Electronic Devices

and Circuits
Second Edition

Balbir Kumar
Formerly
Professor of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Maharaja Surajmal Institute of Technology, Delhi
Additional Director, Bhagwan Parshuram Institute of Technology, Delhi
Director, Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, Delhi
Founder Director, Guru Premsukh Memorial College of Engineering, Delhi
Director, HMR Institute of Technology and Management, Delhi

Shail B. Jain
Professor of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi
Formerly
Head, Electronics and Communication Engineering Department
Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology
GGSIP University, Delhi
Professor, Delhi College of Engineering (now DTU)

Delhi-110092
2014
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS, Second Edition
Balbir Kumar and Shail B. Jain

© 2014 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing
from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-4844-8

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Sixth Printing (Second Edition) ... ... January, 2014

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No. 2, Phase IV,
HSIDC, Kundli-131028, Sonepat, Haryana.
 Contents

Preface xi
Preface to the First Edition xiii

1 Semiconductor Physics 1–33

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Forces, Fields and Energy 2
1.2.1 Charged Particles 3
1.2.2 Field Intensity (e) 3
1.2.3 Potential (V) 4
1.2.4 Concept of Potential Barrier 5
1.3 Conduction in Metals and Electron Gas 6
1.3.1 Current Density (J) 7
1.3.2 Conductivity (s) and Resistivity (R) 8
1.4 The Instrinsic Semiconductors 10
1.4.1 The Concept of Hole 10
1.4.2 Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductors 11
1.5 Extrinsic Semiconductors (Doped Semiconductors) 13
1.5.1 n-type Semiconductors 13
1.5.2 p-type Semiconductors 14
1.5.3 The Mass-Action Law 15
1.5.4 Carrier Concentrations 16
1.5.5 Generation and Recombination of Charges n+, p+ 18
1.6 Effect of Temperature on the Properties of Silicon: Variation
of Mobility with Electric Field e 18
1.6.1 Intrinsic Concentration 18
1.6.2 Mobility (m) 19
1.6.3 Conductivity (s) 19

iii
iv Contents

1.7 Diffusion Currents 20

1.7.1 The Einstein Relationship 21
1.7.2 Total Current 21
1.8 Graded Semiconductors and Calculations of Barrier Potential 22
1.8.1 Step-graded Junction (Open Circuited Case) 24
Summary 30
Review Questions 31
Numerical Problems 31

2 The p-n Junction Diode 34–96

2.1 Introduction 34
2.2 The p-n Junction 34
2.3 The Open Circuited p–n Junction 35
2.4 Charge Distribution, Electrostatic Potential and Potential
Barrier Due to Depletion Region 36
2.5 Forward and Reverse Biasing the p-n Junction 38
2.5.1 Forward-Biasing the p-n Junction 38
2.5.2 Reverse-Biasing the p-n Junction 39
2.5.3 Contact Points for Anode and Cathode (Ohmic Contacts) 39
2.5.4 Short Circuiting the p-n Junction 40
2.6 The Volt-Ampere Characteristic of a p-n Diode 42
2.7 Temperature Dependence of the V-I Characteristics 50
2.8 The Diode as a Circuit Element 51
2.9 The Load-Line Concept 52
2.10 Large Signal Diode Models (DC Models) 53
2.10.1 Forward-Biased Diode (ON State) 53
2.10.2 Reverse-Biased Diode (OFF State) 54
2.11 Small Signal Diode Model (AC Model) 58
2.11.1 Determination of rd (or gd) at the Q-point 60
2.11.2 Rule to Analyze a Diode Circuit with DC + AC Input Voltages 61
2.12 Capacitances in a Diode 65
2.12.1 Transition Capacitances (CT) 66
2.12.2 Calculation of Transition Capacitance CT
(for step graded junction diode) 69
2.13 Minority Carrier Concentration and the Law of the Junction 78
2.13.1 Forward-Biased Junction 78
2.13.2 Reverse-Biased Junction 79
2.14 Calculation of Diffusion Capacitance CD 80
2.14.1 Diffusion Capacitance CD 82
2.15 Switching Time of the Junction Diode 83
2.16 Schottky Barrier Diodes 85
2.17 Zener Diodes 86
2.17.1 Avalanche Multiplication 87
2.17.2 Zener Breakdown 87
2.17.3 Comparison between Zener Effect and Avalanche Effect 87
2.17.4 Zener Diode Models 88
 Contents v

2.17.5 A Simple Zener Regulator 88

2.17.6 Rule to Solve Numericals for Zener Voltage Regulators Designs 89
Summary 91
Review Questions 92
Numerical Problems 93

3 Applications of Diodes 97–183

3.1 Introduction 97
3.2 Rectifiers 97
3.2.1 Half-wave Rectifier 98
3.2.2 A Full-wave Rectifier 104
3.2.3 Other Full-wave Rectifiers 110
3.2.4 The Rectifier Meter 120
3.2.5 A Note on Charging and Discharging of a Capacitor 122
3.3 Capacitor Filters 123
3.4 Voltage-Multiplier Circuits 130
3.4.1 Voltage Doubler 130
3.4.2 Another Voltage Doubler Circuit 132
3.4.3 Voltage Tripler and Voltage Quadrupler 132
3.5 Zener Voltage Regulator 133
3.6 Clipping and Clamping 143
3.6.1 Clipping 143
3.6.2 Clamping (DC Restorer) 160
Summary 172
Review Questions 173
Numerical Problems 174

4 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) 184–216

4.1 Introduction 184
4.2 Physical Structure of BJT 184
4.3 Modes of Operation 185
4.4 Operation of pnp Transistor in Active Mode 186
4.5 The Ebers-Moll Model of a BJT 188
4.6 Circuit Symbols for BJTs 190
4.7 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a BJT 191
4.7.1 The Common Base (CB) Configuration 192
4.7.2 The Common Emitter (CE) Configuration 194
4.7.3 The Common Collector (CC) Configuration 200
4.8 DC Models 201
4.9 Amplifying Action of a Transistor 208
4.10 Transistor as a Switch/Inverter 209
Summary 212
Review Questions 212
Numerical Problems 213
vi Contents

5 BJT Biasing (Q-point) and Stability 217–262

5.1 Introduction 217
5.2 Q-point Selection in a BJT 218
5.3 Fixed Bias Circuit 219
5.4 AC and DC Load Lines 221
5.5 Operating Point Stability 223
5.6 Self Bias or Emitter Bias 224
5.7 Stability Factors S(ICO), S(VBE) and S(b ) 236
5.8 Biasing Techniques for BJT Integrated Circuits (ICs) 245
5.8.1 Constant Current Source (Current Mirror) 245
5.8.2 Widlar Current Source 247
5.8.3 Current Repeaters 249
5.8.4 Improved Current Source Circuits 251
Summary 256
Review Questions 257
Numerical Problems 258

6 BJT Amplifiers 263–337

6.1 Introduction 263
6.2 Small Signal Models of a BJT 263
6.2.1 The Hybrid h-parameter Model 264
6.2.2 Hybrid-p Model 272
6.2.3 re-Model (T-Model) 275
6.3 Graphical Analysis of a CE Amplifier 278
6.4 Analysis of Transistor Amplifier Circuits Using Small Signal
Equivalent Circuits 280
6.4.1 Amplifier Analysis Using h-parameter Model 281
6.4.2 Simplified h-parameter Model 292
6.4.3 Analysis of Transistor Circuits Using Hybrid-p Model 301
6.4.4 Comparison of CE, CC and CB Amplifier Configurations 316
6.4.5 Transistor Amplifier Analysis Using re-model 319
Appendix 6.1 329
Summary 330
Review Questions 331
Numerical Problems 332

7 Field-Effect Transistors—Characteristics and Biasing 338–373

7.1 Introduction 338
7.2 Structure and Physical Operation of JFET 338
7.2.1 Structure of JFFT 338
7.2.2 Physical Operation of JFET 340
7.3 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a JFET 341
7.3.1 Drain Characteristics 341
7.3.2 Transfer Characteristics 344
7.4 Comparison of FET with BJT 346
 Contents vii

7.5 Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) 346

7.5.1 Structure and Physical Operation of Enhancement-MOSFET 347
7.5.2 Volt-Ampere Characteristics of an n-channel
Enhancement MOSFET 350
7.5.3 p-channel Enhancement MOSFET 352
7.6 The Depletion-Type MOSFET 354
7.7 Complementary MOS or CMOS 356
7.8 The MESFET—Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Devices 357
7.9 Biasing in JFET/MOSFET 358
7.9.1 Biasing Arrangements for JFET 358
7.9.2 Biasing for MOSFETs 364
Summary 368
Review Questions 370
Numerical Problems 370

8 FET Amplifiers 374–399

8.1 Introduction 374
8.2 FET Small Signal Model at Low Frequencies 374
8.3 JFET Amplifier Analysis 379
8.3.1 Common Source (CS) Amplifier 379
8.3.2 JFET Common Drain (CD) Amplifier (Source Follower) 385
8.3.3 JFET Common Gate Amplifier 387
8.4 MOSFET Amplifiers 390
8.5 The MOSFET as a Resistance 393
8.6 The MOSFET Inverter 393
8.7 MOSFET as a Switch 395
Summary 395
Review Questions 396
Numerical Problems 397

9 Multistage Amplifiers 400–443

9.1 Introduction 400
9.2 Cascaded BJT Amplifiers at Low Frequencies 400
9.2.1 Cascaded FET Amplifiers 409
9.2.2 Darlington Pair 413
9.2.3 Cascode Amplifier 418
9.3 Coupling Methods in Multistage Amplifiers 421
9.3.1 RC Coupled Amplifier 421
9.3.2 Transformer Coupled Amplifier 430
9.3.3 Direct Coupled Amplifiers 431
9.4 Differential Amplifier 431
Summary 436
Review Questions 437
Numerical Problems 438
viii Contents

10 Frequency Response of Amplifiers 444–574

10.1 Introduction 444
10.2 Frequency-Response Characteristics 445
10.2.1 Fidelity and Distortion Considerations 446
10.3 A Note on Asymptotic Bode Diagram 446
10.4 High Frequency Response (of Lowpass BJT Circuit) 455
10.5 Low-Frequency Response (of Highpass BJT Circuit) 459
10.6 Total Response—(Combined Effect of CM and CC) 462
10.7 Bandwidth 464
10.8 Parameters to Determine Response to Square Wave Signals 465
10.8.1 Step Response of an Amplifier 465
10.8.2 Rise Time 466
10.8.3 Tilt or Sag 467
10.8.4 Tilt Calculation for a Symmetrical Square Wave 469
10.8.5 A Practical Testing Approach (Square Wave Testing) 470
10.9 The Common Emitter Short Circuit Current Gain 472
10.9.1 The Parameter fT (Terminal Frequency) 473
10.10 The Generalized Gain Function 478
10.10.1 Determination of the Number of Poles and Zeros 478
10.10.2 The Dominant-pole Approximation 480
10.11 The High-Frequency Response of a Common Emitter Stage 482
10.12 An Important Result 486
10.13 Common Emitter Configuration, Alternate Analysis Approach
(The Unilateral Hybrid-p Equivalent for CE) 489
10.14 The Gain-Bandwidth Product 492
10.15 The Common-Source Stage at High Frequency 494
10.16 Emitter and Source Followers at High Frequencies 499
10.16.1 Derivation of AVH(s) by Time Constant Method for
the Emitter Follower Circuit (Short Cut) 503
10.16.2 The Output Impedance Z0 of the Emitter Follower 506
10.16.3 The Input Impedance Zi of the Emitter Follower 509
10.17 The Source Follower (Frequency Response) 512
10.18 The Time Constant Method of Obtaining the Response 521
10.18.1 The Coefficient a1 521
10.18.2 The Coefficient a2 522
10.18.3 Comments on ‘The Time Constant Method
for Response Analysis’ 526
10.19 The Frequency Response of Cascaded Stages 527
10.19.1 The CE-CE and CS-CS Cascaded Amplifiers at
High Frequencies 527
10.20 The Cascode (CE-CB) Amplifier 535
10.21 The Effect of Coupling and Bypass Capacitors 539
10.21.1 CE ® ¥ and CB Imperfect Coupling 539
10.21.2 CE Imperfect Bypass but CB Perfect Coupling 541
10.21.3 The Complete Low-frequency Response
(Effect of CE and CB both Imperfect) 543
 Contents ix

Additional Solved Examples 549

Summary 568
Review Questions 569
Numerical Problems 570

11 Feedback Amplifiers 575–653

11.1 Introduction 575
11.2 Classification of Controlled Amplifiers 576
11.3 The Feedback Concept 579
11.4 Feedback Amplifier Topologies 581
11.5 The Ideal Feedback Amplifier 582
11.6 Properties of Negative Feedback Amplifiers 587
11.6.1 Desensitivity (Effect of Negative Feedback on Sensitivity) 588
11.6.2 Non-linear Distortion (Effect of Negative Feedback on Distortion) 590
11.6.3 Bandwidth Extension with Negative Feedback 597
11.6.4 Noise Reduction (by Negative Feedback) 601
11.7 Impedance in Feedback Amplifiers 606
11.8 Approximate Analysis of a Feedback Amplifier 610
Summary 649
Review Questions 650
Numerical Problems 650

12 Oscillators 654–674
12.1 Introduction 654
12.2 Basic Principle of Sine Wave Oscillators 654
12.3 Oscillator Circuits 656
12.3.1 RC Phase Shift Oscillator 656
12.3.2 Wien Bridge Oscillator 662
12.3.3 LC Oscillator Circuits 665
12.3.4 Crystal Oscillator 669
12.4 Frequency Stability 671
Summary 672
Review Questions 673
Numerical Problems 673

13 Power Amplifiers and Voltage Regulators 675–706

13.1 Introduction 675
13.2 Classification of Output Stages 676
13.3 Class-A Large Signal Amplifiers 677
13.3.1 Harmonic Distortion 679
13.3.2 Power Conversion Efficiency of a Class A Amplifier 681
13.4 Transformer Coupled Class A Amplifer 682
13.5 Push-Pull Amplifiers 685
13.5.1 Class A Push-Pull Amplifier 685
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