple-hearth incinerator is used to convert dewatered sludge to an

inert ash. This process is shown in Figure 10.14.

Figure 10.14 Typical multiple-hearth incinerator (Eckenfelder 2000, 533)

 Unit 10 29

As shown in Figure 10.14, dewatered cake is fed into the top hearth
and is slowly raked to the center. From the center, sludge cake drops
to the second hearth and third hearth, and is again raked to the center.
In the upper hearths, vaporization of moisture and cooling of exhaust
gases occur. In the intermediate hearths, the volatile gases and solids
are burned. The total fixed carbon is burned in the lower hearths.
Temperatures range from 540oC at the top hearth to 300oC at the bottom.
The exhaust gases pass through a scrubber to remove fly ash and other
volatile products. The ash is conveyed mechanically to an ashbin for
discharge into a truck for eventual disposal as fill material, if the dry ash
is environmentally acceptable.

Marine dumping

Marine dumping has been more and more restricted in recent years.
The London Convention (which you may study in detail in the course
Environmental Legislation and Management) addresses marine
dumping. Only dredged mud and excavated materials by barging are
currently permitted in Hong Kong. In general, marine dumping of
sewage sludge and waterworks sludge is prohibited in Hong Kong’s
water.

Alternative uses of sludge

The nutrient value of the sludge is beneficial to vegetation, and its

granular nature may serve as a soil conditioner. Therefore, the beneficial
use of sludge is receiving considerable attention because of the decline
in available landfill and because of interest in using the nutrient content
and soil conditioning properties of sludge. Sludge can be distributed
and marketed for residential and commercial uses as a substitute for
topsoil and peat on lawns, golf courses, and parks, and in ornamental
and vegetable gardens. Sludge may also be treated chemically to
stabilize it for use as landfill cover or for land reclamation projects.
The chemical fixation process consists of mixing untreated or treated
liquid or dewatering sludge with a stabilizing agent such as cement,
sodium silicate, pozzolan, and lime, in order to chemically react with or
encapsulate the sludge.

Activity 10.4
Discuss with your tutorial group members the pathways of
environmental concern for each of the following sludge disposal
options:

1 landfilling
2 incineration
3 marine dumping.
30 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Water treatment systems and

process train schemes
Having reviewed a variety of sludge treatment processes, we now
discuss some important issues related to the handling of sludge: water
and wastewater treatment processes, and key considerations related
to the design and implementation of water treatment plants.

Water treatment is a complex process; and the water quality of a

selected water source, such as river, lake and groundwater, can vary
greatly. Many factors affect water quality. These can include different
locations, landforms, hydro-geological make-up, vegetation cover,
urban developments, and regional climate. It is important to note
that the desired finished water quality of a community is a key factor
in consideration for the choice of water treatment processes. Other
than that, we should observe the local water quality requirement
criteria, waste sludge disposal constraints, space availability, cost, and
maintenance factors.

Water treatment processes

In general, a water treatment plant should include various processes,
including:

• drawing water from source with series of pumps

• coarse/fine screening to remove unwanted waste in water

• pH adjustment to suit the downstream water treatment processes

• preliminary disinfections to cut the amount of bacteria or pathogens

entering the water treatment system

• pre-settling tanks to separate large particles

• dosing of coagulants with rapid and slow mixing for formation of

floc ready for flocculation before entering main sedimentation basins

• using sand filter to fine tune the water quality

• adding final disinfectant to safeguard bacteria-free conditions.

These processes help ensure safe drinking water to the public.

When the water intake is groundwater, the high content in hardness,

iron, and manganese can be problematic. The general practice for
groundwater is to dose with excess lime at the early stages before
the rapid mixing process, to eliminate the content of calcium and
magnesium. For the non-carbonate hardness, soda ash for magnesium
hydroxide should be added in the later sedimentation tanks. The
 Unit 10 31

elevated pH level of the treated water (from the addition of lime/

soda ash) might be lowered by bubbling carbon dioxide, after the
sedimentation process. One of the key drawbacks of high doses of
lime is the voluminous sludge formation in the later stages and the cost
implication of the treatment.

The recommended water treatment processes are summarized in

Table 10.6.

Table 10.6 Recommended water treatment processes

Coarse/ Excess
Pre- Coagulation/ Post-
Parameter fine lime/ Sedimentation Recarbonation Filtration Comment
disinfections flocculation disinfection
screens soda ash
Floating R
debris
Turbidity R R R
Bacteria, R R
virus
Hardness R R R R
Colour R R Ozonation,
activated
carbon are
effective
to remove
colour
Taste/ R Ozonation,
odour activated
carbon are
effective
to remove
unpleasant
taste/odour

*R: recommended

Considerations for designing water treatment

plants
Many parameters have to be considered before building a drinking
water treatment plant. For example, consideration should be made of
the characteristics of raw water sources, water consumption rate in the
serving region, water supply components and the cost, etc.
32 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Characteristics of raw water sources

Depending on the characteristics of raw water, different water treatment

processes (as described in Table 10.6) should be used for the preparation
of water for public use. The characteristics of raw water can be obtained
by analysing the water samples from the water source. For example, if
the metal ions content of the raw water is high, a metal ions removal
system should be installed.

Water consumption rate

Municipal water demand is commonly classified according to the nature

of the user. These uses include domestic, commercial and industrial,
public use, and recycling. The amount of water needed should be
roughly estimated for the preliminary design of the water treatment
plant.

Water supply components and its cost

The economic design period of the components of a water supply

system depends on lifetime, capital cost, and the ease with which they
can be expanded and modified. In order to design the parts of a water
system, the flow at the end of the design period must be estimated.
Overestimation of the design flow must be avoided, since this can
burden a relatively small community with the cost of extravagant works
designed for a far larger population.

Pipelines

Pipelines from the source are generally designed for long-term

operation, since the material cost is only a small portion of the cost
of construction. The design itself is based on provision of economical
conveyance at average daily flow at the end of the design period with
suitable velocities under all anticipated flow conciliations.

Water treatment plant components

Most treatment units will be designed on the basis of average daily

flow at the end of the design period, since overloads would not result in
major losses of treatment efficiency. Hydraulic design should be based
on the maximum anticipated flow through the plant but must consider
velocities under all potential flow conditions.

Pumping station considerations

Pump selection and design of the pump control system require

knowledge of the maximum flow including fire demand, the average
flow and the minimum flow expected during the period. In practice,
total installed pumping capacity should exceed the maximum flow that
is expected to be pumped.
 Unit 10 33

Storage

Storage within the distribution system normally consists of elevated

steel tanks, which are relatively inexpensive and easy to construct.
Also, their life is potentially quite long; hence they are seldom replaced.
Design of such structures is closely linked to design of the pumping
plant and requires knowledge of average consumption, fire demand,
maximum hour usage, maximum day usage, maximum week and month
usage, as well as knowledge of the capacity of the source and of the
pipelines from the source.

Distribution system

Distribution system elements are normally below the street. Their life
should be long, since replacement is very expensive. Thus the design
period is indefinite, and the capacity is based on maximum anticipated
development of the area served. One must consider anticipated
population densities, which will aid in predicting future population
density and industrial demand. In practice, design is often based on
provision of adequate pressure for fire protection at maximum hourly
flow including fire demand.

System layouts
In Hong Kong, fresh water and seawater are supplied through two
entirely separate systems of pumping stations, service reservoirs, and
water mains (see Figure 10.15).

Figure 10.15 Fresh water supply system in Hong Kong

(http://www.info.gov.hk/wsd/en/html/water/hkwstc.htm)
34 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

The water is pumped after leaving the treatment works or after being
extracted from the sea to the service reservoirs, located at various
places and elevations throughout the territory, each serving a particular
area. The roof areas of the service reservoirs are situated at convenient
locations and are generally developed by the Leisure and Cultural
Services Department for recreational purposes.

Water from the service reservoirs is distributed to customers by gravity

via extensive networks of water mains. The pressure in the system is
generally sufficient to provide a direct supply to six or seven storeys
above street level. Upper floors of tall buildings are supplied from
their own roof tanks, filled by their own pumping systems. For higher
level areas, such as mid-level developments on Hong Kong Island, it
is necessary for the water to be pumped in stages to service reservoirs
situated at different suitable levels.

Activity 10.5
Assume you are going to present a 20-minute talk to the Lions Club
on ‘Water treatment process in Hong Kong’. As you prepare your
presentation materials, try to summarize:

1 the information in this section of the unit,

2 Figure 10.14, and

3 the treatment processes described in Unit 9.

 Unit 10 35

Wastewater treatment systems

and process train schemes
We now turn our attention to wastewater treatment processes and
systems.

The treatment of wastewater can be a simple preliminary treatment

process to sort out large particles (such as screening, comminution,
grease and/or grit removal); or, in the form of primary treatment,
processes can use physical-chemical methods to convert or remove
pollutants within the wastewater. Most of the time, biological treatment
processes can be effective for the removal of organic wastes. The
selection of wastewater treatment system depends on many factors,
including:

• the conditions of the sources of sewage and therefore the wastewater

characteristics

• the relevant effluent standard/regulation guiding the degree of

treatment required

• existing treatment processes

• the site or area available for the process

• the maximum environmental quality that can be achieved with the

lowest cost.

Wastewater treatment processes

The recommended treatment processes are summarized in Table 10.7.

Table 10.7 Recommended unit processes for wastewater treatment

Wastewater
Treatment process Remarks
pollutant
Floating debris, Screening Large objects should be removed in order
large particles Comminution not to upset the downstream treatment
processes.
Suspended Sedimentations Wastewater can result in septic conditions
solids Filtration when untreated with suspended solids
Flotation formation as sludge.
Coagulation
Biodegradable Activated-sludge For wastewater containing a large
organics Tricking filters amount BOD/COD, proper treatment is
Physical or chemical methods required before discharging into natural
Lagooning watercourse. This will safeguard the
receiving water from depletion of oxygen
or becoming septic.
36 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Wastewater
Treatment process Remarks
pollutant
Microbial, Chlorination, Reducing the amount of pathogenic
bacteria, virus Hypochlorination, bacterial/virus in wastewater can
and pathogens Ozonation safeguard public from communicable
UV irradiation diseases.
Heavy metals Chemical precipitation Heavy metal mainly industrial sources
Ion exchange could be toxic to aquatic life.
Nutrients Nitrogen can be removed by High nutrient levels of wastewater
biological methods, such as effluent can promote growth of certain
nitrification/denitrification. aquatic life. This could damage the
ecology of the local water body.
Phosphorus can be removed
either by chemical or biological
methods.
Sludge Sludge thickening by Sludge can be very offensive and
sedimentation. odourous. Treatment is required to reduce
the volume before disposal.
Digestion by aerobic/anaerobic
treatment.
Sludge dewatering by filters etc.

The various processes as a treatment sequence and substitution diagram

are shown in Figure 10.16. The scheme centers on the conventional
series of primary and secondary treatment processes but also includes
tertiary treatment and individual treatment of certain streams.

Figure 10.16 Alternative technologies for the treatment of wastewaters

(Eckenfelder 2000, 52)
 Unit 10 37

Primary and secondary treatment processes

These processes are used to handle most of the non-toxic wastewater;

other water has to be pretreated before being added to this flow. These
processes are basically the same in an industrial plant as in a publicly
owned treatment works (POTW).

Primary treatment prepares the wastewater for biological treatment.

Large solids are removed by screening, and grit is allowed to settle
out. Equalization levels out the hour-to-hour variations in flows
and concentrations. There should be a spill pond, to retain slugs of
concentrated wastes that could upset the downstream processes.
Neutralization, when required, follows equalization because streams of
different pH partly neutralize each other when mixed. Oils, greases, and
suspended solids are removed by floatation, sedimentation or filtration.

Secondary treatment is the biological degradation of solute organic

compounds from input levels of 50 to 1000 mg/L BOD to effluent levels
under 15mg/L. This is done aerobically, in an open, aerated vessel or
lagoon, but wastewater may be pretreated anaerobically, in a pond or a
closed vessel. After biotreatment, the microorganism and other carried-
over solids are allowed to settle. A fraction of this sludge is recycled
in certain processes, but ultimately the excess sludge, along with the
sediment solids, has to be disposed of.

Tertiary treatment processes

These are added on after the biological treatment in order to remove

specific types of residual. Filtration removes suspended or colloidal
solids, adsorption by granular activated carbon (GAC) removes
organics, and chemical oxidation removes organics. However, tertiary
systems have to treat a large volume of wastewater, so they are
expensive to run and install. They can also be inefficient, because the
processes are not pollutant-specific. For example, phenol water can
be removed by ozonation or GAC adsorption, but these processes
will remove most other organics as well, and this adds greatly to the
treatment costs for removing the phenol.

Existing treatment systems can also be modified to broaden their

capabilities and improve their performance; this is more widely
practised than the above options. One example is adding powdered
activated carbon (PAC) to the biological-treatment process to adsorb
organics that the microorganisms cannot degrade or slowly degrade.
This process is marketed as the PACT process. Another example is
adding coagulants at the end of the biological-treatment basin to remove
phosphorus and residual suspended solids.
38 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Process selection
The primary, secondary, and tertiary treatments have their place in the
overall wastewater-treatment scheme. The selection of a wastewater-
treatment process or a combination of processes depends on a number
of factors, including:

1 the characteristics of the wastewater

2 the required effluent quality
3 the costs and availability of land
4 the future upgrading of water quality standards.

A preliminary analysis should be carried out to define the wastewater

treatment that is needed. For wastewater containing non-toxic organics,
treatment process design criteria can be obtained from available data or
from a laboratory or pilot plant programme. Municipal wastewater and food
processing wastewater are often used as sources of data. Process selection
should take account of water quality parameters such as heavy metals or
volatile organics. If the wastewater contains heavy metals, they will be
removed by precipitation. Volatile organics are removed by air stripping.

A protocol for processes that deal with different elements in wastewater

is shown in Figure 10.17.

Figure 10.17 Screening laboratory procedures (Eckenfelder 2000, 55)

 Unit 10 39

Following laboratory screening, pre-treatment-as-required analyses are

conducted on an equalized sample, as shown in Figure 10.18. The next
step is to determine whether the wastewater is biodegradable or not. The
fed batch reactor (FBR) procedure can be used for this purpose. Details
of this procedure are discussed below.

Fed batch reactor, FBR

Fed batch reactors have been used to determine nitrification kinetics and
removal kinetics of specific pollutants in activated sludge. The essential
characteristics of the FBR procedure are that:

1 Substrate is continuously introduced at a sufficiently high

concentration and low flow rate so that the reactor volume is not
significantly changed during the test.

2 The feed rate exceeds the maximum substrate use rate.

3 The test duration is short and therefore allows simple modelling of

biological solids growth.

4 Acclimated activated sludge is used.

You should note that if the wastewater is non-biodegradable or toxic,

it should be considered for source treatment or in-plant modification.
Figure 10.18 shows the source treatment technologies.

Figure 10.18 Sources treatment technologies (Eckenfelder 2000, 56)

40 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

If the wastewater is biodegradable, it is subjected to long-term

biodegradation, usually lasting 48 hours, in order to remove all
degradable organics. It is then evaluated for aquatic toxicity and priority
pollutants. If nitrification is required, a nitrification rate analysis should
also be conducted.

However, if the effluent is toxic or if priority pollutants have not been

removed, it should be considered for source treatment or tertiary
treatment using powdered or granular activated carbon. You should note
that toxicity due to soluble microbial products would require tertiary
treatment to remove it.

When biological treatment is considered, several options exist. A

screening procedure can be developed to determine the most cost-
effective option, as shown in Figure 10.19.

Figure 10.19 Simplified process selection flow sheet for biological treatment
(Eckenfelder 2000, 57)
 Unit 10 41

Sewage strategy of Hong Kong

Now, we are approaching the end of this unit. Before ending our studies
on wastewater and sludge treatment, let us look locally at HATS,
mentioned in Unit 9 and the beginning of this init.

As we know, sewage and sludge being dumped untreated into Hong

Kong’s harbour must be stopped. HATS, its first stage commissioned in
late 2001, is a long-term programme to meet the demand of the general
public in cleaning up the harbour. Every day, 1.7 million tonnes of
untreated sewage are generated by the people living along the coast of
Victoria Harbour.

The first stage of HATS involves the collection of sewage from

Kowloon and the eastern part of Hong Kong Island, treating it by
Chemical Enhanced Precipitation Treatment (CEPT) on Stonecutters
Island. This accounts for 75% of the 1.7 million tonnes of sewage. The
Government, on the advice of an International Review Panel (IRP),
intends to introduce a higher grade of treatment to improve the effluent
quality of CEPT and to treat the remaining 25% of influents to achieve
the Water Quality Objectives of water control zones. For example, the
Government wishes that dissolved oxygen (DO), which is essential
for supporting marine life, be increased by 15%, and ammonia, which
is harmful to water quality and causes algal blooms, be decreased by
about 50% in the coming years, in central and western Victoria Harbour.
In this regard, a new sewage treatment process, the Biological Aerated
Filter (BAF) has been introduced on top of the present CEPT process at
Stonecutters, to achieve tertiary-level treatment.

Biological aerated filter

Biological aerated filter (BAF) is the core element of a compact sewage

treatment process that can produce a very high quality effluent. The
‘filter’ is in fact made up of granular material that has a large surface
area for growing certain bacteria. The material and the attached bacteria
are packed into a reactor through which sewage flows. The actions of
the bacteria ‘filter’ the sewage and break down the waste. The bacteria
are fed a vigorous stream of air through air nozzles at the bottom of the
reactor, which helps them to work quickly. Thus, the combination of the
air and the filtering action of the bacteria has led to the term ‘biological
aerated filter’.
42 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Figure 10.20 A pilot biological aerated filter on trial at the Stonecutters Island
Sewage Treatment Plant

(http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/water/prob_solutions/
highlights03.html)

Conventional biological treatment processes require a large amount

of space to accommodate sedimentation tanks for sludge. However,
BAF has the benefit of skipping this sedimentation step, because most
bacteria are attached in the filter without forming sludge. BAF is
therefore more suitable for Hong Kong, because it takes up much less
space than a plant using a more conventional process.

At the time of writing this unit, the Government was undertaking

a major study into the environmental and engineering feasibility,
including costs, space and location of outfall of the various options of
BAF. The study includes testing the effectiveness of the recommended
biological aerated filter technology in Hong Kong’s hot climate. It is
anticipated the final report will be disclosed for public consultation in
mid-2004.

An unfortunate fact about HATS is that, as discussed in Edith Terry’s

article in Reading 10.1, much of it is a catch-up project on the wrong
decisions made on the previous Strategic Sewage Disposal Scheme
(SSDS) that was endorsed by the Government in the early 1990s.
Further, the present treatment plants are being put in place long after
millions of people started discharging their sewage into the harbour.
Therefore, a bitter lesson to Hong Kong people is that the harbour
clean-up programme must be well planned before implementation, and
consultation should be made with wide participation of the general
public including the scientists, professionals, academics, and green
groups. Consensus building is the top priority, as we try to consolidate
our future programmes of sewage and sludge treatment. Current
information about HATS can be found on the official website: http://
www.cleanharbour.gov.hk/en/home.html.
 Unit 10 43

Effluents and sludge reuse: the concept of total water

management

In the waste block, we discussed the idea that ‘there is no waste in

nature’. That is true. Every piece of waste, including sewage sludge,
can be regarded as a resource. We use compost of kitchen waste for
horticulture and agriculture. It is common practice that sludge is reused
in an environmentally friendly way such as for fertilizers, making
bricks, and for regeneration of metals that are contained in the sewage.
For water, there is also a trend called ‘total water management’. That is,
to make full use of every drop of water without wastage. The treatment
of sewage creates a possible resource. If wastewater is treated to a high
enough level, the effluent can be reused in many ways, e.g. for flushing,
landscape irrigation, cooling of air-conditioning systems or cleaning
vehicles. On spaceships, wastewater is treated for potable water. Like
other economies, Hong Kong is making its first attempt at using treated
effluent for reuse and recycling. The cable car development project
at Ngong Ping on Lantau Island is the pilot project for total water
management. After tertiary-level treatment followed by disinfection by
chlorine, the effluent will be applied for flushing toilets and irrigating
the flowers and grass for landscaping. If the trial is successful, the
Government intends to extend the concept of total water management to
other parts of Hong Kong. The Ngong Ping sewage work is scheduled
to be commissioned in 2005.

Looking ahead, with reference to water and sludge treatment, we

anticipate:

• The harbours of Hong Kong will be cleaned up after full

implementation of HATS, which will be publicized for consultation.

• More effluent and sludge reuse projects will be implemented.

• The concept of total water management will be widely accepted and

implemented by environmental professionals.

Activity 10.6
Assume you are the officer assigned to design the Ngong Ping Sewage
Treatment Plant with an effluent reuse project inclusive. Draw a diagram
that illustrates the flowchart of your treatment process, from screening
influents to reuse of effluents and sludge.
44 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Summary
Sludge is produced in large volume during conventional water and
wastewater treatment. In the absence of additional treatment and
dewatering processes, the volume of sludge generated would be
unmanageable. Primary sludge contains a high proportion of organic
material, and this is degraded during anaerobic digestion. Digestion
reduces the nitrogen concentration in sludge but has little effect on
the phosphorus and potassium concentration. Secondary treatment,
particularly by the activated sludge process, produces large volumes of
wet sludge.

Aerobic digestion is essentially an energy-wasting process. Energy

is required for the maintenance of adequate dissolved oxygen and
for mixing, but any energy produced during the oxidation of organic
and inorganic material is not recovered. Other problems with aerobic
digestion include high sludge yield and odour and insect nuisance.
For these reasons, much emphasis has been put on the continuing
improvement of anaerobic digestion processes, in particular the
processes leading to the formation of the combustible fuel methane as a
major end product.

Anaerobic digestion is widely used for the stabilization and for the
reduction of sludge produced during preceding aerobic processes.
However, recently much attention has been given to the application
of anaerobic digestion for the primary treatment of waste. Although
anaerobic digestion processes may not produce an effluent suitable for
discharge to surface waters, its suitability as a primary treatment and
methane gas generation from sludge treatment is promising. In Hong
Kong, the most widely used anaerobic processes are those that occur in
septic tanks and in municipal sludge digesters.

In Hong Kong, the Government is implementing its harbour clean-up

programme known as HATS. We anticipate that HATS, which is based
on the BAF technology of tertiary treatment, will be able to improve
marine water quality and to achieve the Water Quality Objectives. In
future, more treated effluent and sludge will be reused and the concept
of total water management will be widely implemented.
 Unit 10 45

Feedback on activities
Activity 10.1
Excessive solids retention times may lead to anaerobic activity, the
production of gases, and the buoying of solids to the surface. The reason
is that the gases from the anaerobic activity rise from the bottom to the
surface and can push small solids to the surface. You should note that
anaerobic activity might also change the characteristics of aerobically
digested sludge or waste-activated sludge and interfere with subsequent
dewatering techniques.

Activity 10.2
In practice, chemical flocculants (polymers) are used to increase
recovery. The flocculants both increase the structure strength of the
solids and flocculate fine particles. Because of the increased removal of
fine particles, chemical addition usually lowers cake dryness.

Activity 10.3
From Table 10.4, we see that gases produced in anaerobic digestion
consist of 65% methane by volume, the remainder being carbon dioxide
and traces of ammonia, nitrogen, hydrogen sulphide, and hydrogen.
Because of the contaminants (particularly CO2 and H2S), it is not a
very good fuel. The CO2 is not combustible (and amounts to about
30% by volume), and the H2S produces sulphuric acid when it is
burned. Therefore, both of these gases should be stripped by absorption
techniques (as described in Unit 4) to concentrate the fuel. Currently,
a lot of sewerage treatment plants, including the Shatin Sewerage
Treatment Works, are using methane as fuel for generators and heaters.

Activity 10.4
Landfilling:
1 Groundwater contamination
2 Volatilized organic inhalation

Incineration:
1 Air emissions inhalation
2 Ash disposal to groundwater contamination
3 Scrubber water disposal
4 Particulate deposition

Marine dumping:
1 Aquatic life toxicity
2 Seafood to human consumption
3 Aquatic life effects of sedimentation
46 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

Activity 10.5
1 Raw water comes either directly from Guangdong or from one of
the storage reservoirs.

2 The raw water first passes through the clarifiers for settlement.

3 Alum is added to the incoming water to the clarifiers, for

coagulation.

4 Solids settle on the floor of the clarifiers in the form of sludge,

which is then collected, thickened and treated, and disposed of.

5 The water goes from the clarifiers to the filtration plant where more
finely divided suspensions are retained on sand filters. Thus the
filtering process removes colour and turbidity in water.

6 Hydrated lime is used to adjust the pH of the water to reduce

corrosion of pipelines and fittings.

7 The water is dosed with chlorine for disinfection and a fluoride

compound is added for dental care.
 Unit 10 47

Activity 10.6
Below is the scheme proposed by the Government. Is it like your
design?

You probably noted that one thing is missing in the government’s

design: the sludge reuse process. You should consider a better use of the
treated sludge, such as for application as fertilizers, for recycling for
producing paper (this is a successful project of a Japanese company!)
and extraction of metals for electroplanting.
48 ENVR S335 Environmental Control, Monitoring and Modeling

References
Benefield, L D and Randall, C W (1980) Biological Process Design for
Wastewater Treatment, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Eckenfelder, W W (2000) Industrial Water Pollution Control, 3rd edn,

Singapore: McGraw-Hill International Editions.

McGhee T J (1991) Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th edn, Singapore:

McGraw-Hill International Editions.

Peavy, H S, Rowe, D R and Tchobanoglous, G (1985) Environmental

Engineering, Singapore: McGraw-Hill International Editions.

Tchobanoglous, G and Burton, F L (1991) Wastewater Engineering

– Treatment, Disposal and Reuse, 3rd edn, Singapore: McGraw-Hill
International Editions.