Section 4: Occipital lobe:

1. Vision
Early Childhood
Temporal lobe
1. Hearing
Chapter 7: 2. Memory
Physical and Cognitive Development in 3. Language processing

Early Childhood Parietal lobe:

1. Spatial location
2. Motor control
1 3. Attention

PHYSICAL CHANGES

BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE

Height And Weight

2 ½ inches and 5 to 7 pounds
– average child growth a year

Preschool years – boys and girl’s bodies lengthen 3 Three quarters adult size
6 95% adult size
End of preschool years – lost their top-heavy look 4 Hand-eye coordination
Brain – spurt of growth
Fatty tissue – girls 3 to 15 Dramatic anatomical changes
3 to 6 Frontal lobe
Muscle tissue – boys

Note: MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

 Growth patterns differ individually.
 Variation is due to heredity.
Gross Motor Skills
IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION TO HEIGHT DIFFERENCES:
3 years of age – simple movements: hopping, jumping and running
1. Ethnic origin
- pride and accomplisment
2. Nutrition

4 years of age – athletic prowess, adventuroues

The Brain
3 years of age – three-quarters of adult size 5 years of age – stunts, races, climbing objects

6 years of age – 95% of adult size 3 Simple movements

Hopping
Myelination – axons are covered and insulated by a layer of fat cells Jumping
that increases the speed and efficiency of travelling information. Running

4 years of age – hand-eye coordination Pride and accomplishment

4 Adventurous
3 to 15 years of age – brain undergoes dramatic anatomical changes
Athletic prowess
5 Stunts
4 years – brain experience spurt of growth
Races
Climbing object
NOTE:
 Overall size of the brain does not show dramatic growth in the
3- to 15- year age range.
Fine Motor Skills
3 to 6 years of age – rapid growth in frontal lobe
3 years of age – pincer grip
Frontal lobe:
1. Voluntary movement 4 years of age – put things perfectly
2. Thinking 5 years of age – intermodal perception
3. Personality
4. Purpose
3 Pincer grip
 4 Perfectionist
5 Intermodal perception 95th percentile – overweight

85th percentile – at risk of overweight

Sleep
NOTE:
 Overweight at 3 years of age are at risk of being overweight
10 to 13 hrs – sleep
at 12 years of age.
 Weight at 5 years of age is linked to weight at 9 years of
NOTE:
age.
 Amount of sleep and uninterrupted sleep is important.  Prevalence of being overweight persist to 4 to 11 years of
 Bedtime resistance associated with conduct problems and
age.
hyperactivity.
 Sleep duration linked to overweight.
Childhood obesity – most common
SLEEP PROBLEMS:
Type 2 diabetes – linked with obesity and low level of fitness in
1. Narcolepsy – extreme daytime sleepiness children as young as 5 years of age.
2. Insomnia – difficulty in going to sleep and staying asleep
3. nightmares
Exercise
Sleep problems show:
2 hrs:
1. depression
 1 hr structured play
2. anxiety
 1 hr free play
5 months of age – difficult temperament
3 to 5 years old - outdoor: inactive
17 months of age – anxiousness
Physical activities – influenced by family
3 to 8 years – adolescent problems
3 to 5 years old – incorporation of move and learn increases
activity level
NUTRITION AND EXCERCISE
Malnutrition in Young Children From Low-Income
Nutrition
Families
Saturated and trans fat – raise cholesterol and increase heart
disease Anemia – failure to eat inadequate amounts of quality meat and dark
green vegetables
430 calories – 1/3 of calorie intake recommended for 4 to 8 years
old
ILLNESS AND DEATH
Note:
 Eating behavior is influenced by caregiver’s behavior. The United States

Improves children’s eating behavior: Death:

1. Predictable schedule 1. Motor vehicle accident
2. Model eating healthy food 2. Cancer
3. Make mealtimes pleasant occasion 3. Cardiovascular diseases
4. Engage in certain feeding styles. 4. Accidental deaths:
a. Drowning
b. Falls
Sensitive responsive caregiver: c. Burns
1. Caregiver is nurturant d. Poisoning
2. Provide clear info wat is expected
3. Responds to child’s cues Parental smoking – develop wheezing symptoms and asthma

Restrictive feeding style

1.
Forceful
2.
Restrictive Secondhand smoke exposure:
3.
Not recommended
1. Sleep problems
Body mass index (BMI) – determines the category for obesity, 2. Sleep-disoriented breathing
overweight, and at risk of being overweight computed by a
formula that takes into account the weight and height of a child
6 years of age - lead poisoning
97th percentile – obese
NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF LEAD POISONING: - expands mental world
1. lower intelligence - scribbles, language and pretend play
2. lower achievement
3. ADHD limitations:
4. elevated blood pressure
1. egocentrism
Children in poverty, higher rates of:  inability to distinguish between one’s own
5. death perspective and someone else’s perspective
6. accidents
 THREE MOUNTAIN TASK: children pick their
7. asthma
view rather than the doll’
 Preschool children show ability to consider
other’s perspective
The State of Illness and Health of World’s Children
2. animism
UNICEF – The State Of The World’s Children  belief that inanimate objects have life-like qualities
and are capable of action
 example:
Under-5 mortality rate is cause by these factors: The three pushed the leaf off, and it fell down.
1. immunization
2. dehydration 3. symbolism
3. availability of maternal and child health  Drawings are fanciful and inventive
4. income
 Simple but strong, abstractions found in modern
5. food availability
6. clean water availability art.
7. safe sanitation
8. security
The Intuitive Thought Substage
1 of every 5 nations in the world:
1. hunger Intuitive thought substage
2. malnutrition
3. illness – 4 to 7 years of age
4. inadequate access to health care - use primitive reasoning
5. unsafe water - always asks questions
6. lack of security

5 years old – asks “why” questions

HIV/AIDS – common death
Intuitive – young children are sure about their their knowledge and
understanding yet are unaware of how they what they know.
2
COGNITIVE CHANGES Centration and the Limits of Preoperational Thought

Piaget’s PREOPERATIONAL STAGE Centration – centering of attention on one characteristics to the

exclusion of all others
Sensorimotor stage – organize and coordinate sensation and
perceptions with physical actions and movements Conservation – awareness that altering an object’s or a
substance’s appearance does not change its basic
Preoperational stage – 2 to 7 years of age properties.
- second stage
- represent world with words, images, and
drawings
- egocentrism, magical beliefs CONSERVATION TASK:

Preoperational – child does not yet perform operations

Operations – reversible mental actions

- adding and subtracting numbers

Preoperational thought – ability to reconstruct in thought what has

been established in behavior.

Children are presented with two identical beakers, each filled

The Symbolic Function Stage with the same level of liquid.
They are asked if the two beakers had the same amount of
Symbolic function substage liquid, they said yes.
– first substage, 2 to 4 Then the liquid from one beaker is transferred to another
- ability to represent an object that is not present beaker, taller and narrower.
 They are asked if the two beakers had the same amount of
liquid, they said no.
Because of the differing heights and width.

Conservation –of-liquid-task – sign that children are at the

preoperational stage

FAILURE SHOWED:
1. Centration
2. Inability to perform operations

NOTE: Lower limit – level of skills reached by the child working

 Child might be able to conserve volume but not independently
number.
Upper limit – level of additional responsibility that the child can
Rochel Gelman – attentional training in one dimension influences accept with the assistance of an able instructor
another dimension
Skills – can be accomplished only with assistance of a more skilled
person
- “buds” – aka “flowers” of development

“fruits” of development – child can accomplish independently

Scaffolding

Scaffolding – changing the level of support

- adjusting the amount of guidance to fit the child’s current
performance

NOTE:
 As competence increases, less guidance is given.

Language and Thought

VGOTSKY’S THEORY
Use of dialogue – role of language in child’s development
Children - describes as social creatures
Speech – to communicate and solve tasks
Cultural context – shape their mind
Language – to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior
Social interaction – develop their way of understanding and
thinking Private speech - for self-regulation
 egocentric
 immature
 tool of thought during the early childhood
 early transition in becoming more socially
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) communicative
 Private speech:
o when tasks are difficult
o made errors
o not sure how to proceed
o are more attentive
o improve their performance more

3 to 7 years old – transition from external to internal speech

- involves talking to oneself

Inner speech – internalized egocentric speech

- act without verbalizing
ZPD – range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone - thoughts
but can be learned with the guidance of a more knowledgeable
other Self- talk – egocentric
 reflects immaturity
 shaping thought
NOTE: View on Education plays a Education erely refine
education central role, helping the child’s cognitive
 All mental functions have external, social origins.
children learn the skills that have
 Children who use more private speech are more
tools of the culture emerged
socially competent. Teaching Teachers is a Teachers is a
 Private speech: facilitator and a facilitator and a guide,
implications
o When tasks are difficult guide, not a not a director
o Made errors director
o Not sure how to proceed
Provide support for
o Are more attentive
Establish many children to explore
o Improve their performance more
opportunities to their world and
learn in a real-world discover knowledge
setting
Teaching Strategies
Criticism:
VGOTSKY’S theory incorporated in classrooms:
 not specific enough about age-related changes
1. Assess the child’s ZPD
 the skilled helper presents the child with tasks of
 did not adequately describe how changes in socioemotional
capabilities contribute to cognitive development
varying difficulty to determine the best level at
which to begin instruction  overemphasize the role of language in teaching

2. Use the child’s ZPD in teaching

 teaching should begin toward the zone’s upper limit
INFORMATION PROCESSING
(level of additional responsibility that the child can
accept with the assistance of an able instructor)
 offer just enough assistance Information processing approach
 encourage  illuminates how children process information during the
preschool years
3. Use more-skilled peers as teachers

4. Place instruction in meaningful context

 Provide opportunities to experience learning in a Attention
real-world setting
Attention – focusing of mental resources on select information
5. Transform the classroom with Vgotskian ideas. - improves during preschool years
 Kamehameha Elemetary Education Program
(KEEP) in Hawaii 2 ASPECTS OF ATTENTION:
 20 minutes of “Center One” 1. executive attention
 scaffolding improves literacy skills  action planning
 allocating attention to goals
 error detection
Evaluating Vgostky’s Theory  compensation
 monitoring progress on tasks
Evaluation:  dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
1. development fits with the current belief that it is important to
evaluate the contextual factors in learning
2. sustained attention
 extended engagement with an object, task, event, or
social constructivist approach – emphasizes social contexts of
other aspect of the environment
learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed

2 WAYS A CHILD’S TO CONTROL ATTENTION IS

VGOTSKY PIAGET DEFICIENT:
Sociocultural Strong emphasis Little emphasis
1. salient versus relevant dimensions
context  children pay attention to stimuli that stand out
Constructivism Social constructivist Cognitive
(salient)
constructivist
 6 to 7 years old – attend more efficiently to stimuli
Stages No general stages Strong emphasis on
that are relevant
of development stages (SPCF)
proposed 2. planfulness
Key processes Zone of proximal Schema
 preschool children – use haphazard comparison
development Assimilation
strategy (not examining all details before making a
Language Accommodation
judgement)
Dialogue Operations
 elementary school age – use systematically
Tools of culture Conservation
comparison strategy (compare details one at a time)
Classification
Role of A major role Has a miniminal role
language Langauge plays a Cognition directs
powerful role in language
 3. Interviewing techniques can produces
distortions in children’s report about highly
salient events.

Strategies and Problem Solving

Strategies- deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of

information

TWO TYPICAL STRATEGIES:

1. Rehearsing
2. Organizing information

Hungary – provide activities that improve attention 3 to 4 years old – cannot understand that a single stimulus can be
describe in incompatible ways from two different perspectives
Computer exercises – develop attention
“rule of color” ˃ the “red one” ˃ the rabbit
Activities (4 to 6 years old)
1. use a joystick 4 years old – concept of perspectives : allows them to appreciate
2. working memory that a single stimulus can be described in two different ways
3. resolution of conflict

preschool children – sustained attention is related to school The Child’s Theory of Mind
readiness (achievement and language skills)

Theory of mind – awareness of one’s own mental process and

mental process of others
Memory
- view children as “a thinker who is trying to
explain, predict, and understand people’s thoughts, feelings
Memory – retention of information over time and utterances.”

2 TYPES:
1. implicit memory DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES….
2. explicit memory
18 months to 3 years:
FORMS OF EXPLICIT MEMORY: 1. Perceptions
1. short term memory 2 years of age – recognizes that we have different
 retain information for 30 seconds, if there is no perceptions
rehearsal of information
3 years of age – child realizes that looking leads to
rehearsal – repeating information after it has been knowing what’s inside the container
presented
2. Emotions
memory-span task – way to assess a short term memory Child can distinguish between positive (happy) and
- hear a shot list of stimuli presented at negative (sad) emotion.
a rapid pace then, you are asked to repeat the digits. 3. Desires
Toddler recognizes that if people want something, they
Note: will try to get it.
 Short term memory increases during childhood. Recognizing we have different desires
 Memory span varies from one individual to another.
 Speed improves dramatically across the childhood 18 months old – food preferences may not match
years. others

2. long term memory 3 to 5 years old – false beliefs (beliefs that are not true)
 memory becomes more accurate - Band aids box

Factors that influence accuracy:

1. There are age differences in susceptibility to
suggestion.
 preschoolers are more susceptible

2. There are individual difference in

susceptibility.
 ability to produce a high quality narrative was
linked to their resistance to attention
 KNOWLEDGE ON MORPHOLOGY RULES:
1. Use of plural nouns
2. Use of possessive nouns
3. Put appropriate ending on verbs
4. Use prepositions
5. Use articles
6. Use verb to be
7. OVERGENERALIZATION OF THE RULES

˂ 4 years old – do not understand false belief.

5 to 7 years old – deepening appreciation of the mind

Ambiguous line drawing – a drawing that can be perceived in two

different ways
CHANGES IN SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS

SYNTAX

WH- QUESTIONS ˃ AUXIALIARY VERB ˃ SUBJECT

Where is going daddy?

auxiliary-inversion rule
˂ 7 years old – there is only right answer, and it was not okay to WH- QUESTIONS ˃ AUXIALIARY VERB ˃ SUBJECT
have two different opinions Where is daddy going?

Early adolescence – can have ambivalent feelings: person can SEMANTICS

both feel happy or sad about the same event  dramatic vocabulary development
- can have recursive thinking: thinking what
other people are thinking about. 18 to 6 years of age – one word per hour

14, 000 – words known by Grade 1

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES….

Executive function – describes several functions (inhibition and

planning) that are important for flexible, future-oriented behavior
ADVANCES IN PRAGMATICS

Autism: Pragmatics
 Better at reasoning tasks  engage in extended discourses
 Not a homogenous grp  talk to things that are not here
 Some have less severe social and communication problems  change speech style to suit situation (4 to 5 years old)
 Weaknesses in executive functioning may relate to theory of
mind tasks
 Process information in a detailed, almost obsessive way
YOUNG CHILDREN’S LITERACY

Important home literacy experiences:

1. literacy experience
2. quality of mother’s engagement with the child
3. provision of learning materials.

3 4
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

UNDERSTANDING PHONOLOGY AND VARIATIONS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

MORPHOLOGY EDUCATION

PHONOLOGY – more sensitive to sounds of spoken words Child-centered kindergarten

Child-centered kindergarten – emphasizes the education of the
whole child and concern for his or her physical, cognitive and
socioemotional development THE SELF

The Montessori Approach Initiative vs. Guilt

Montessori approach – educational philosophy in which children Initiative vs guilt – convinced that they are persons of their own
are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing - discover what kind of person they will become
activities and are allowed to one from one activity to another as - identify intensely with their parents
they desire.
- EQ ˃ IQ Initiative – children at this age exuberantly move out into a wider
social world
Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate
Conscience – great governor of initiative
Education
Guilt – lowers self-esteem
Developmentally appropriate approach – education that
focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children (age-
appropriateness) and the uniqueness of each child (age-
appropriateness)
Self-Understanding and Understanding of Others

Desired outcomes: SELF-UNDERSTANDING…

 thinking critically Self-understanding – representation of self, the substance and the
 working cooperatively content of self-conceptions
 solving problems
 developing self-regulatory skills Self-recognition – distinguish themselves through body attributes,
 enjoying learning maternal possessions and physical activities.

EDUCATION FOR YOUND CHILDREN WHO ARE 4 to 5 years of age – use psychological traits and emotion terms
DISADVANTAGED Optimism – don’t distinguish between desired competence and
actual competence
Curriculum Controversy - confuse ability and effort

child-centered, constructivist approach

vs UNDERSTANDING OTHERS…
academic, direct-instruction approach 4 to 5 years of age – use psychological traits and emotion terms

Universal Preschool Education 3 years of age – children mistrust others by a single error
- recognizes joint commitment
NOTE:
4 years of age – consider a relative frequency of errors before
 Quality preschool program increase the likelihood that they
mistrust
will be retained in a group or drop-out.
 Bring considerable cost savings.

NOTE:
CONTROVERSIES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
 CHILDREN ARE NOT EGOCENTRIC.
EDUCATION

Head Start Program - a government-funded program that is

Emotional Development
designed to provide children from low0income families with the
opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for
school success. NOTE:
- serve children from birth to 3 years  Growing awareness of self is linked to the ability to feel and
expanding range of emotions.
Chapter 8:
Expressing Emotions
Socioemotional Development in Early
Childhood Self-conscious emotions – children must be able to distinctly
refer to themselves from others.
- 18 months of age
1
EMOTIONAL & PERSONALITY Understanding Emotions
DEVELOPMENT
NOTE:
 Increased understanding of emotion
 Emotion knowledge was positively related to 3- to 5-
year-olds’ social competence and prosocial
behavior.
 Emotion knowledge was negatively related to 3- to 5-
year-olds’ internalizing and externalizing problems.
2 to 4 years of age – increase number of terms they use to
describe their emotions
- learn about causes and consequences of
feelings
4 to 5 years of age – ability to reflect on emotions
- ability to understand that a same event can
elicit different feelings in different people
5 years of age – determine emotions
2 to 4 years of age Terms to describe emotions
Causes and consequences of feelings
4 to 5 years of age Reflect on emotions
Different feelings
5 years of age Determine emotions
Regulating Emotions
Emotion regulation – ability to manage the demands and conflicts
they face in interacting with others
EMOTION-COACHING AND EMOTION-DISMISSING
PARENTS…
Emotion-coaching parents
– monitor their children’s emotions,
- view their children’s negative emotions as opportunities for
teaching,
- assist them in labeling emotions, and
- coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions.
- use more scaffolding and praise
- interact in a less rejecting manner
- focus their attention better
Emotion-dismissing parents – deny, ignore, or change the
negative emotions.
REGULATION OF EMOTION AND PEER RELATIONS…
 Ability to modulate one’s emotion is an important skill that
benefits children in their relationship with peers.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Moral development – involves the development of thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about
what people should do in their interactions with other people.
Moral Feelings
Feelings of anxiety and guilt – central to the account of moral
development
Superego – moral element of personality
Empathy – responding to another person’s feelings with emotions
that echoes the other’s feelings
Perspective taking – ability to discern another’s inner psychological
states.
Moral Reasoning
Distinct stages according to Piaget:
1. Heteronomous morality
 4 to 7 years of age
 Justice and rules as unchangeable properties
2. Transition
 7 to 10 years of age
3. Autonomous morality
 10 years old and older
 laws and rules are created by people
 consider intentions and consequences
 intentions ˃ consequences
immanent justice – if a rule is broken, punishment will be melted
out immediately
NOTE:
 Older children : punishment occurs only if someone
witnesses the wrongdoing and that, punishment is not
inevitable.
 Changes in moral reasoning occur in mutual-give-
and-take-relations
 Parent-child relations are less likely to advance
moral reasoning.
Moral Behavior
Moral behavior – processes of reinforcement, punishment and
imitation explain the development.
NOTE:
 What children do in one situation is often only weakly related
to what they do in other situations
 Ability to resist temptation is tied to self-control.
 Self-control is a result of delayed gratification
Conscience
Conscience – internal regulation of standards of right an wrong that
involves an integration of all three component of moral
development: moral thought, feelings, and behavior.
NOTE:
 Young children’s willingness to embrace the values of their
parents that flows from a positive, close relationship.
Relativist – doing whatever makes you happy.
  Natural selection favored males who adopted short-
Parenting and Young Children’s Moral Development term mating strategies.
 Female:
Aspects that contribute to children’s moral development: o Improved when they secured resources that ensured
1. Relational quality that their offspring would survive
2. Parental discipline
3. Proactive strategies Criticism:
4. Conversational dialogue  Hypothesis backed by speculations
 Little attention to cultural and individual variations
NOTE:
 Mutually responsive orientation and a decrease in parents’
use of power assertion in discipline a young child is linked of
Social Influences
an increase in child’s internalization an self-regulation

Proactive strategies – using diversion, such as distracting or SOCIAL THEORIES OF GENDER…

moving them to alternative activities. (younger) 1. Social role theory
 gender differences result from contrasting roles of
male and female
Conversational dialogue – talking to them about values they
 social hierarchy and division of labor are important
deem to be important (older)
causes of differences in power, assertiveness, and
nurturing.

GENDER 9 DIFFERENCES:
a. women ˃ men
Gender - characteristics of people as male or female nonverbal
conform grp pressures
perform better
Gender identity - sense of being male or female which most life satisfaction
children acquire by the age of 2 ½ years old.

b. men ˃ women
Gender role – sets of expectations that prescribe how female or leaders
male should think, act and feel helpful
aggressive
Gender typing – refers to the acquisition of traditional masculine
or feminine role 2. Psychoanalytic theory of gender (PHALLIC : 3 to
6)
 preschool develops sexual attraction towards the
opposite-sex parent
Biological Influences  Oedipus and Electra Complex

CHROMOSOMES AND HORMONES… 3. Cognitive theory of gender

XX – female (LAWRENCE KOHLBERG)
 children observe and imitate behavior and through
XY - male being rewarder and punished for gender-appropriate
and gender-inappropriate behavior
2 Main classes of sex hormone:
STAGES:
1. Estrogen (estradiol)
 released by ovaries a. gender identity
 influence development of female physical sex b. gender stability (4 to 6)
characteristics c. gender constancy (6 to 7)

2. androgen
 released by testes
 influence development of male physical sex PARENTAL INFLUENCES…
characteristics MOTHER FATHER
More obedient More involved with the
NOTE: More responsible promotions of intellectual
More restrictions development
 low level of androgen = normal development of female
More attentive
sex organs Engage in more activities

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY VIEW…

evolutionary psychology – adaptation during human evolution PEER INFLUENCES…
produced psychological differences in male and females Peers – extensively reward and punish gender behavior
- greater pressure for boys to conform to their traditional male
NOTE: role
 Children:
o unhappy
o fearful
o anxious about comparing themselves with others
Aspects of peer relations:
o fail to initiate activity
1. gender composition o weak communication skills
3 years old Same-sex playmates
4 to 12 increases 2. authoritative
- parent encourage their children to be independent but
still place limits and controls on their actions
2. group size (5 years onward) - extensive verbal-give-and-take is allowed
Boys Girls - patents are warm and nurturant
clusters (6 children) dyads or triads - associated with children’s social competence
organized group games
Children:
3. interaction in same sex group o cheerful
Boys Girls o self-reliant
Rough-and-tumble play Collaborative discourse o self-controlled
competitive - talk and act in a reciprocal o achievement oriented
Conflict manner o tend to maintain healthy relations with peers
Ego displays o cope well with stress
Risk taking o neglectful parenting
Dominance o indulgent parenting

3. neglectful parenting
Cognitive Influences - parent is very uninvolved in the child’s life
- associated with social competence, especially a lack
of self-control
Mechanisms by which gender develop:
1. imitation
Children:
2. rewards
3. punishments o low self-esteem
o immature
o alienated from family
gender schema theory – gender-typing emerges as children o truancy
gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender- o delinquency
appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.
4. indulgent parenting
schema – cognitive structure, a network of associations that guide - parents are highly involved with their children but
individual’s perceptions place few demands or control on them
- associated with social competence, especially a lack
gender schema – organizes the world in terms of female and male of self-control
- fuels gender-typing
Children:
o rarely respect
o difficulty in controlling their behavior and peer relation
o domineering
o egocentric
o noncompliant
Accepting, Rejecting,
responsive unresponsive
Demanding, Authoritative Authoritarian
controlling
2 Undemanding, Indulgent neglectful
uncontrolling
FAMILIES
Factors of correlation:
1. authoritarian parents
PARENTING
2. aggressive children
3. share genes
Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
Four types of parenting styles:
1. authoritarian Parenting Styles in Context
- restrictive, punitive style in which parents encourage
their children to follow their directions and respect their
work and effort.
Asian-American parents – continue aspects of traditional Asian
- places firm limits and controls on the child child-rearing practices as authoritarian
- allows little verbal exchange
- associated with children’s social competence Latino – positive, and encourage development of self
African-American – use physical punishment
Types of Child Maltreatment:
Why do African-Americans enforce physical punishment? 1. Physical abuse
- To enforce rules in dangerous environment in which they are - infliction of physical injury
most likely to thrive - parent may not intend to hurt the child
- injury resulted from excessive physical punishment

2. Child neglect
Punishment - failure to provide the child’s basic needs
- can be physical (abandonment), educational (child
truancy), or emotional (inattention).
Corporal (physical) punishment – necessary and even desirable - most common form of maltreatment
method
- most likely to remember 3. Sexual abuse
- fondling a child’s genitals, intercourse, incest, rape,
Physical punishment was linked with: sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation
1. Antisocial behavior through prostitution or the production of pornographic
a. cheating materials
b. telling lies
c. being mean to others 4. Emotional abuse
d. bullying - acts or omissions by parents or other caregivers that
e. getting into fights have cause, or could cause serious behavioral,
f. disobedient
cognitive, or emotional problems.

Physical punishment was associated with:

The Context of Abuse
1. higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression
2. lower levels of moral internalization
3. mental health NOTE:
4. adolescent depression  No single factor causes child maltreatment.
5. externalized problems
 Parents are involved in an intergenerational transmission of
abuse.
Reasons for avoiding spanking:
1. Parents present out-of-control models for handling stressful
situations. Hence, children may imitate their aggressive, out-
of-control behavior. Developmental Consequence of Abuse
2. Punishment can instill fear, avoidance, or rage.
3. Punishment tells children what not to do rather than what to
Consequences:
do.
4. Punishment can be abusive. 1. poor emotion regulation
2. attachment problems
3. problems in peer relations
Time out – child is removed from a setting that offers a positive 4. difficulty in adapting to school
reinforcement 5. psychological problems
6. difficulty in maintaining healthy intimate relationships
7. violent romantic relationship
8. sexual risk taking
Physical punishment must be: 9. substance abuse
1. Mild
2. Infrequent
3. Age-appropriate institutional neglect – foster children who were neglected
4. Used in context of a positive parent-child relationship
TREATMENTS EFFECTIVE IN REDUCING CHILD
MALTREATMENT:
Coparenting 1. home visitation
2. parent-infancy psychotherapy

Coparenting – support that parents provide one another in jointly

raising a child
SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS AND ORDER

CHILD MALTREATMENT Sibling Relationships

Child abuse – refers to both neglect and abuse 2 to 4 years of age – conflict every 10 minutes

Child maltreatment - does not have the same emotional impact Parents react in three ways:
and can include diverse conditions 1. intervene or try to help them resolve the conflict
2. admonish or threaten them
3. do nothing at all

Types of Child Maltreatment Characteristics of sibling relationships:

 1. emotional quality of relationship
2. familiarity and intimacy of the relationships Cross-Cultural Studies
3. variation in siblings relationship
Positive:
 Openness
Birth Order
Ethnicity
First born: acculturation – cultural changes that occur when one culture
 most intelligent comes in contact with another
 achieving
 adult-oriented
 helpful
SES
 conforming
 self-controlled
Lowes SES:
 conscientious  More concerned with their children’s expectations
 Create a home atmosphere
 Use physical punishment
Later-born:  More directive
 agreeable  Less conservational
 liberal
 rebellious
Higher SES:
 More concerned with developing children’s initiative
Only child:  Delay of gratification
 spoiled brat  Home in equal participants
 lack of self-control  Less likely to physical punishments
 self-centered behavior  Less directive
 More conservational

THE CHANGING FAMILY IN A CHANGING

SOCIETY

Working Parents

NOTE:
 Overworking parents tend to be irritable at home.
 Children of working member engage in less gender
stereotyping and have more egalitarian views.
3
Children in Divorced Families
PEER RELATIONS, PLAY, AND TELEVISION

NOTE: PEER RELATIONS

 Children from divorced families show poorer adjustment that
nondivorced families. peer – children at about the same age or maturity level
 Acrimonious relationships have negative effects.
 Poorer adjustment due to divorce Peer Group Functions
 Gender differences are less pronounces and consistent than
was previously believed
Withdrawn children – rejected by peers or are victimized and feel
 Joint custody family was better adjusted than children in sole-
lonely are at risk for depression
custody families.
 Boys adjust better in father-custody families.
Aggressive – risk for developing a number of problems, including
delinquency and dropping out of school

Gay and Lesbian Parents

Friends
NOTE:
 There are only few differences between children growing up Friend – someone to play with
with heterosexual parents and gay and lesbian parents.
 No differences are found in adjustment and mental health of Preschool children – has friends of different ethnicity and gender
children.

The Connected Worlds of Parent-Child and Peer

CULTURAL, ETHNIC, AND SOCIOECONOMIC Relations
VARIATIONS
NOTE:
 Lifestyle decisions by parents determine the child’s pool of
friends. B. Pretense/Symbolic Play:
 In times of stress, children turn to parents for support. Pretense/symbolic play – child transforms the physical
environment into a symbol
Linked to social competence and social acceptance: - 18 months of age
 Warmth - peaks at 4 to 5 years of age
 Advice giving - preschool years – “golden age”
 Provision of opportunities
18 months – pretend play – siya lang
Social competence – prosocial behavior, low aggression
3 to 5 years old – role play
Social acceptance – well liked by peers and teachers - socio-dramatic play
- town with fire
Child’s peer relations ˃˃ attachment security and marital quality - extinguish fire
- imagine with other kids

PLAY
Social Play:
Play – pleasurable activity in which children engage for its own sake, Social play – involves social interactions with peers
and its function and forms vary.
STAGES:
1. unoccupied behavior
Play’s Functions - no play
- no objective
Functions:
1. master anxieties and conflicts 2. solitary play
2. cope with problems - egocentrism
3. work off excess physical energy - play different toy on his own
4. release pent-up tensions
5. important for cognitive development 3. unlooked behavior
6. a child’s work - suggest
7. permits to practice their competencies and acquire skills - no interaction
8. symbolic and make-believe plays - observation

play therapy – allow children to work off frustrations and to analyze 4. parallel paly
- immature to mature
children’s conflicts and ways of coping with them
- mimic other kid

NOTE: 5. associative play

 Parents should encourage imaginary play because it - play with the same toy
advances creative thought. - no teamwork

play – exciting and pleasurable 6. cooperative

- satisfies our exploratory drive - self-identification
- with teamwork

exploratory drive – involves curiosity and desire for information

about something new or unusual
Constructive Play:
Social interactions the benefit literacy skills: Constructive play – play that combines sensorimotor and repetitive
1. negotiation activity with symbolic representation of ideas
2. discussion - occurs when children engage in self-regulated
creation or construction of product of a solution
- manipulate objects
Types of Play - focus: fingertips
- sandbox
A. Sensorimotor and Practice Play:
1. sensorimotor play
- derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor
Games:
schemes
- 6 months Games – activities engaged in pleasure that include rules and often
competition with one or more individuals
2. practice play
- repetition of behavior when new skills are being Example: card game
learned or when physical or mental mastery and
coordination of skills are required for games or sports
- throughout life
TELEVISION NOTE:
 Exposure to TV violence caused the increased
aggression in the children in this investigation
POSITIVE INFLUENCES:
 Playing violent games Is linked to aggression in both
1. motivating educational programs
2. increasing their information about the world beyond their sexes.
immediate environment
3. providing models of prosocial behavior Effects of TV on Child’s Prosocial Behavior

NOTE:
Effects of TV on Child’s Aggression
 SESSAME STREET --- IMITITATE POSTIVE SOCIAL
BEHAVIOR
 Section 6: 2
Adolescence Physical Changes

Chapter 11: PUBERTY

Physical and Cognitive Development in
Puberty – is a period of rapid physical maturation involving
Adolescence hormonal and bodily changes that occurs primarily
during early adolescence.
1 - not a single, sudden event

Nature of Adolescence Most noticeable changes:

1. Signs of sexual maturation
Storm-and-stress view – adolescence is a turbulent time 2. Increases in height and weight
charged with conflict and mood swings

Countries with healthy self-images in adolescents: Sexual Maturation, Height, and Weight
1. United States
2. Australia Order of male pubertal characteristics:
3. Bangladesh 1. Increase in penis and testicle size
4. Hungary 2. Appearance of straight pubic hair
5. Israel 3. Minor voice change
6. Italy 4. First ejaculation
7. Japan 5. Appearance of kinky hair
8. Taiwan 6. Onset of maximum growth In height and weight’
9. Turkey 7. Growth of hair in armpits
10. West Germany 8. More detectable voice changes
9. Growth of facial hair
Differences:
1. Happy most of the time Order of female pubertal characteristics:
2. Enjoyed life 1. Breast enlarges or pubic hair appears
3. Perceived themselves as able to exercise self- 2. Hair in the armpits
control 3. Grows in height
4. Valued work and school; 4. Hips become wider
5. Confident about their sexual selves 5. Menarche
6. Expressed positive feelings toward their families 6. Breasts are fully rounded
7. Had the capability to cope with stress
menarche – first menstruation
Public attitudes – emerge from a combination of personal - irregular at first
experience and media portrayals
GROWTH SPURT
NOTE:
start peak
 Adults measure their memories of their own
Female 9 11 ½
adolescence.
Male 11 13 ½
Acting out and boundary testing – time-honored was in
which adolescents move toward accepting rather than
Hormonal Changes
rejecting, parental values
Hormones – powerful chemical substances excreted by the
Factor that influences the actual life trajectory of every endocrine glands and carried through the bloodstream
adolescent:
1. Ethnic Testosterone – hormones associated in boys
2. Cultural
3. Gender Testosterone is responsible for:
4. SES 1. Development of genitals
5. Age 2. Increase in height
6. Lifestyle differences 3. Change in voice

Estradiol – type of estrogen in girls

Estradiol is responsible for:

 1. Breast
2. Uterine Early-maturing boys:
3. Skeletal development 1. more positive
2. more successful peer relations
NOTE: 3. focus on advantageous physical options
 Both testosterone and estradiol are present in
the hormonal makeup of boys and girls, but Late-maturing boys:
testosterone dominates in male pubertal 1. stronger sense of identity
development, whereas estradiol dominates female 2. more time to explore life’s options
pubertal development.
 Behaviors and moods also can affect hormones. NOTE:
 During adolescence, it is more advantageous to be
Factors that can activate or suppress hormonal system: an early-maturing than late-maturing.
1. Stress
2. Eating patterns NOTE:
3. Exercise  Early and late maturation have been linked with
4. Sexual activity body image.
5. Tension
6. depression Early-maturing girls:
1. Shorter
2. Stockier
Timing and Variation in Puberty
Late-maturing girls:
Factors that affect timing and makeup of puberty: 1. Thinner
1. genetic program 2. Taller
2. nutrition
3. health Early-maturing girls are more likely to:
4. environmental factors 1. Smoke
2. Drink
Precocious puberty – term used to describe the every early 3. Be depressed
onset and rapid progression of puberty 4. Have an eating disorder
- 8 in girls 5. Struggle for earlier independence from their parents
- 9 in boys 6. Have older friends
7. Bodies are likely to elicit responses from males
Pituitary glands Hypothalamus 8. Earlier dating
9. Earlier sexual experiences
hypothalamus – eating 10. Less likely to graduate
11. Cohabit and marry earlier.
Pituitary glands  gonadtopic
1. growth
2. stress EARLY LATE
Male More positive Stronger sense of
Medically suppressing gonadotropic secretions identity
- temporarily halts pubertal change More successful peer
relations More time to explore
Effects of medically suppressing gonadotropic life’s options
secretions: Focus on
1. short stature advantageous
2. early sexual capability physical options
3. engaging in age-inappropriate behavior
Female Shorter Thinner
Stockier Taller
Body Image

NOTE:
Girls are more dissatisfied with their bodies, probably
because their body fat increases.
Males are more satisfied with their body, probably
because their muscle mass increases.
Early and Late Maturation THE BRAIN
  Same-sex attractions are purely physical.
Pruned – unused ones are replaced by other passageways
or disappear Gay and lesbian attractions:
Amygdala – region of the brain that is the seat of emotions 1. Bisexual attractions
2. Physical or emotional attractions to same-sex
Corpus callosum – where fibers connect the brain’s left individuals but do not always fall in love with them.
and right hemisphere, thickens in adolescences, and
improves adolescents ability to process information
Timing of Adolescent Sexual Behaviors
Prefrontal cortex – highest level of the frontal lobes
involved in reasoning, decision making, and self-control Asian American - less likely to be sexually active
- “judgment” regions reins in intense
emotions but doesn’t finish developing until at least At 17:
emerging adulthood 1. Jamaica
2. US
Social developmental neuroscience – which involves 3. Brazil
connections between development, the brain, and
socioemotional processes NOTE:
 Increase in oral sex
Which comes first the biological changes or
experiences that stimulates them?
- Prefrontal cortex thickened and more brain Risk Factors in Adolescent Sexual Behavior
connection formed when adolescents resisted peer
pressure Early sexual activity is linked with risky behavior, such
- Nature-nurture issue as:
1. Drug use
2. Delinquency
ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY 3. School-related problems

Adolescence – time of sexual exploration and Sexually intimate behavior in girls:

experimentation, of sexual fantasies and realities, of 1. Alcohol use
incorporating sexuality into one’s identity 2. Early menarche
3. Poor parent-child communication
NOTE:
 Adolescents who view more sexual content on TV Risk factors in adolescence:
are more likely to initiate sexual intercourse 1. SES
earlier than their peers who view less sexual 2. Family/parenting
content on TV. 3. Peer
4. Academic achievement factors

Developing A Sexual Identity Preventions:

Involve learning to:
1. Manage sexual feelings
2. Developing new forms of intimacy
3. Learning the skills to regulate sexual behavior
1. Maternal communication about sex
2. Better academic achievement
Contraceptive Use

Contexts of sexual identity: Two kinds of risks:

1. Physical factors 1. Unintended, unwanted pregnancy
2. Social factors 2. Sexually transmitted infections
3. Cultural factors
NOTE:
Sexual identity involves:  Condoms – Europe
1. Activities  Pills - Europe
2. Interests
3. Styles of behavior
4. Indication of sexual orientation

NOTE: Sexually Transmitted Infections

  Coordinates health and education
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) – are contracted services- girls can participate in
primarily through sexual contact, including oral-genital this program as one of their club
contact and anal-genital contact activities.

Chlamydia – most common

3
Adolescent Pregnancy Issues in Adolescent Health

Reasons of declines of adolescent pregnancy:

1. Increased use of contraceptive Aims to improve adolescent health:
2. Fear of STI 1. Increase health-enhancing behaviors
a. Eating nutritiously
Latinas – have smallest recent declines b. Exercising
c. Wearing seat belts
Intergenerational cycle – daughters of teenage mothers d. Getting adequate sleep
are at risk for teenage child-bearing 2. Decrease health-compromising behaviors
a. Drug abuse
Risk of likelihood of intergenerational cycle includes: b. Violence
1. Low parental monitoring c. Unprotected sexual intercourse
2. Poverty d. Dangerous driving

Infants born to adolescent mothers:

1. Low birth weight ADOLESCENT HEALTH
2. Childhood illness
3. Neurological problems Prevent Disability and Mortality:
1. Heart disease
Mothers: 2. Stroke
1. Drop-out 3. Diabetes
2. Cannot cope economically 4. Cancer

Ag-appropriate family-life education -- prevents

Nutrition and Exercise
Consumer science educators – teach life skills
NOTE:
Reducing Adolescent Pregnancy:  US and British adolescents – are more likely to
 Teen Outreach Program (TOP) eat fried food and less likely to eat fruits and
o Focuses on engaging adolescents in vegetables.
volunteer community service  Amount of fat in diet – concern
o Stimulates discussions that help  Fast food meals – high fat levels in adults
adolescents appreciate the lessons they  Eating regular family meals  healthy eating
learn through volunteerism habits
 Girls, Inc.  Boys  moderate to vigorous exercise
o Growing Together
 Series of five two-hour 60 mins/day – moderate to vigorous exercise recommended
workshops from mothers and
adolescents Effects of low levels of exercise:
o Will Power/Won’t Power 1. Depressive symptoms
 A series of six two-hour sessions 2. Lower drug use
that focus on assertiveness
training Positive outcomes:
 For 12 to 14 year old girls 1. Weight status
o Taking Care of Business 2. Lower triglycerides
 Provided nine sessions that 3. Lower incidence of type 2 diabetes
emphasize career planning as 4. Lower blood pressure
well as information about
sexuality, reproduction, and
contraception
o Health Bridge
Sleep Patterns The Roles of Development, Parents, Peers, and
Education
Effects of inadequate sleep:
1. More tired or sleepy NOTE:
2. More cranky and irritable  Early onset drinking  heavy drinking in middle
3. Fall asleep in school age
4. Depressed mood
5. Drink caffeinated beverage Parental monitoring – linked with a lower incidence of
problem behavior
Optimal sleep – nine or more hours
Educational success – buffer for the emergence of drug
9 hrs. and 25 mins. – average sleep of adolescents problems in adolescence.

NOTE:
A delay in nightly release of sleep-inducing hormone, EATING DISORDERS
melatonin, which is produced in the brain’s pineal
gland, seems to underlie the shift of sleeping patterns.
Anorexia Nervosa
Melatonin is secreted at abt 9:30 pm in younger
Anorexia nervosa – eating disorder that involves the
adolescents and an hour later in older adolescents.
relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation.
- begins in early adolescent years

Leading Causes of Death in Adolescence Main characteristics:

1. Weight less than 85 percent of what is considered
Leading causes of death: normal for their age an height
1. Accidents 2. Intense fear of gaining weight
a. unintentional injuries 3. Distorted image of their body shape
b. motor vehicle accidents
i. speeding Non-Latina White adolescents – most anorexics
ii. tailgating
iii. dui NOTE:
2. Homicide – African- American  Unable to meet the high expectation, they turn to
3. Suicide something they can control: their weight.

Family therapy – most effective treatment

SUBSTANCE USE AND ABUSE

U.S. – highest rates of adolescent drug use of any Bulimia Nervosa

industrialized nation
Bulimia nervosa – an eating disorder in which the individual
Binge drinking – drinking five or more drinks in a row in the consistently follow a binge-and-purge pattern
last two weeks - begins in late adolescence or late
adulthood
Risk factors of a regular smoker in adolescence:
1. Peer influence Serious bulimia nervosa: episodes occur at least twice a
2. Weak academic orientation week for three months.
3. Low parental support
Binge by:
Narcotics – highly addictive 1. Self-inducing vomit
1. Vicodin 2. laxative
2. OxyContin
Bulimics:
Source: medicine cabinets 1. strong fear of being overweight
2. depressed or anxious
Use and abuse: 3. distorted body image
1. Alcohol
2. Smoking
3. Prescription painkillers
 4 INFORMATION PROCESSING
Adolescent Cognition Executive functioning – higher-order cognitive activities

PIAGET’S THEORY Examples of executive functioning:

Formal Operational Stage
Features:
 Make believe situations
 Abstract propositions
 Hypothetical events
 Logical reasoning
Abstract quality of thinking:
 verbal problem-solving ability
 increased tendency to think about thought itself
 thought full of idealism and possibilities
assimilation dominates
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
- cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or best
guesses, about ways to solve problems, such an
algebraic equation
Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Criticisms:
 more individual variation
 promotes formal  education in the logic of
science and mathematics
 active, constructive thinkers
 reasoning
 making decisions
 monitoring thinking critically
 monitoring one’s cognitive progress
Decision Making
Young adolescents are more likely to:
 generate different options
 examine a situation from a variety of perspectives
 anticipate the consequences of decision
  consider credibility of sources
NOTE:
 People make better decisions when they are calm.
 In the heat of the moment, emotions may
overwhelm decision-making ability.
Social context – plays a key role in adolescent’s decision
making
Dual-process model – states that decision making is
influences by two systems – analytical and experiential,
which competes with each other
- in this model, it is experiential
system – monitoring and managing actual experiences-
that benefits adolescent decision making

ADOLESCENT EGOCENTRISM
Adolescent egocentrism – heightened self-consciousness
of adolescents
Key components:
1. imaginary audience – belief that others are
interested in them as they themselves are, as well
as attention-getting behavior motivated by a desire
to be noticed, visible and “on stage”
2. personal fable – involves an adolescent’s sense of
uniqueness and invincibility (or invulnerability)
- makes them feel that no one can
understand how they feel
- show up in adolescent diaries
Strategy:
 Provide more opportunities for them to engage in
role playing and peer group problem solving.
Critical Thinking
Improved critical thinking:
1. Increased speed, automaticity, and capacity of
information processing
2. More breath of content knowledge in a variety of
domains
3. Increased ability to construct new combinations of
knowledge
4. Greater range and more spontaneous use of
strategies or procedures for applying or obtaining
knowledge

Sense of invincibility – belief that they themselves are

invulnerable to dangers and catastrophes that happen THE TRANSITION TO MIDDLE OR JUNIOR
to other people HIGH SCHOOL

Top-dog phenomenon – the circumstance of moving from

the top position in elementary school to the lowest
position in the middle or junior high school
Positive aspects: EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
 Feel grown up
 More opportunities Participating extracurricular activities is linked with:
 Enjoy increased independence 1. Higher grades
 More challenged intellectually by academic work 2. School engagement
3. Less likely to dropout from school
4. Improved probability of going to college
EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS FOR YOUNG 5. Higher self-esteem
ADOLESCENTS 6. Lower rates of depression
7. Delinquency
Most young adolescents: 8. Substance abuse
 Massive, impersonal schools
 Taught from irrelevant curricula High-quality extracurricular activities:
 Trusted few adults in school 1. Promote positive adolescent development
 Lacked access to health care 2. Opportunities for increasing school connectedness
3. Challenging and meaningful activities
4. Opportunities for improving skills
HIGH SCHOOL

Critics: SERVICE LEARNING

 Expectations for success or standards for learning
are too low
 Foster passivity and that schools should create a
variety of pathways for students to achieve an
identity
Service learning – a form of education that promotes social
responsibility and service to the community
- goal: become less self-centered, more
strongly motivated to help others

Students drop-out because: Effective when two conditions are met:

 School-related reasons 1. Giving students some degree of choice in the
o Not liking school service activities in which they participate
o Expelled 2. Providing students opportunities to reflect about
o Suspended their participation
 Economic reasons
o Leaving school Improvements in adolescent development related to
 Personal reasons service learning:
o Pregnancy 1. Higher grades in school
o Marriage 2. Increased goal-setting
3. Higher self-esteem
Most effective programs to discourage dropping out of 4. Improves sense of being able to make a difference
high school: for others
 Early reading programs 5. Increased likelihood that the adolescent will serve
 Tutoring as volunteers in the future
 Counseling
 Mentoring
 Early detection of school-related difficulties
 Getting children engaged with school

Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation – funded efforts to

reduce the dropout rates in schools

Point: Same teachers throughout their high school years to

establish a relationship between the teacher and
students.

I Have A Dream (IHAD) – an innovative comprehensive,

long-term dropout prevention program administered by
the National “I Have A Dream”

Dreamers – children, provided with a program of academic,

social, cultural, and recreational activities
Chapter 12: 5. Achievement identity – motivated to achieve, and
is intellectual
Socioemotional Development in 6. Sexual identity – heterosexual, homosexual,
Adolescence bisexual
7. Cultural/ethnic identity – which part of the world,
1 what country, cultural heritage
8. Interests – likes to do
The Self, Identity, and Religious/Spiritual 9. Personality – personal characteristics
Development 10. Physical identity – body image

SELF-ESTEEM Erikson’s View

Self-esteem – overall ay we evaluate ourselves
Controversy – characterizes the extent to which self-
esteem changes during adolescence and whether there
are gender differences in adolescents’ self-esteem
Results revealed that adults characterized by  low self-
esteem:
1. Poorer mental and physical health
2. Worse economic prospects
3. Higher levels of criminal behavior
NOTE:
 Self-esteem of girls is likely to decline at least
somewhat during early adolescence
Identity versus identify confusion – adolescents are faced
with deciding who they are, what they are at about and
where they are going in life
Psychosocial moratorium – gap between childhood
security and adulthood autonomy
Period:
 Free of responsibilities
 Pursue one career one month and another career
the next month
 Experimentation
Experimentation – deliberate effort on the part of the
adolescents to find out where they fit in the wok

Explanation to the decline during early adolescence:

 Negative body images during pubertal change Developmental Changes
 Great interest in social relationships
 Society’s failure to reward that interest Crisis or exploration– defined as a period of identity
development during which the individual is exploring
High self-esteem: alternatives
 Accurate, justified perceptions
 Arrogant, grandiose, unwarranted sense of Commitment – personal investment in identity
superiority over others
Position on D F M A
Low self-esteem: Occupation and
 Accurate perceptions of shortcoming Ideology
 Distorted, even pathological insecurity and Crisis Absent Absent Present Present
inferiority Commitment Absent Present Absent Present

Narcissism – self-centered and self-concerende approach Four statuses of identity:

toward others 1. Identity diffusion - when there is neither an
- adjust problems identity crisis nor commitment.

2. Identity foreclosure - when a person has made a

IDENTITY commitment without attempting identity exploration.
- parents hand down
commitment in an authoritarian way
What is IDENTITY?

Identity – self-portrait composed of many pieces, including: 3. Identity moratorium - status of a person who is
1. Vocational/career identity – career and work path actively involved in exploring different identities, but
2. Political identity – conservative, liberal, or middle has not made a commitment.
of the road
3. Religious identity – spiritual beliefs
4. Relationship identity – single, married, divorce
 4. Identity achievement - occurs when an individual
has gone through an exploration of different
identities and made a commitment to one.
Emerging Adulthood and Beyond
NOTE:
 College upperclassmen  more likely to be
identity achieved
 Religious beliefs  foreclosure and diffusion
Why do college produce some key changes in identity?
- Increased complexity in the reasoning skills
stimulates them to reach a higher level of
integrating various dimension of their identity.
RELIGIOUS AND SPIRITUAL DEVELOPMENT
Religiousness was asses with items such as:
 Frequency of prayer
 Frequency of discussing religious teachings
 Frequency of deciding moral actions for religious
reasons
 Importance of religion in everyday life
NOTE:
 Adolescent girls are more religious.
 Less developed countries are more religious.
Religion and Identity Development

MAMA cycles – moratorium  achievement  moratorium

 achievement Cognitive Development and Religion in
- points out that the first identity is not and
Adolescence
should not be expected as the final product
NOTE:
 Increase in abstract thinking  consider various
Ethnic Identity religious and spiritual concepts
 Foundation for thinking about whether religion
Ethnic identity – an enduring aspect of the self that provides the best route to better, more ideal world
includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, than the present.
along with the attitudes and feelings related to  Ability to develop hypothesis and systematically
memberships sort through different answers to spiritual
questions
Added dimensions to identity formation:
1. Ethnic group
2. Mainstream, dominant culture
Cognitive Development and Religion in
Adolescence
Bicultural identity - identity in some ways with their ethnic
group and in other ways with the majority culture
Higher religiosity, less likely:
1. to smoke
NOTE:
2. to drink alcohol
 Adolescents and emerging adults have the ability to
3. use marijuana
interpret ethnic and cultural information, to
4. not be truant from school
reflect on the past, and to speculate about the
5. not engage in delinquent activities
future.
6. not be depressed
 Positive ethnic identity is related to positive
outcomes for ethnic minority adolescents.
NOTE:
 Positive ethnic heritage was linked to higher self-
 effect: adopt caring and concern for people
esteem, school connectedness, and social
functioning.

First-generation immigrants – secure in identities and 2

unlikely to change much Families
Second-generation immigrants – retention of ethnic
Important aspects for family relationship:
language and social networks
1. parental monitoring
2. autonomy
Exploration – an important aspect of establishing a secure
3. attachment
sense of one’s ethnic identity, which in turn was linked
4. parent-adolescent conflict
to positive attitude toward one’s own group and other
groups
 have some important
PARENTAL MONITORING connections
Intense, stressful conflict Conflict are greater in early
Parents – managers of children’s development throughout adolescence adolescence
- supervises
Parent-adolescent Moderate parent-
NOTE: relationships are filled with adolescent conflict is
 Adolescents are more willing to disclose information storm and stress on common and serves as a
to parents when parent ask adolescents questions virtually a daily basis positive development
and when adolescents’ relationship with parent is
characterized by a high level of trust,
acceptance, and quality. Old model of parent-adolescent monitoring
 Disclosure to parents is linked to positive - mature  detach from parents  move into
adolescent adjustment. autonomy

New model of parent-adolescent monitoring

PARENTAL MONITORING - parents  important attachment figure
- conflict is moderate
- everyday negotiations and disputes are normal
The Push for Autonomy
Adolescent problems:
NOTE:
1. movement out of the home
 Wise individuals relinquishes control but continues
2. juvenile delinquency
to guide the adolescent to make reasonable
3. school dropout
decisions.
4. pregnancy
 Boys are given more independence.
5. early marriage
6. membership in religious cults
7. drug abuse
The Role of Attachment

Secure attachment, leads to:

1. Exclusive relationship 3
2. Comfortable intimacy relationships Peers
3. Increasing financial independence
Changes in peer-adolescent changes:
1. changes in friendships and in peer groups
Balancing Freedom and Control 2. beginning of romantic relationships

NOTE:
 Independence, they still need to stay connected FRIENDSHIPS
with families.
NOTE:
 popular with peers  strong motivator
PARENT-ADOLESCENT MONITORING  prefer smaller number of friends
 friends  to meet social needs
NOTE:  failure to develop close friendships  loneliness
 More positive  goes away to college and reduced sense of self-worth
 Minor disputes and negotiations  to become  gossip  dominates conversations  common in
autonomous individual girls
 interactions with older youth  delinquency and
OLD NEW early sexual behavior
Autonomy Autonomy
Depends on friends to satisfy their needs for:
Detachment from parents Attachment 1. companionship
2. reassurance of worth
Parent and peer world are Parents are important 3. intimacy
isolated support systems and
attachment figures relational aggression – spreading disparaging rumors to
Adolescent-parent and harm someone
adolescent-peer worlds
  casual dating – mutually attracted,
short-lived, last a few months at best,
PEER GROUPS only endure a few weeks
 dating in groups – embeddedness in
Peer Pressure peer context

NOTE: 3. consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about

 conform more 17 to 19 years of age
 US > Japan  resist parental influence - strong emotional bonds
 More likely to conform: - more stable
o Uncertain about their social identity - enduring bonds
o Presence of someone of higher status - lasting one year or more

Cliques and Crowds Dating in Gay and Lesbian Youth

Clique – a small group that ranges from 2 to about 12
individuals, averaging about 5 to 6 individuals; formed
because individuals engage in similar activities, share
mutual interests, and enjoy other’s ocmpany
- heterosexual
LGBT most stressful problems:
1. disclosure of their sexual orientation to their
parent
2. breakup of a current romance

Crowds – larger than cliques, and less personal Sociocultural Context and Dating
- based on reputation
- not spend much time together but engage in the NOTE:
same activities Values, religious beliefs, and tradition often dictate
the age at which dating begins
Reputation-based crowds
- first time in early adolescence and less prominent in
late adolescence Dating and Adjustment

More romantic experiences:

DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS 1. higher social acceptance
2. friendship competence
3. romantic competence
Developmental Changes in Dating and Romantic
Relationships
4. high level of substance abuse
5. delinquency
Three stages:
6. sexual behavior

AGE
co-rumination – excessive discussion of problems with
entry into romantic attractions and
11 to 13 years friends
affiliations
exploring romantic relationships 14 to 16 years
consolidating dyadic romantic
bonds
17 to 19 years 4
Culture and Adolescent Development
1. entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at
about 11 to 13 years of age
- triggered by puberty CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS
- interested in romance
- dominates conversations with same-sex
Traditions and Changes in Adolescence Around
friends
the Globe
- dating  group setting

Factors:
2. exploring romantic relationships at
1. Health:
approximately 14 to 16 years of age
 Fewer die from infectious diseases and
- two types of romantic involvement:
malnutrition
 Health-compromising behaviors increases
 2. Gender Ethnicity and SES
 Male have greater access to educational
opportunities in Japan, Philippines, Disadvantage:
Western countries 1. Prejudice, discrimination, bias
 More restrictions on sexual activity on 2. Stressful effects of poverty
women
 Educational + career  expanding Discrimination:
 Romantic + sexual relationships   Lower level of psychological functioning
weakening  Symptoms of depression
 Lower perceived well-being
3. Family  More positive attitudes
 Closely knit families with extensive kin  Positive psychological functioning
networks retain
 Arab  strict codes of conduct and loyalty
 US  less authoritarian THE MEDIA
 Greater family mobility
 Migration to urban areas
Media Use
 Family members working in distant cities
 Fewer extended family households
6 ½ hours a day – media
 Increases in mothers’ employment
2 ¼ hours a day – parents
4. Peers
 Serves as surrogate family
50 minutes - homework
 Arab  restricted for girls
Media multitasking – reason of increase in use of
5. Time Allocation to Different Activities
technology
 Discretionary time – liability or asset 
depends on how you use it
 Structured voluntary activities – provide
The Online Lives of Adolescents
more promise, competent guidance,
challenge them
NOTE:
 Use social network sites at 20 to 22 years of age
6. Rites of Passage
 Youth harassment
 Rites of passage – ceremony or ritual
 Cyberbullying
that marks an individual transition from
 Internet – technology that needs parents to monitor
one status to another.
and regulate use
 Gain access to sacred adult practices, to
knowledge, and to sexuality
 Form of ritual death or rebirth, contact with
spiritual world 5
 Bonds  shared through rituals, hazards Adolescent Problems
and secrets
 Examples: Jewish bar and bat mitzvah,
Catholic Confirmation, social debuts, JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
graduations
Juvenile delinquent – adolescent who breaks the law or
engage in behavior that’s considered illegal
ETHNICITY
NOTE:
 Male  more
Immigration  Minority and lower SES  more

Stressors:
 Language barriers
Causes of Delinquency
 Dislocations and separations from support networks
 Change in SES status
Characteristics of SES:
 Dual struggle to preserve identity and acculturate
 Anti-social
  Counterproductive - females more
 “tough” and “masculine”  measure by your
success in getting away with development

Communities characterized by: Factors:

 Poverty 1. distal experiences;
 Unemployment 2. peer relations
 Feelings of alienation  lack of supportive friendships, peer
victimization
Lacking in these communities: 3. genetic factors
 Quality schooling
 Educational funding Psychological profile of the suicidal adolescent:
 Organized neighborhood activities 1. depressive symptoms
2. alcohol yes
NOTE:
 Family support systems Indicators of suicide risk:
o Less skilled in discouraging antisocial 1. depressive symptoms
behavior 2. sense of hopelessness
o Family discord and inconsistent and 3. engaging in suicide ideation
inappropriate discipline 4. family background of suicidal behavior
o Changing parenting strategies 5. having friends with history of suicidal behavior
o Siblings  strong influence
o Have delinquent peers
THE INTERRELATION OF PROBLEMS AND
Parenting training – 14 parent group meetings that
SUCCESFUL PREVENTION/INTERVENTION
emphasized skill encouragement, limit setting,
monitoring, problem solving, and positive involvement
PROGRAMS

Four problems  all are interrelated:

1. drug abuse
DEPRESSION AND SUICIDE
2. juvenile delinquency
3. sexual problems
Depression 4. school-related problems

NOTE: Preventions:
 Females  more  due to self-images  changes 1. intensive individualized attention
and life experiences  student assistance counselor
 Family factors
o depressed parent 2. community-wide multiagency collaborative
o emotionally unavailable parents approaches
o high marital conflict  number of different programs and services
o financial problems  local media
 Power peer relationships  community education
o Adolescent romantic relationships 
trigger 3. early identification and intervention
 Friendship  support

Linked to depressive symptoms:

1. Worry
2. Anxiety
3. Oversensitivity

Treatments:
1. Anti-depressants  suicidal behavior
a. Prozac
2. Cognitive behavior therapy

Suicide

Suicide – third leading cause of death

 Section 5: EXERCISE
Middle and Late Childhood
NOTE:
 Exercise - plays an important role in children’s growth and
Chapter 9: development
 Percentage of children involved in daily P.E. programs in
Physical and Cognitive Development in schools decreased from 80% (1969) to 20% (1999)
Middle and Late Childhood  Television watching is linked with low activity and obesity in
children
 more fatigued and more active children
1  aerobic exercise

Physical Changes and Health

HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND DISEASE
BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE
Middle and late childhood – time of excellent health
2 to 3 inches and 5 to 7 pound – growth per year
Accidents and Injuries
4 feet, 9 inches – women
Injuries - are the leading cause of death during middle and late
4 feet, 10 ¼ inches – men childhood

head – proportional to the body Motor vehicle accidents - are most common cause of severe
injury
waist – proportional to the height

NOTE: Overweight Children

 Muscle mass and strength gradually increase; baby fat
decreases Overweight - child is a risk factor for being obese as an adult
 Ossification of bones
 Boys have a greater number of muscle cells and are typically Girls - are more likely than boys to be overweight
stronger than girls
Changes in diet and total caloric intake - may be one reason
for increasing obesity rates
THE BRAIN
Body mass index – categorizes an individual to be obese,
overweight, and at risk of overweight that computed by formula
NOTE:
that takes into account the height and weight of a child.
 Brain volume stabilizes
 Significant changes in structures and regions occur,
NOTE:
especially in the prefrontal cortex
o Improved attention, reasoning, and cognitive  Raises risks for many medical and psychological problems
control  Pulmonary problems, such as sleep apnea
 Thickening of cerebral cortex  diabetes,
 Activation of some brain areas increase while others decrease  high blood pressure
o Shift from larger areas to smaller, more focal  Low self-esteem,
areas  depression,
o Due to synaptic pruning  exclusion from peer groups

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases – uncommon

NOTE:
NOTE:
 Gross motor skills become smoother and more coordinated
 Many elementary-school children already possess risk factors
o Boys usually outperform girls on gross motor skills
for cardiovascular disease
 Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late
childhood
o Increased myelination of the central nervous
system Cancer
o Girls usually outperform boys on fine motor skills
Cancer - is the 2nd leading cause of death in children 5–14 years old
Leukemia - most common child cancer Possible Causes:
- cancer in which bone marrow manufactures an abundance of  Genetics (many tend to run in families)
abnormal white blood cells  Environmental influences
 Problems in integrating information from multiple brain regions
Other types of cancer:  Difficulties in brain structures and functions
1. bone
2. lymph nodes Intervention:
3. kidney  Improving reading ability through intensive instruction
4. brain
5. muscles
6. nervous system
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Syndrome (ADHD)

ADHD – a disability in which children consistently show one or more

2 of the following characteristics: (1) inattention, (2) hyperactivity,
CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES and (3) impulsivity

Inactive – difficulty in focusing on any one thing that they may be

SCOPE OF DISABILITIES bored with a task after a few minutes

Hyperactive – show high levels of physical activity

Impulsive – difficulty in curbing their actions

Possible Causes:
 Genetics
 Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development
 Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development
 Later peak for cerebral cortex thickening

Learning Disabilities ADHD Treatment:

Learning disability – difficulty in learning that involves
understanding or using spoken or written language, and the
difficulty can appear in listening, reading, thinking, writing, and
spelling
NOTE:
boys ˃ girls – stats of learning disabilities
 Stimulant medication (Ritalin or Adderall) is helpful
 Combination of medication and behavior management seems
to work best
 Exercise may reduce ADHD symptoms
 Critics argue that physicians are too quick to prescribe
medications

Definition of learning disability includes three

components:
 Minimum IQ level
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
 Significant difficulty in a school-related area
 Exclusion of severe emotional disorders, second-language Emotional and behavioral disorders – serious, persistent
background, sensory disabilities, and/or specific neurological problems that involve relationships, aggression, depression, fears
deficits associated with personal or school matters, as well as other
inappropriate socioemotional characteristics.
Three types of learning disabilities:
1. Dyslexia – category reserved for individuals who have a
severe impairment in their ability to read and spell
Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) – aka pervasive

2. Dysgraphia – learning disability that involves difficulty in
developmental disorder
handwriting
- range from severe disorder
- may write very slowly
labeled autistic disorder to the milder syndrome called Asperger
- writing products are illegible
syndrome
- make numerous spelling errors because of
- characterized by problem in
their inability to match up sounds with letter
social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and
repetitive behaviors.
3. Dyscalculia – aka developmental arithmetic disorder
- learning disability that involves difficulty in
math computation
Autistic disorder – a severe spectrum disorder that has its onset in
the first three years of life
- includes deficiencies in social relationships,
abnormalities in communication, and restricted, repetitive, and
stereotyped patterns of behavior
Asperger syndrome – a relatively mild ASD in which the child has
relatively good verbal language, milder nonverbal language
problems, and a restricted range of interests and relationships
Causes:
 Genetics
 Brain dysfunction with abnormalities in brain structure and
neurotransmitters
 Mutations – missing or duplicated pieces of DNA on
chromosome 16
EDUCATIONAL ISSUES
1975 – laws passed requiring all public schools to serve disabled
children
Individualized Education Plan (IEP) - written statement that is
specifically tailored for the disabled student
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) - a setting that is as
similar as possible to that of non-disabled children
Inclusion- educating a child with special education needs in the
regular classroom
3
COGNITIVE CHANGES
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL
THEORY
Concrete Operational Stage
Concrete operational stage
- ages 7 to 11
- children can perform concrete operations and reason logically
- reasoning can only be applied to specific, concrete examples
- ability to classify things into different sets and consider their
interrelationships
operations – reversible mental actions
concrete operations – operations that are applied to real,
concrete objects
- coordinates information about width and
height
Seriation - the ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension
Transitivity – the ability to logically combine relations to understand
certain conclusions
Classification – important ability in concrete operational thought
- can move up and down a level, and up and down
and across within the system
Evaluating Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Criticism:
 Piaget proposed that various aspects of a stage should
emerge together
o Some concrete abilities do not appear at the same
time
 Education and culture exert stronger influences on children’s
development than Piaget believed
Neo-Piagetians – argue that Piaget got some things right, but that
theory needs considerable revision
- more emphasis on attention, memory, and
strategy use
INFORMATION PROCESSING
Memory
long-term memory – relatively permanent and unlimited type of
memory, increases with age during middle and late childhood
KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERTISE…
Expertise – ability to remember, reason and solve problems
- affects ability to remember, reason, and solve problems
NOTE:
 Older children usually have more expertise about a subject
than younger children do
STRATEGIES…
Strategies – deliberate and mental activities to improve the
processing of information
Strats:
 Encourage children to engage in mental imagery.
 Motivate children to remember material by understanding
rather than by memorizing it.
 Repeat with variation on the instructional information and link
early and often.
 Embed memory-relevant language when instructing children.
FUZZY TRACE THEORY…
Fuzzy trace theory – states that memory is best understood by
considering two types of memory representations: (1) verbatim
memory trace and (2) gist.
- older children’s better memory is attributed to
the fuzzy traces created by extracting the gist of information
Verbatim memory trace – precise details of the information
NOTE:
 Limited to other children
 Limited knowledge about their own memory.
Brainstorming – a technique in which individuals are encourage to
come up with creative ideas in a group, play off each other’s
ideas, and say practically what comes to their mind

Gist – central idea of the information

INTELLIGENCE

Thinking Intelligence – problem-solving skills and the ability to learn from and
adapt to everyday life.
Aspects of thinking
1. Critical Thinking – thinking reflectively and productively, Individual differences – stable, consistent ways in which people
and evaluating evidence are different from each other
 Mindfulness – being alert, mentally present, and
cognitively flexible while going through life’s everyday
activities and tasks The Binet Test

2. Creative Thinking – the ability to think in novel and Binet Tests – designed to identify children with difficulty learning in
unusual ways, and to come up with unique solutions to school
problems
 Convergent thinking
1905 Scale – consisted of 30 questions on topics ranging from the
– produces one correct answer
ability to touch one’s ear to the ability to draw designs from
 Divergent thinking memory and define abstract concepts
- produces many different answers to the same
question
Mental age (MA) - an individual’s level of mental development
relative to others
3. Scientific Thinking
 children tend to:
Intelligence quotient (IQ) - a person’s mental age divided by
o ask fundamental questions about reality
chronological age, multiplied by 100
o place a great deal of emphasis on causal
mechanisms
o be more influenced by chance events than Stanford-Binet Tests – revised version of the Binet test
by overall patterns - revised to analyze an individual’s response
o maintain old theories regardless of evidence in five content areas : fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative
 tools of scientific thought are not routinely taught in reasoning, visual spatial reasoning, and working memory
schools
normal distribution— a bell-shaped curve
Strategies for Fostering Creativity: - symmetrical, with a majority of the scores
 Encourage brainstorming falling in the middle of the possible range of scores and few
 Provide environments that stimulate creativity scores appearing toward the extremes of the range
 Don’t overcontrol students
 Encourage internal motivation
 Build children’s confidence The Wechsler Scales
 Guide children to be persistent and delay gratification
 Encourage children to take intellectual risks Wechsler Scales - give scores on several composite indices
 Introduce children to creative people - three versions for different age groups

Include:
Metacognition 1. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence – Third Ed.
Metacognition – cognition about cognition - 2 years and 6 months to 7 years and 3 months
- knowing about knowing
- knowledge about strategies 2. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – 4 ed.
th

- 6 to 16 years
Metamemory – knowledge about memory
rd
3. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – 3 ed.
5 to 6 years of age – familiar items are easier to learn
Types of Intelligence
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
- intelligence comes in three forms:
1. Analytical intelligence – ability to analyze, judge,
evaluate, compare, and contrast
2. Creative intelligence – ability to create, design,
invent, originate, and imagine
3. Practical intelligence – ability to use, apply,
implement, and put ideas into practice
Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind – people learn best what they
can so in a way that uses their stronger intelligences
Frames of the mind:
1. Verbal: ability to think in words and use language to express
meaning
Occupations : authors, journalists, speakers
2. Mathematical: ability to carry out mathematical operations
Occupations : scientist, engineers, accountants
3. Spatial: ability to think three-dimensionally
Occupations : architects, sailors, artists
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic: ability to manipulate objects and be
physically adept
Occupations : surgeons, dancers, athletes, craftspeople
5. Musical: sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone
Occupations : composers, musicians, sensitive listeners
6. Interpersonal: ability to understand and interact effectively
with others
Occupations : teachers, mental health professionals
7. Intrapersonal: ability to understand oneself
Occupations : theologians, psychologists
8. Naturalist: ability to observe patterns in nature and
understand natural and human-made systems
Occupations : farmers, botanists, ecologists, lansdcapers
Evaluating the MI Approach
Controversies and issues in intelligence:
 Heredity and genetics versus environment (increasingly
higher scores suggest role of education)
 Flynn effect
 Bell curve: U.S. is developing large underclass of intellectually
deprived
 Racial and cultural bias
 Use and misuse of IQ tests
 Classifying types of mental retardation
 Classification as being gifted
Evaluating Multiple-Intelligence Approaches:
 Pros:
o Stimulated teachers to think more broadly about
children’s competencies
o Motivated educators to develop programs that
instruct students in multiple domains
o Contributed to interest in assessing intelligence
and classroom learning
 Cons:
o Multiple-intelligence views may have taken the
concept of specific intelligences too far
o Research has not yet supported the different types
o Are there other types of intelligences?
Interpeting Differences in IQ Scores
A. Influences of Genetics:
 Heritability – the variance in a population that is attributed to
genetics
o Heritability of intelligence is about .75
o Problems:
 Heritability index is only as good as the
data entered into the analysis
 Assumes we can treat genetic and
environmental influences as separate
 One strategy is to compare the IQs of identical and fraternal
twins
 Most researchers agree that genetics and environment
interact to influence intelligence
B. Environmental Influences:
 Communication of parents
 Schooling
 Flynn Effect: rapidly increasing IQ test scores around the
world
o Increasing levels of education attained by more
people
o Explosion of available information
 Interventions designed to help children at risk for
impoverished intelligence
C. Group Differences:
 On average, African American schoolchildren score 10 to 15
points lower on IQ tests than White American schoolchildren
o Gap has begun to narrow as African Americans
have gained social, economic, and educational
opportunities
D. Culture-Fair Tests - tests that are intended to be free of
cultural bias
 Items that are familiar to children from all backgrounds
 Nonverbal intelligence tests
E. Using Intelligence Tests:
 Avoid stereotyping and expectations
 Know that IQ is not the sole indicator of competence
 Use caution in interpreting an overall IQ score
EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
Mental Retardation
Mental retardation – a condition of limited mental ability in which
an individual has a low IQ (usually below 70) on a traditional test
of intelligence, and has a difficulty adapting to everyday life
Categories: 4
1. Mild
- 55 to 70 LANGUAGE
- able to live independently as adults
- work at variety of jobs VOCABULARY, GRAMMMAR, AND
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS
2. Moderate
- 40 to 54
During middle and late childhood:
- attain a second-grade level
 Changes occur in the way children’s mental vocabulary is
- support themselves as adult through some types
organized
of labor  Rapid increase in vocabulary and grammar skills
 Improved logical reasoning/analytical skills
3. Severe
- 25 to 39 Metalinguistic Awareness
- talk and accomplish simple tasks - knowledge about language
- require extensive support - knowing what a preposition is or the ability to discuss the
sounds of language
Causes: - improves significantly during elementary school years
1. Organic retardation
- caused by genetic disorder or by brain damage
READING
- organic – refers to the tissues or organs of the
body
NOTE:
- 0 to 50
 Children with a large vocabulary have an advantage in
learning to read
2. Cultural-familial retardation
- Mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain Two approaches to teaching reading:
damage 1. Whole-language approach
- 50 to 70 - reading instruction should parallel children’s
natural language learning
- recognize whole words; use context to guess at
Giftedness meaning
- reading is connected with listening and writing
skills
Giftedness – people who have 130 IQ or higher and/or superior
talent for something
2. Phonics approach
- reading instruction should teach basic rules for
Three criteria:
translating written symbols into sounds
1. Precocity – master earlier than peers, inborn high ability - research suggests that instruction in phonics
should be emphasized, although both methods
2. Marching to their own drummer – minimal can be beneficial
scaffolding, resist explicit instruction

3. A passion to master – obsessive interest WRITING

NOTED: Note:
 Giftedness is likely a product of both heredity and  Children often invent spellings
environment  Corrections should be selective and done in positive ways
 Many experts argue that education programs for gifted
children need a significant overhaul
BILINGUALISM

NOTE:
 Learning a second language is easiest for children
 U.S. students are far behind other countries in learning
multiple languages
 Ability to speak two languages has a positive effect on child’s
cognitive development
 Bilingual children perform better on tests of:
o Control of attention (focus)
o Concept formation
o Analytic reasoning
o Cognitive flexibility
o Cognitive complexity
1. Who is the author of the “sociocultural 15. A type of play that involves interaction with
cognitive theory” that emphasizes how peers. SOCIAL PLAY
culture and interaction guides cognitive
development? VYGOTSKY

2. Learning disability that involves difficulty in

handwriting. DYSGRAPHIA

3. Who authored the Triarchic theory of

intelligence describing three elements of
intelligence? STERNBERG

4. Stage of Piaget’s cognitive development

wherein the person begins to represent the
world with words, images and drawings.
PREOPERATIONAL STAGE

5. Eating disorder most common in

adolescence in which a person regularly eats
huge quantities of food and purge the body.
BULIMIA NERVOSA

6. Female’s first menstruation. MENARCHE

7. The most common cancer in children.

LEUKEMIA

8. Educating a child with special education

needs full-time in the regular classroom.
INCLUSION

9. People how have above-average intelligence

and/or have superior talent for something.
GIFTED

10. Sets of expectations that prescribe how

females and males should think, feel and
act. GENDER ROLES

11. Males first milestone during puberty.

12. Physiological signs of sexual maturation in

adolescence that do not involve the sex
organs. SECONDARY SEX
CHARACTERISTICS

13. Parenting style in which the parent is

uninvolved in the child’s life. NEGLECTFUL
PARENTING

14. Leading cause of death in middle childhood.

ACCIDENTS