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B.Arch.
-II, Sem-III
BUILDING TECH.CONSTRU, STRUCTURE & SERVICES
AAERT & the SSB Ltd. Faculty of Architecture, IDPT-SCET, Surat
Sanitation
From kitchen, bath, floor etc.
Plumbing
Through vertical pipes

Water sources (Soil / SWR pipes)
(Like River, Pond, Stream)
Traps
(Gully trap, Chambers, Sewer trap)
Collection & treatment
(Intake well & treatment plant) Municipal sewer/ Open drain
Distribution Pumping station
(Through gravity or pressure lines)
Treatment plant
House hold plumbing
(Storage water tanks, plumbing pipes, Drying beds / water source

taps to get water)
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
Q: Following factor should be considered at the time of selection of any pipe

material.
1. Material of pipe :material, type and quality
a) Corrosive resistance of pipe material
b) Inside surface of pipe-as flow of water will depend upon the surface inside.
For calculation of flow –Hazan William’s Formula is
Q=F 0.54 x 1002 x C x D 2.63
Where- Q=water flow quantity mt/hour
F=friction drop mt/mt
C=surface factor/ Hazan William’s factor
The value of C is for G.I-90 to 100 and for plastic smooth

surface -150
D=inside diameter of pipe in mt.
c) U.V resistance of material for long span of time
d) Temperature withstand capacity of pipe
For example=+oC to -oC without deterioration of pipe material
e) Bursting pressure of pipe
For example=4 kg/cm2, 6 kg/cm2 etc.
f) The co-efficient of thermal expansion of pipe
g) Sizes available
h) Max. length of pipe available
PVC=Polyvinyl chloride
U-PVC= unplastisize-PVC-40/80/120schedule
C-PVC=chlorinated PVC
SWR pipe=soil, waste and rain water pipe
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2. Jointing system of pipes:
a) It is of same material or a different kind o material of fittings. (important factor

is thermal expansion)
b) Type of sealing material is being used between pipe and fittings like hold
tight, threads and white gum, taphlone, fusion, welding etc.
c) Joints are weakest part of any system so it is very important for us to know
that how much pressure it can bare? Because many times pipe materials may
be strong enough but the joints may be weak.
3. Quality of fluid/ water:
Will it maintain the hygienity of water for a long time use? Due to scaling or bacterial
colony develop after the use of some period will contaminate the quality of water.
4. During the service period maintenance will be require or if it will damage due to
some reason, than will it be repairable easily? Either it is in open line or
concealed line? At same time can we detect the pipe when it is concealed?
5. Approvals of pipe and fitting system from different government and competent
authorities. Like CPWD,PWD,BIS (Bureau of Indian std., military etc)
6. users certificates
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Over head water tank:

Fig:
Volume of tank=1000lit=1cu.mt (without free board)
Ex: 2000lit=2cumt. =1.33x1.0x (1.50+0.30)
Under Ground water tank:

Fig:
Definitions:
Sanitation: sanitation is the prevention of the out break of diseases for the general
health of the public. This can be achieved by either controlling or eliminating such
environmental factors which are responsible for the transmission of diseases. Sanitation
in short, is the public health work executed by officials of health department or
engineers.
Sewage: sewage may be defined as the used water or liquid waste of a community,
which includes human and household waste together with street washing, industrial
waste and such ground and storm water as may be mixed with it.
Sewage could be separated out as three types:
a) Domestic
b) Industrial and trade waste
c) Storm water
Domestic: domestic waste includes human excreta as well as discharge from

kitchens, baths, lavatories etc….
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Industrial and trade waste: it includes waste from factories, mills, distilleries,
slaughter houses etc.
Storm water: as rain falls, a part of it is lost through evaporation in to air or

percolation into the ground. The remaining overflows the surface as storm water. It is
also usual to allow, for some provision of storm water, such as may be derived from
street wash, courtyards and roofs of the houses.
Sewer: sewer is an underground or open conduit used for the removal of sewage.
Sewerage: sewerage is the general process of collection and carrying of sewage

through system of conduits and appurtenances from the towns and disposes it of safely.
The entire system is called sewerage system.
Refuse: refuse is considered to be made up of solid organic waste in a decomposing or

non decomposing state but excluding night soil means it includes garbage, rubbish,
ashes, street washings, dead animals, solid market and industrial waste.
Garbage: garbage is the decomposing organic waste resulting from the growing,
handing, cooking or consumption of food products. It is the most important compound of
waste. It’s by product are grease and fertilizer after proper disposal and treatment.
Rubbish: rubbish means all non decomposing organic waste but excluding ashes.
These are like paper, cans, card-board, glass, crockery, scrap metals etc. Rubbish
could create nuisance as it is easily scattered by wind or through careless handling.
Ashes: ashes are the waste products of coal and other fuels used in domestic and
industrial buildings. It results in the creation of dust nuisance.
Bio-medical waste: is defined as: potentially infectious waste materials generated at

health care facilities, such as hospitals, clinics, physician's offices, dental practices,
blood banks, and veterinary hospitals/clinics, as well as medical research facilities and
laboratories.
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
Method of collection of waste:

a) The dry or conservancy system
b) Water carrying system
The dry or conservancy system:
The dry system is the earlier method and even now practiced in unsewered areas. This
system consist the accumulation of night soil or human excreta and then its subsequent
removal by manually. Then after it is transported in vehicles to the points of ultimate
disposal.
The waste water from kitchen, baths etc and the storm water are collected separately in
gutter and led off into neighboring drainage channels, rivers etc for disposal.
Merits:
 It is very cheap and easy to establish.
 As sewage flows in open drain, there is no pipe line network is required. Thus the
maintenance of the system is very easy.
 In remote or backward area, for a small group of community only this system can
be applicable.
Demerits:
 In crowded streets, it is very difficult and inconvenient to lay roadside drains.
 Building can not be designed as a compact unit as latrine is to be provided away

from the rooms.
 There is every possibility that liquid refuse may get access in the subsoil and
pollute the sub soil water.
 Due to open drains, there is likely to be fly and mosquito breeding and foul smell
and it is not hygienic for the public health.
 Due to heavy rain, open drain can be overflowed on roads which may create
many serious problems to public health.
 The system completely depends upon the mercy of sweepers.
 The aesthetic appearance of the city can be deprived.
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
The water carriage system:

In this system, the night soil gets mixed up with sufficient quantity of water and is
collected in a system of pipes, transported for subsequent treatment and then disposed
in a harmless manner without any nuisance to public health. As the dilation of solid
matter with water is very great, sewage easily flows. And due to that only it knows as
water carriage system. This system is very advantageous and is universally employed
in practice.
Merits:
 This is to be considered a hygienic method as all the matters are collected and
conveyed by water.
 There is no nuisance in the streets as all the sewage goes in closed sewer either
open or underground. The risk of epidemics is reduced.
 Due to more quantity of sewage (as water is added), self cleaning velocity can be
obtained even at less gradient.
 We can design building as a compact unit with toilet.
 The system does not depend upon daily manual labor except when sewer got
chocked.
Demerits:
 As system includes sewer, traps, man-holes etc., it is very expensive at initial

cost.
 Water is required in much more quantity, so it will require continuous source of

water.
 As system is having many components, maintenance will become difficult and

also requires skill personas for it.
 It is not applicable for the small group of community.
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
Refuse disposal:
Methods used for the disposal of refuse are as follows,
1. Dumping
2. Sanitary land fill
3. Incineration
4. Composting
5. Reduction
6. Grinding
7. salvaging
1. Dumping:
Dumping is open throwing of refuse so as to fill up low laying areas. It is also known as
land reclamation. The refuse should preferably consist of rubbish, ashes, street washing
but excluding garbage. The method though popular in cities it is not quite satisfactory as
it may cause breeding of flies and mosquitoes, scattering of papers by wind, bad odour
etc. the disposal of refuse by dumping into sea is also possible in case of costal cities
with certain precautions.
2. Sanitary landfill:
It requires the refuse material to be placed in a trench or other prepared area. It is then
adequately compacted and covered up with a 15cm layer of earth spread at the end of
certain level of dumping. It requires regular supervision.
3. Incineration:
It involves the burning of refuses in an incinerator. Incineration is recommended in

crowded cities where it is not possible to make disposal with land reclamation. It is also
being recommended for the disposal of bio-logical waste in advanced cities. The
method is quite effective as it is destroying completely insects and pathogenic bacteria.
The disadvantage only is it produces large amount of smoke and gases, emitted in the
process. It adds to the air pollution.
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
4. Composting:
It is the process of decomposition of organic wastes, which may includes refuses as

well as night soil through a bio-chemical process where by the waste are converted into
harmless compounds called humus having high fertilizing value.
5. Reduction:
It is the process of recovering grease and other solid residue from garbage. Grease is
used in the manufacture of glycerin, candles and soap while the solid residue can be
used as a fertilizer.
6. Grinding:
It can also be known as pulverizing. Grinding is mechanically reducing garbage of

refuse in machines into a fine powder. The powder has been found to process some
fertilizing power.
7. Salvaging:
It is the removal from refuse of certain elements having marketable value i.e. paper,
glass, metal, etc. this method is not quite desirable because of its high nuisance value
of scattering of waste.
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
Traps:
Traps have been defined as fittings placed in drainage pipes, which prevent the
passage of foul air or gases through drains, waste or soil pipes and thus prevent their
entry into the buildings. This is possible because traps are equipped with water seal.
Depth of water seal in practice varies from 25mm to 75 mm.
General requirement of good traps:
 They should be non absorbent having adequate water seal at all times.
 They should be smooth with no projection, angles or inside contractions that

could obstruct or retard the flow of water.
 They should retain minimum quantities of water consistent with providing deep
water seal with large surface areas.
 Though it is self-cleaning, they should be provided with suitable access for

cleaning.
Types of traps:
Traps may be classified in two ways.
 According to their shape
 According to their use
According to their shape:
P-trap:
S-trap:
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
Q-trap:
According to their use:
1. Floor trap
2. Gully trap
3. Intercepting traps
Floor traps:
These are used for admitting surface wash or waste water from floors of baths and
kitchens. These are provided with grating at top to prevent coarse solid matter passing
into drain along with the waste water and there by cause blockage. In practice it is also
known as Nahni-trap.
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Man-holes:
These are opening constructed on a line of sewer or a drains in order to enable man to
entre in sewer. The main reasons of providing manholes are inspection, cleaning and to
carry required maintenance operation in sewer. The openings are fitted with suitable
covers called man-hole covers.
Location of man-holes:
Man-holes are provided every change of alignment, gradient, diameter of sewer, at the
junction of sewer and at the street intersections. The maximum distance between
manholes varies usually between 45mt to 90mt.for large size sewer it can be little more.
Where as ISI recommended the maximum distance between two man-holes is 30mt.
only.
Thus the sewer are laid in straight lengths between man-holes and this way man-holes
carries all changes in size or gradient.
Parts of man-hole:
We can divide man-hole in three parts.
1. Working chamber
2. Access shaft
3. A strong man-hole covers at top flush with the road level.
Working chamber:
The working chamber provides a working space for a man to stand inside and to carry
out the work of cleaning or inspection. The shape of working chamber is either
rectangular or circular plan. The minimum distance for rectangular is 0.9mt x 1.2mt and
for circular minimum diameter should be 1.2mt. for rectangular shape always keep a
larger dimension in the direction of flow. Generally it is constructed in brick masonry.
Access shaft:
The access shaft provides a way to reach below to the working chamber. The cast iron
steps or rungs are fixed in the masonry wall, staggered in two vertical runs 38cm apart
horizontally and 30 cm vertically. (Rugs means cross bar to climb)
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
Man-hole cover:
The man-hole cover and frame are generally made of either cast iron, R.C.C. or F.R.P.
Cast iron covers are classified as below according to their weight.
Light weight : 51 Kg
Medium weight : 153 kg
Heavy weight : 255 kg
Covers are being used depending on the type of traffic to be born. In case of R.C.C
cover it is generally of pre cast R.C.C slab of suitable sizes. The man-hole covers are
provided flush with road level and have a size that men can easily entre in the working
chamber. The minimum size should be 50cm in diameter.
Benching:
The bottom of the man-hole is usually made of concrete slightly sloped at the top
towards the open channels, which are in continuation of sewer line. The channels are
sometimes lined with half-round sewer pipe section. The top surface of the concrete is
called benching. The purpose is that the man stands on its top during cleaning and
inspection of the sewer lines.
In manholes where the inlet and outlet pipes are of different diameters, the crown of the
pipes should be placed at same level and necessary slope should be given in the invert
of the man-hole chamber. This is to prevent back flow in the smaller diameter pipes
when the large diameter pipes are flowing full.
Man-hole classification:
Man-holes are classified as follows.
1. Drop man-holes
2. Lamp hole
3. Street inlets
o Curb inlets
o Gutter inlets
o Combined gutter and curb inlets
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
Drop man-holes:
Where inlet and outlet pipe sewers have to be connected at different levels and where it
is also desired to drop the levels of invert of incoming sewers by 0.9mt or above that of
the man-hole, than the connection is made by construct a vertical pipe outside the man-
hole as shown in the figure. This is to be done to avoid chance of sewage splashing on
a man working inside the man-hole chamber. And by extending the pipe into the
chamber as shown in figure, we can use that as an inspection arm at the time of
blockage of sewer.
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
Lamp holes:
These are opening, usually of small size, made on lines

of sewer to permit the insertion of a lamp inside the
sewer with the object of viewing the lamp-light from the
adjacent man-holes, up stream and down streams and
detecting any obstructions inside the sewer if any.
It is being constructed by stone ware or cast-iron pipe of

225 mm to 300mm diameter, based in concrete and
built off a tee junction on the sewer as shown in figure.
Lamp-holes are found suitable for use under the

following situations.
a) Where it is necessary to insert bends in sewer.
b) Where Possibility / Physibility of site is not proper for man-holes.
c) Where the distance between two man-holes is more than usual spacing.
d) Where there is in certain circumstances with no other flushing devices available,

the sewer is to be got flushed with the help of lamp-holes.
Street inlets:
A street inlet is an opening in the gutter to receive the storm water or the surface wash
and pass it into a storm or combined sewer.
At the street junction inlets should be placed in such a way that storm water may not
flow across any of the streets causing interference with the traffic, as shown in the
figure.
As we have seen street inlets are of three types.
 Curb inlets
 Gutter inlets
 Combined gutter & curb inlets
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
Curb inlets:
In curb inlets an opening is provided in the road curb for the entrance of storm water, as
shown in figure.
Curb-stone edging to a foot path or side walk.
Advantages of curb inlets
o Less quantity of floating solids can enter in the catch pits.
o As grating is fixed with the road curb, it can not be easily stolen or removed.
o Grating become cheap as it doesn’t have to bare the traffic load.
Disadvantages
o It is not suitable to catch more quantity of water, particularly on steep roads.
Gutter inlets:
These are placed just below the road and storm water is allowed to enter directly from
the top such inlets can catch very large volume of water and are most suitable in roads
having step slopes. These inlets are provided with cast iron grating at top to prevent the
floating matters entering the sewer. The important point to be considered is that the top
grating should sufficient strong to bear the traffic loads.
Disadvantages
Due to heavy grating initial cost will become high.
Due to heavy weight it has got good scrap value and

therefore these are mostly stolen. Due to that the pit
remains open and becomes the source of an
accident. Also due to remain uncovered there will be
a chance of chalk up and
area will be suffering from
accumulation of storm water.
Combined gutter and curb inlets:
It is the just combination of above two types as shown in fig.
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
The plumbing system of drainage:

There are three principal system of plumbing through which discharge from sanitary
fixture can be conveyed are the
1. Single stack system
2. One pipe system
3. Two pipe system
Single track system:

Waste water from bath, kitchen, sink as well as night
soil from w.c are discharged in a one single pipe,
which is known as soil pipe, is known as single stack
system. This single pipe also acts as a ventilating
pipe. Gully traps are avoided and depended totally on
the effectiveness of water seal to act as a barrier
against the entry of foul gases from sewer. The traps
should be kept filled with minimum water seal of 75
mm.
Advantages of the system:
1. Simplicity in layout, design and implementation
2. It will help to improve external appearance of the

building as one pipe is used
3. System will become more compact so easy to maintain.
4. Avoiding gully trap and piping system will make the system more economical
Disadvantages:
1. Principal disadvantage is the easy breaking of the water seal in the traps due to
following reasons.
2. Air or waste from drainage pipe may be forced up through traps by back pressure
due to blockage or poor design.
3. In non using condition, due to evaporation during dry weather for long time.
4. Self-siphon age due to sudden discharge from appliances, sucking away its own trap
seal
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Septic Tank:
In the rural areas and also in case of isolated buildings, institutions, hotels, hospitals,
school and small residential colonies where underground sewage system with complete
treatment of sewage may be neither feasible nor economical, under such cases septic
tank is the one of the best solutions. The location of the septic tank should be as far as
possible away from the buildings and should not be located in swampy areas or areas
prone to flooding. The septic tank effluent should not be allowed into open drainage
system, as it may cause health hazards, bad odour nuisance and fly breeding. If a
facility for connection to a sewer is available the effluent from the septic tank should be
connected to sewer.
A septic tank is a
horizontal continuous flow
sedimentation tank in
which sewage moves very
slowly, as to be retained
for a period sufficient to
permit 60 to 70% of
suspended matter to settle
in the form of sludge at the
bottom of the tank. Some
of the lighter solids
including grease and fat
raise it the surface of the
sewage to form floating
scum. The scum and the
sludge so formed are than
retained with the sewage in
the tank for a period of
several months during
which they are
decomposed by the
bacteria.
For the satisfactory

functioning of the septic
tank, adequate water
supply is most essential.
But at the same time water
containing detergents and
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B.Arch.-II, Sem-III
disinfectants are unsuitable for the working atmosphere of septic tank. Therefore we are
not joining the outlets of kitchen and bath sewer to the septic tank. It is directly
connected to a soak pit.
Septic tank may be constructed of brick work, stone masonry, concrete or other suitable
materials. The septic tank should be plastered inside with rich cement mortar. The floor
should be of 1:2:4 cement concrete. Air tight concrete or steel cover should be provided
on the top of septic tank with man-hole for inspection and cleaning.
The tank cover helps in keeping sewage, preventing wind agitation, lessening bad
odours and preventing accidents too. Gases are separately removed through a vent
pipe projecting sufficiently above level to eliminate bad odour nuisance in surrounding.
A septic tank is so constructed as to prevent direct currents between tank inlet and
outlet. And also larger the plan area of the clear space, lower the horizontal velocity and
consequently greater the sedimentation.
Soak pit:
The decomposed and highly odours effluent from the septic tank requires to be properly
disposed off, so as to be of minimum nuisance and risk to the surroundings.
A soak pit is a covered pit through which the effluent is allowed to be soaked or
absorbed into the surrounding and bottom soil. The pit may be kept either empty or filled
up with brick or stone aggregates.
When it is empty, the pit is lined with brick, stone or concrete blocks with dry open
joints. It is not at all requiring plaster on both the side. Backing of the pit is done by
coarse aggregates for the purpose of filtration.
And when filled, no lining is required except for a masonry ring constructed at the top of
the pit to prevent damage by flooding of the pit by surface run off.
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B.Arch.

From kitchen, bath, floor etc.

Through vertical pipes

(Like River, Pond, Stream)

(Gully trap, Chambers, Sewer trap)

Collection & treatment

(Intake well & treatment plant) Municipal sewer/ Open drain

Distribution Pumping station

(Through gravity or pressure lines)

House hold plumbing

(Storage water tanks, plumbing pipes, Drying beds / water source

Q: Following factor should be considered at the time of selection of any pipe

1. Material of pipe :material, type and quality

a) Corrosive resistance of pipe material

For calculation of flow –Hazan William’s Formula is

Q=F 0.54 x 1002 x C x D 2.63

Where- Q=water flow quantity mt/hour

F=friction drop mt/mt

C=surface factor/ Hazan William’s factor

The value of C is for G.I-90 to 100 and for plastic smooth

D=inside diameter of pipe in mt.

c) U.V resistance of material for long span of time

d) Temperature withstand capacity of pipe

For example=+oC to -oC without deterioration of pipe material

e) Bursting pressure of pipe

For example=4 kg/cm2, 6 kg/cm2 etc.

f) The co-efficient of thermal expansion of pipe

h) Max. length of pipe available

SWR pipe=soil, waste and rain water pipe

2. Jointing system of pipes:

a) It is of same material or a different kind o material of fittings. (important factor

3. Quality of fluid/ water:

Over head water tank:

Volume of tank=1000lit=1cu.mt (without free board)

Ex: 2000lit=2cumt. =1.33x1.0x (1.50+0.30)

Under Ground water tank:

Sewage could be separated out as three types:

b) Industrial and trade waste

Domestic: domestic waste includes human excreta as well as discharge from

Storm water: as rain falls, a part of it is lost through evaporation in to air or

Sewerage: sewerage is the general process of collection and carrying of sewage

Refuse: refuse is considered to be made up of solid organic waste in a decomposing or

Bio-medical waste: is defined as: potentially infectious waste materials generated at

Method of collection of waste:

b) Water carrying system

The dry or conservancy system:

 It is very cheap and easy to establish.

 In crowded streets, it is very difficult and inconvenient to lay roadside drains.

 Building can not be designed as a compact unit as latrine is to be provided away

 The system completely depends upon the mercy of sweepers.

 The aesthetic appearance of the city can be deprived.

The water carriage system:

 We can design building as a compact unit with toilet.

 As system includes sewer, traps, man-holes etc., it is very expensive at initial

 Water is required in much more quantity, so it will require continuous source of

 As system is having many components, maintenance will become difficult and

 It is not applicable for the small group of community.