Petroleum 8 (2022) 219e226

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Petroleum
journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/petlm

Artificial lift system optimization using machine learning applications

Fahad I. Syed*, Mohammed Alshamsi, Amirmasoud K. Dahaghi, S. Neghabhan
University of Kansas & ADNOC Offshore, Dept. of Chemical and Petroleum E…, Lawrence, 66045, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Currently, in the oil industry, artificial lift optimization (ALO) systems are dealing with different appli-
Received 5 June 2020 cations including well monitor and control, reservoir management, production optimization, predictive
Received in revised form maintenance, artificial lift, and flow assurance, multiphase pumping systems, etc. The scope of this article
15 July 2020
is to provide a detailed analysis of ALO and predictive pump maintenance applications using machine
Accepted 4 August 2020
learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI). The oil and gas industry has experienced a lot of im-
provements that have impacted the businesses and economies associated with the market in recent
Keywords:
times. Issues such as unplanned shutdown time and failure of equipment cause a huge impact on many
Artificial lift optimization
Predictive maintenance
corporations especially with the current fluctuations in hydrocarbon prices. Similarly, advanced modern
technologies such as real-time analysis and predictive maintenance are designed to drive ALO systems.
This paper covers several applications and techniques in which ML and AI have been applied to optimize
hydrocarbon withdrawal from potentially depleted reservoirs that require some external supports to
uplift the reservoir fluid from sub surface to surface using artificial lift system. In a nutshell, the appli-
cations of AI and ML for the artificial lift selection, their predictive maintenance, equipment malfunc-
tioning detection, etc. using a self-trained system are the main topics of this paper. While reviewing each
of these techniques, the workflow is also explained along with the effectiveness of utilizing each
application to the current operations.
© 2020 Southwest Petroleum University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
During recent years, the oil and gas industry has experienced
lots of improvements that have impacted the regional and the
global businesses and economies associated with the oil industry as
well as other energy sectors. It's a well-established fact nowadays
that the corporations are pushing their traditional exploration,
operation, and maintenance practices towards more predictive and
data-driven analysis and practices. The upstream sector of the oil
and gas exploration and production industry is no exception to
these improvements. Newly field technology-based techniques
such as horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing in the business
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: syedfahadiqbal@gmail.com (F.I. Syed).
Peer review under responsibility of Southwest Petroleum University.
Production and Hosting by Elsevier on behalf of KeAi
not only allow for more hydrocarbon extraction but demanded
more effective and efficient solutions to address the new chal-
lenges. Preforming such unconventional methods are economically
expensive for gas and oil corporations comparing to conventional
practices. Issues such as unplanned shutdown time and failure of
equipment would cause a huge impact on these corporations
especially with the current fluctuations in the gas and oil prices.
The concept of Artificial Intelligence a. k.a. AI critically refers to
the idea of programming machines to think like humans and imitate
their actions. This concept has been developing over the years to
involve any machines with the ability to learn and perform problem-
solving. The concept of machine learning a. k.a. ML, an application of
Al, is the part concerned with the improvement of programs that can
access directly and indirectly all the historical data and learn from
the different market and operational experiences. ML methods
typically were classified into two categories: controlled and uncon-
trolled ML algorithms. Controlled ML is when new data being labeled
and analyzed using previously leaned knowledge to train a machine,
otherwise, it is uncontrolled machine learning.
The possibilities of using AI and ML applications have huge
potential in addressing many aspects in the oil and gas industry,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petlm.2020.08.003
2405-6561/© 2020 Southwest Petroleum University. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
F.I. Syed, M. Alshamsi, A.K. Dahaghi et al. Petroleum 8 (2022) 219e226

sequence in a submersible electric motor frame. Such pumps are

Nomenclature connected through cables to surface for the operational control
and the electric power supply. The electric motor is the most basic
ALO Artificial Lift Optimization part of the system that is being controlled through intelligent,
AI Artificial Intelligence programmable controls, remote terminal, and a mechanical drive
CbM Condition-based Maintenance located on the surface. In this system, increasing electricity directs
ML Machine Learning the production to increase from the well [23]. Other major com-
ALS Artificial Lift System ponents include centrifugal multi-stage pump, seal chamber
ADNOC Abu Dhabi National Oil Company segment, and surface control unit [26]. There are some main ad-
DT Digital Twin vantages of using this system including no sucker rods and guides,
ESP Electric Submersible Pumps the high turn-down rate, and the ability to operate fully auto-
GLR Gas to Liquid Ratio matic. There are also some challenges that operators commonly
GLP Gas Lift Pumps face when using ESPs. It comes with a high installation cost,
IIoT Industrial Internet of Things expensive workover to repair, comparatively low reliability and
IoT Internet of Things also electric motor cooling system is being considered as one of
PM Preventive Maintenance the major concerns being faced by the operators and the
PdM Predictive Maintenance engineers.
RbM Risk-based Maintenance On the other hand, the Sucker-rod pump is an active pump
RtF Reactive or Run to Failure lifting system used to connect the downhole pump in the reservoir
SRP Sucker Rod Pump with the surface components to control the flow of the gas. This
TbM Time-based Maintenance type of lifting is commonly used in mid to late production stages.
The main components of this pumping system include rod string,
pump plunger, pumping unit, and wellhead assembly. It's the most
commonly used pumping system by the operators because of its
simple operation and comparatively low maintenance expenses.
especially in shale hydrocarbon production that is one of the most The sucker rod pumping system can be operated using a portable
emerging sectors being explored and developed these days. The generator, and it can work under a wide range of downhole oper-
focus of this article is to highlight chosen AL and ML applications ational and reservoir conditions. However, there are also disad-
and techniques employed to optimize automated artificial lift sys- vantages to using this system. It has comparatively low efficiency
tems (ALS) and to improve the predictive pump maintenance cycle. with high Gas to Liquid Ratio (GLR) fluid, paraffin problem without
treatment, and it is also quite difficult to uplift the fluid level below
2. Artificial lift optimization their bubble-point pressure.
Another artificial lift system is the gas lift pumping system that
The characteristics of wells performances within unconven- operates through pumping dry gas into the production tubing to
tional shale formations create several challenges for the operators continuously reduce the hydrostatic head pressure in the fluid
to produce hydrocarbons. One of the patterns in such a filed is the column. Such a continuous process causes a reduction in the
dramatic decline in the production profile in a very short period of bottom-hole pressure that allows a higher flow rate for the reser-
time. Typically, wells produce at incredibly high rates in the voir liquids to reach the wellbore. In this type of artificial lift
beginning and as soon as the production reaches its peak, the flow operation, the external gas is being injected from the bottom-most
profile declines so abruptly without maintaining any plateau type tubing-casing annulus and reaches the production train through a
production profile. This rapid variation in the production profile series of gas-lift valves. The main advantages of using this type of
requires more effective and smarter ALS. The principal objective of artificial lift system include its excellent capability of handling gas,
artificial lift techniques in shale gas production field is to contin- ability to handle solids, ability to operate in deviated wellbores,
uously remove liquid (water, oil, etc.) from liquid-loaded gas wells. compression remote from the well site, and its ability to be con-
The maximum efficiency of the system can be achieved when op- verted to plunger lift. On the other hand, such system also comes
erators design artificial lift installations in the early production with some disadvantages. This gas lift system requires high
stages in well's life. Main benefits of installing ALS in the early compressional pressure, freezing and hydrate of gas injection lines,
production stage are listed below: the associated decline in bottom-hole pressure and productivity,
the demand of experienced operators, and low efficiency when
(1) Minimize pressure losses in the production tubing. utilized to produce from small fields which are some of the dis-
(2) Minimize capital and operational expenditures. advantages linked to this system.
(3) Improve drawdown and flow rates. Recently, the jet pumps are also been used in unconventional
horizontal wells due to their high reliability, tolerance factor to gas,
The traditional artificial lifting methods are inconsistent in the and its rig-less resize-ability [3]. Jet pumps are typically consist of a
manner of delivering gas from unconventional shale plays. ALS nozzle fixed at the bottom-hole and the power fluids are being
techniques can be categorized based on reservoir pressure. A for- injected at high pressure from the surface using throats, the power
mation that can use the reservoir pressure to deliver gas to the fluid mixed with the reservoir fluid and hence the fluid mixture
surface, the ALS is classified as a passive system. Otherwise, the flows to the surface through the pumps. In horizontal and deviated
system is active where the external energy is required to lift the gas wells, jet pumps are installed using wireline.
when the reservoir pressure is depleted [1]. In unconventional gas
production fields, operators have been using multiple types of ALS, 3. Artificial lift system in shale plays
including Electric-submersible pump (ESP), Sucker-rod pump
(SRP), and Gas lift pumps (GLP). Table 1 provides a summary of the In the late 1990s, some operators and the research institutes
merits and demerits of using ALS in shale reservoirs. based in Canada came up with combine efforts to address the
ESP consists of several centrifugal pump stages mounted in major challenges to mitigate ALS using different applications
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F.I. Syed, M. Alshamsi, A.K. Dahaghi et al. Petroleum 8 (2022) 219e226

Table 1
Merits and demerits of major artificial lift systems [2,28].

Artificial lift system Merits Demerits

Sucker rod pump - Commonly used for oil wells - Low efficiency with high GLR Fluids
- Simple to operate and easy to maintain - Difficult to draw fluid below bubble point pressure
- Wide turn-down range - Tubing wear operating past kick-off point
- Wide range of downhole operating conditions - Hole in tubing if sucker rods unguided
- Easy to optimize with an automated system - Cannot use in DLS >2

- Produce until late well life - Paraffin problem without treatment
- Chemical Program, paraffin, and corrosion
Electrical - No sucker rods and guides - High installation CAPEX and operational OPEX
submersible - High turndown rate - Low reliability with high bottom-hole temperature
pump - Fully automated operation - A smooth tangent section in the wellbore
- Electric motor cooling required
Jet pump - Excellent gas handling - Require high-pressure fluid
- Suitable for directional wells - High OPEX for the surface equipment maintenance
- Flexible production rates - Difficult to treat for scale deposition
- Easily handles solids - An operator is needed to initiate the pump
- Large power generator required
Plunger lift - No external energy required - Solids can stick to the plunger
- Rig less intervention - Requires differential pressure between the
- Low maintenance bottom hole and the tubing pressure to initiate the plunger stroke
- Self-paraffin and scale cleaning with the plunger strokes
- Suitable for high GLR
Progressing - Wide turn down range - Elastomers incompatible with fluids
cavity - Low cost - Operating temperature above capability
pump - Works on automated system - Tubing and rod wear
- Low profile system - Operating depth limitations
Gas lift - Wireline retrievable - High-pressure compression required
- Excellent gas handing - Infrastructure best to install construction phase of field development
- Operational in deviated wells - High net positive suction head pressure
- Compression remote from well site - Freezing and hydrate on injection gas lines
- Able to convert from continuous injection to gas-assisted plunger lift - Corrosive injection gas lines
- Low efficiency while producing a single well or a small field

including sucker rod pump in unconventional horizontal and
slanted wells drilled in the formation with low e ultra-low
permeability. To get rid of Sucker Rod Pumping inefficiencies
due to steam and non-condensable gases, etc, the new valve
system was introduced to be used in Shale formations with low
permeability. The unconventional new design came out to be very
successful after testing in multiple wells [4]. Similarly, the SRPs
are also tested successfully in the Eagle Ford reservoir by Murphy
Oil in more than 150 horizontal wells [2]. After a successful
operation for a couple of years, the failure rate was recorded as
1.10 failures per well per year [5]. After Eagle Ford's success,
similar success was observed in the Bakken field, North Dakota
with an increase of 17e26% from three wells [6].
Similarly, the ESP is tested in the Permian Basin, Texas, where
excessive gas interface was a huge challenge. Installation and
operation in the Permian Basin were characterized by several
limitations including excessive heat, abrasive action due to sand
production, oversized ESP, and ESP cable failure. Recently, Pro-
duction Plus Energy Services Inc. developed and field-tested the
horizontal artificial lift system (HEAL SystemTM) to address all the
listed issues that are being faced in the Shale formations due to low
permeability and quick production decline [7]. As a part of field
tests, the specially designed ESP system was installed in a couple of
Wolfcamp wells: one well with the ESP, and the other well was
shifted from gas lift to ESP. Finally, a huge jump in production
trends was observed with 185% and 115% incremental oil as
compared to the production of the well without ESP [8,9]. This
subject system has also been used by EOG [10] and Oryx Energy Co.
[11] in Bakken and Pearson fields, respectively. There are several
applications of different ALS that have been successfully applied in
different fields under different operating, reservoir, and surface
conditions [3,12].
4. Artificial lift performance monitoring and maintenance
practices
The oil and natural gas industry has developed effective main-
tenance practices in the last couple of decades. Mainly the artificial
monitoring and maintenance system are classified in the following
categories;
a) Reactive or Run to Failure Maintenance (RtF)
In this type of maintenance, no control system is used to identify
or predict the failure of equipment. It's the simplest maintenance
strategy that deliberately allows the equipment to be operated until
they break down, at which point the reactive maintenance is per-
formed. The disadvantages of employing RtF maintenance are the
unscheduled maintenance time, safety, and linked high cost. Under
this type of maintenance, it is necessary to have spare parts and
staff in hand to replace the failed part in the meantime to avoid any
production loss. Safety is a major concern when performing this
type of maintenance especially in the presence of other operating
equipment in the same area of operation. Unscheduled mainte-
nance is a critical issue for the industry as the production is likely to
be discontinued during this job. Directly, the more shutdown time,
the more damages occur to the corporations and the safety.
There are some advantages associated with this type of main-
tenance such as minimal planning as no maintenances required to
be planned ahead of time. However, on the other hand, there are
several demerits such as production loss, unpredictable mainte-
nance time as well as less cost-effective. The safety risk is another
big hazard to be kept in mind while working with unplanned
maintenance and also the right person needs to be available on-site
related to the specific equipment part failure.

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F.I. Syed, M. Alshamsi, A.K. Dahaghi et al.
b) Preventive or Time-based Maintenance (PM or TbM)
Preventive or Time-based maintenance is also referred to as
planned maintenance that mainly consists of maintenance tasks
performed while the equipment is under normal operation to avoid
any unexpected production loss or breakdown to keep the opera-
tional economy. This type of maintenance performed based on the
historical data (running hours) or routine scheduled maintenance.
The main objective is to ensure the suitability of the equipment to
secure the operation from unplanned shutdown time and hence to
extend the life of an asset with increased productivity, improve
overall efficiency, and reduce maintenance cost. The concerning
disadvantage of this practice is some of the equipment is replaced
before their life is due because it is being done based on the
theoretical rate of failure than the actual equipment performance.
That means equipment parts are being replaced while they are still
having a useful lifespan remaining.
c) Condition-based Maintenance (CbM)
Condition-based maintenance is a maintenance strategy that
continuously monitors the actual condition of the equipment to
decide the maintenance requirements. In this type of maintenance,
sensors are placed in different parts of the equipment to identify
various conduction of the equipment parts. Reading variables such
as temperature, vibration, and sound may indicate potential
equipment failure. This type of maintenance is performed when the
measured parameters reached about to break levels [40]. The goal is
to monitor and spot the upcoming equipment failure based on the
wear and tear being sensed by the sensors so the maintenance can
be proactively scheduled when it is needed but not before. There
are some major merits of this type of maintenance; it's performed
while the equipment is under normal operation and hence no
production cutoff and cost-effectiveness. Minimized unscheduled
downtime due to catastrophic failure and minimum time spent on
maintenance is another advantage as well as the optimized main-
tenance intervals with fewer chances of collateral damage to the
system. But on the other hand, this type of maintenance also has
some disadvantages for example the sensors are quite expensive for
live monitoring and trained staff is also needed who must know
well to analyze the monitoring data to make quick decisions. Also,
the condition sensors may not survive in the operating environ-
ment or may mislead due to malfunctioning as a result of high
pressure or high temperature. Also, unpredictable maintenance
period is considered as one of the major drawbacks of this type of
maintenance strategy.
d) Predictive Maintenance (PdM)
Predictive maintenance uses digital condition tracking and
predictive data processing to collect information on critical condi-
tions e such as pressure, temperature, vibration, and electrical
current e and equate them with comparable equipment historical
records to identify abnormal operational running [13]. This type of
maintenance system monitors the performance and condition of
the equipment during normal operations to reduce the chances of
the equipment failures. It is one of the oldest maintenance tech-
niques that has been utilized in the industry since the 1990s. The
objective of PdM is to predict when the equipment failure could
occur based on a set of factors, followed by preventing the failure
through regularly scheduled and corrective maintenance. PdM is a
little different than the CbM in a way that the collected data is being
matched with the operational history of the equipment rather than
a numerical model that's being done in CbM approach [14]. The use
of a predictive maintenance approach allows businesses to
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Petroleum 8 (2022) 219e226
minimize operating expenses by improving their service sched-
uling and increasing efficiency. One of the biggest disadvantages of
PdM is the amount of time that it takes to assess and implement a
PdM schedule. It's a bit complex initiative, so technical personnel
must be trained professionally not only to operate the system but
also to analyze the monitoring data.
e) Risk-based Maintenance (RbM)
Risk-based maintenance or RBM refers to the type of mainte-
nance which is planned at the early stages through proprieties and
evaluations of a certain machine or project. It's usually completed
before the production or project begins where the data is collected
from already known information relative to the project. Also, this is
the least effective maintenance if an equipment failure occurs.
Usually, the RbM is based on two main phases including the risk
assessment and the maintenance planning based on the level of the
risk. In RbM, the maintenance type and frequency are prioritized
based on the risk of the failure. Equipment with greater risk is
monitored and maintained more frequently. While the equipment
with lesser risk is subjected to less stringent maintenance pro-
grams. Implementing RbM process means the total risk of failure is
minimized across the facility most economically.
4.1. Artificial lift selection using machine learning
Selecting the most applicable artificial lift system is the foremost
important as well as quite critical to achieve the optimum recovery
with minimum possible expenses. There are multiple factors that
directly and indirectly involved in the selection process including
reservior rock and fluid properties, well trajectory, completion
depth, production conditions, surface facilities, safety conditions,
and the economics, etc. Fig. 1 enlists all the factors of considerations
for the artificial lift system selection.
It is very important to keep in mind that most of the listed
factors are time-dependent that dynamically keep on changing
with the production conditions, surface, and subsurface situations
as well as economics. Therefore, the selected system is sometimes
required to be upgraded or to be replaced depending on the situ-
ation. It's the petroleum/production/well engineer's job to keep an
eye on all the conditions and the situation to keep the system
updated to avoid any production loss. Also, it is quite important
with the dynamic changes. The selection of the right timing for the
artificial life conversion among the selected methods could maxi-
mize profitability.
Usually in a field, a single or a couple of engineers need to look
after multiple wells that make this job more critical to maintain all
the logs and the events for all the wells in parallel and also to make
the right decisions at the right time. Here comes the role of AI and
ML that could make this job quite easy to predict future events
based on historical incidents and the production trends [36]. But in
that case, like any other AI and ML applications, it requires tons of
live monitoring and the historically collected set of data to make
quick comparisons, train and update the numerical models and
hence to predict the upcoming events so it can suggest the most
appropriate decision with a timeline for the implementation.
However the final decision has to be taken by human but ML is the
most dependable tool these days that can be used with the rule and
logic-based training and decision making in near future [21].
One of the leading service providing company highlighted the
importance of time in optimizing production by utilizing the proper
lift system in the well's production life. Such a thing raises the
ability and efficiency of engineers to make the right decision at the
right time to implement or upgrade the artificial lift system in the
production plan [33]. The earlier adopt the lift system, the more
F.I. Syed, M. Alshamsi, A.K. Dahaghi et al.
Fig. 1. Factors involved in Artificial Lift System Selection Process [36].
effectiveness is in maintaining and running the well. Modern-day
technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) can improve op-
erators' ability to making systematic decisions. The use of IoT also
can be advanced by involving an “Artificial Intelligence-based”
decision making algorithms in the process [36]. ML has been suc-
cessfully tested and implemented on a big industrial scale that has
proven its reliability and the huge data handling ability. Also, the
data analysis in no time and decision making based on the given
rules and logics using a huge set of data collected over time are
considered to be its operational expertise. Such a process can help
engineers in the field to understand complex problems such as
selecting the optimal type of artificial lift system and the most
appropriate time for its application. Ounsakul et al. [36] explained
the artificial lift system selection process using the field data and
the algorithms as follow:
4.1.1. Lift selection model ¼ algorithm (Field data)
In the above given equation it is well explained that the entire
selection process depends on the set of algorithms (logics and set of
rules) that is the function of collected data from the field. Therefore,
the process of optimal system selection begins with monitoring
data collection, its extracting, and loading data from several data-
bases to a data warehouse for further examination to make sure the
goodness of the data quality. Typically, the collected data consists of
multiple components taken from different sources as highlighted in
Fig. 1. In the second step, the data is being loaded into a computer
for the “Supervised Machine Learning”. This step requires an en-
gineer's interaction to train the model by means of setting the rules
and the logics to make sure the model is being trained on the given
operating conditions. Deep into this process, the algorithm con-
nects the inputs and the outputs such that to determine the special
design or the set parameters to generate optimum production
performance against the minimum operating and the capital ex-
penses [37].
Any process that involves AI and ML to train the model such as a
supervised ML process, requires a huge amount of data set. But the
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Petroleum 8 (2022) 219e226
data set is not useful unless the data quality and its relevance with
the subject model i.e. to be trained are not been analyzed. The
model training is a lengthy and time taking process. Therefore, it is
very important to make sure at first instance the data quality and
the amount of the input data are more than enough to generate a
model that would cover a wide range of operating conditions for
different ALS such as gas lift, electrical submersible pump, and
sucker rod pump, etc. It's been well documented based on the
number of examples generated by Akosa [15]. That a model trained
on a bad dataset could easily mislead while making the right choice
based on the model's predictions. To train a model, an algorithm is
required with defined limits, rules, and the logics. Naive Bayes,
Decision Tree, and Neural Network, etc. are some of the most
commonly used algorithms. The algorithm selection is another
critical step that is being done based on the training speed and its
accuracy depends on the data and the type of the problem. The
optimal algorithm could provide a decent training speed with
compromised accuracy and vise versa. However, at the end of the
day, an engineer decides to pick the best-suited model based on
model validation and the technical experience justification. Oun-
sakul et al. [36] explained the entire cycle of artificial lift selection
model training, its validation, and implementation in Fig. 2, which
starts with the dataset entry to training the selected model fol-
lowed by its training under given logics and rules. The next step is
validation with the actual field experiences under different cir-
cumstances and all possible operating conditions.
4.2. Performance monitoring
The performance efficiency of all the machines decays with time
and eventually reaches a point of breakdown and operational fail-
ure. Therefore, continuous condition monitoring is necessary to be
required to keep an eye on all the equipment's health. As a part of
performance monitoring, all the individual parts of machines are
being inspected on a frequent time cycle. The objective of this
measure is to keep all the machines under proper minimum and
F.I. Syed, M. Alshamsi, A.K. Dahaghi et al.
Fig. 2. Artificial Lift Selection model's training, validation and implementation [36].
maximum heath level and to be repaired or placed if needed.
Numerically, some indicator flags are set as a part of ML modeling
based on certain limits, a warning alarm to be sent to the operator
such that to make him aware of the unhealthy conditions of a
machine or its specific part. This technique is quite well-known to
produce false alarms and that is most of the time because of coding
bugs in the model. Such alarms possibly could cause real damages
that lead to a huge production loss. It's been noted in different
operations that early maintenance could save from a huge pro-
duction loss in comparison to an average decline in production due
to performance decay [18].
The best feature in ML is its numerical modeling that can be
designed with a combined measurement in any effective approach
as per the given situation and desired goals from the equipment.
Generation and the evaluation of such models are time-consuming
jobs that are being performed from scratch every time as all the
models vary from one machine to another under different given
operating conditions. This interferes with the critical purpose of
models that minimizes the required time to complete complex
tasks with fewer engineers’ interaction. Using machine learning,
the data is collected in the period when the machine is being
operated under normal conditions to create a mathematical rep-
resentation of the relationships of all the required parameters from
the machine, without any human interaction [18].
Another considerable feature of ML application in any cyclic
system like the artificial lift is the automatic variable selection from
the machine data based on its relationship with the other variables
and their dependencies. However, it's one of the most critical fea-
tures as a minor mistake may cause to generate a huge error pos-
sibility during the testing process. Also, a wrapper approach is
applied to find the best simple model to cover all the important
variables and the features and their dependencies among them-
selves [18]. Following is the list of flow-line processes in which the
healthy values collected under normal operation are being
compared to the measured values to avoid false alarms. Because it is
under normal operating conditions, it's often found that when a
machine switches from one stable operating condition to another,
lots of false alarms are generated. Therefore, this feature allows us
to eliminate such false alarms due to quick-changing conditions in
machine operation [19].
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Petroleum 8 (2022) 219e226
(1) Equipment tags and data collecting
(2) Most relevant data for the cause of failure
(3) Apply variable selection method
(4) Data entry into the most relevant model such as a neural
network for ML testing
(5) Data evaluation by comparing measured vs. computed values
(6) Model uncertainty forecasting
(7) Set alarms for situations with high uncertainty values
A case study was performed by Bangert [18] using this main-
tenance approach and concluded that such a technique may reduce
not only the budget of maintenance by 50% but also a considerable
production loss could be reduced due to the accuracy in detecting
problems before leading to an unscheduled failure or damage.
4.3. Preventative maintenance
Improved productivity and profit with the minimum possible
capital and the operating expenses are main objectives of any in-
dustry. Nowadays, this fact is causing the operators to reduce hu-
man dependent activities and shift most of the routine operations
on auto operated machines and the same situation is with the
artificial lift system. Mostly all the ALSs are being operated auto-
matically and also their monitoring data is being collected directly
into the computers. And the data is being directly fed into the
numerical models for there continues up-gradation based on their
continuous training and testing with all the newly collected data to
improve the working models with time. This automated practice
enables the operator to focus on performance optimization through
continuous monitoring and planning to take necessary actions in
due time. The use of ML technology and the neural networks pro-
vide high effectiveness and better opportunities to detect abnormal
behaviors of complex systems like ESPs in advance. This method
allows the operators to concede exceptions which allows them to
react more effectively. In this process, the historical equipment data
is used as an input into the machine learning-based algorithms to
each the neural network model about ESPs or any other artificial lift
system that includes all the of the system, the flow of possessing
within the system, and operating parameters. The more collected
or inputted data, smarter and more accurate is the model. This
method also advances with the IoT and cloud computing
F.I. Syed, M. Alshamsi, A.K. Dahaghi et al.
Table 2
Summary of Machine Learning Techniques used in Artificial Lift Systems.
Technique Objective
Artificial Lift Selection To select the most applicable ALS using AL and ML
applications
Equipment Malfunctions Algorithm of AI applied to create a process of early
Prediction & Detection prediction of equipment's health to prevent its
unplanned shutdown
Preventative Maintenance Utilize AI and ML for early notification in detecting the
possible failures in operating ALS
Condition Monitoring & To create digital models of the physical processes to
Failure Prediction replicate and monitor all the critical aspect and
behavior of those processes
technologies that allow the system for efficient and smarter remote
management from everywhere at any time.
Automated ESP Fleet Surveillance System is an excellent
example of IoT and cloud-computing applications that together
make the real-time communication system. That provides an
incredible platform to the field engineers for real-time monitoring
of the production performance as well as the equipment health. A
real-time monitoring system allows an engineer to plan the
equipment's repair or its up-gradation before a complete failure.
The following are some of the key benefits of implementing this
system:
(1) Alarm notification alerts: designed for the live events that
need urgent attention
(2) Anomaly Level indicator: designed for flag warnings
regarding the anomaly for a specific ESP system
(3) Process Data Processing: designed to process any key data
related to any specific operation/objectives
(4) Anomaly prioritization: designed to assist an operator to
make quick and efficient decisions
Jansen [25] presented a case study conducted on a pilot project
with 30 ESPs that were operated and kept under live surveillance
using a machine learning-based predictive model. The project was
designed to be performed in the following three steps.
(1) Baseline high-quality training data set preparation in
conjunction with an evaluation process by data scientists.
This step was designed based on neural network modeling
using AI and ML software.
(2) The model validation is explained to be the second step of
the process using historical data. It is being considered the
foremost important process to develop a dependency on a
data-driven system for predictive maintenance and opera-
tional issues.
(3) After the successful validation of the model, in the third step
a pilot field project is designed for the proof of concept based
on an actual field. The model was successfully implemented
to test its performance in a real-world operational
environment.
The successful application of AI and ML in this pilot study suc-
cessfully presented the benefits of early notifications to detect the
upcoming possible operational failures in real-time. Therefore, an
operator could make efficient maintenance decisions in advance to
avoid any big production loss with minimum possible operational
expenses.
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Petroleum 8 (2022) 219e226
Pros Cons
- ALS using ML manages to improve the well lifecycles - Accuracy in the
- Make all recommendations and ensure that the selection process
process of deploying ALS completed in the right time
- ML provides a more comprehensive and efficient - False alarming
approach than decisions made by human - Accuracy in detecting
problems
- Notification alerts on events that need urgent - False alarming
attention.
- Anomaly level indications for the level of an anomaly
for a specific ALS
- Key process data identifications
- Anomaly prioritization for timely decision making
- Virtual illustration generations of ALS - Cost assisted with
- Automated performance capturing of all the deploying to the field
individual wells - False alarming
4.4. Predictive failure and condition monitoring
For the predictive failure and conditional monitoring system,
the concept of digital twin (DT) is introduced using performing
digital modeling of the physical processes. In this concept, all the
critical aspects and behavior of that process are being monitored
and the real-time monitoring data is being fed into an associated
self-trainable simulator system. Such a system is also capable of
self-adjustment based on the required environment and the situ-
ation for the relevant improvements according to the nature of the
processes. Industrial internet of things (IIoT) allowed the adoption
of DT technology in different industries. However, this technology
is still in its early stages, yet it has been tested successfully in
several industrial applications including the ALS [32].
Jansen [31] presented a detailed list of requirements to be
considered to design an ESP digital twin system as follow;
(1) A clear scope of work is necessarily required for an efficient
performance achievement as the functionality of the DT
system varies according to the specific application and the
operational environment. For instance, a DT system should
replicate digitally a design of an ESP lift in terms of its near-
wellbore reservoir conditions, wellbore, and completion
design and the ESP components such as motor, pump, cables,
etc.
(2) There should be enough storage capacity to make sure the
system can store and access the required information/data
such as operational data, performance, event history like
failures and maintenance, etc.
(3) The designed simulator should be capable enough to model
and simulate the system under dynamic and steady-state
conditions as well as under abnormal operational situations.
(4) Lastly, the designed system should have enough AI to take
care of ESP deviations indicators and also be able to deter-
mine their root causes as well as to provide an estimation of
the remaining useful life of the system and the helpful rec-
ommendations to avoid any surprising situations.
(5) It would be quite impressive if the system is designed with
an open architecture that can be used with a concept of plug
and play with any suitable models as well as capable to
interact with other systems.
5. Conclusions
There are different types of ALS that can be applied based on the
type of reservoir fluid and the formation properties. The ML ap-
plications and techniques discussed in this article are quite
F.I. Syed, M. Alshamsi, A.K. Dahaghi et al.
impressive for the automation of those lift systems. Real-time
predictive maintenance and condition monitoring could increase
the operational efficiency significantly utilizing maintenance
planning in advance to minimize the production loss and the
equipment unplanned shutdown time. Table 2 presents the sum-
mary of all the discussed techniques, their objectives, and the pros
and cons.
Conflict of interests
This is an original work that has not been published before. In
addition, it has not been submitted for publication elsewhere.
There is no conflict of interest among authors to submit this
manuscript. All authors have approved the enclosed manuscript for
publication.
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