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I Semester - M.A in Education

IDC - 1
FOUNDATIONS
OF
EDUCATION

Department of Studies and Research in Education

BLOCK-1 FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION - I

 KARNATAKA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY
Mukthagangothri, Mysuru - 570006

Department of Studies in Education

I Semester- M.A in Education

IDC - 1 FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

BLOCK-1 FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING - I Page Nos.

UNIT -1 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS 1-20

UNIT -2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHILOSOPHY 21-36

UNIT -3 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE 37-44

UNIT -4 BASIC CONCEPTS IN PSYCHOLOGY RELATED 45-63

TO EDUCATION
 Credit Page
Programme Name: M.A in Education Year/Semester: I Sem Block No: 1

Course Name: IDC 1 Foundations of Education Credit: 2 Units No: 1 to 4

Course Design Expert Committee
Vice-Chancellor Dr. Vidyashankar .S
Dean (Academic) Prof. Ashok Kamble
Course Designer/ Course Co-ordinator Dr. N. Lakshmi
BOS Chairman Dr. N. Lakshmi
Department Chairman Dr. N. Lakshmi
Editorial Committee
Chairman BOS Chairman
External Subject Expert Dr. Suresh .S
Internal Subject Expert Dr. N. Lakshmi
Department Chairman Dr. N. Lakshmi
Course Writer
Concerned Writer Concerned Editor
Dr. Annie Dr. Suresh .S
Asst. professor, Mangaluru. Asst. professor,
Dr. Vidyagowri Sharadavilas Teachers College,
Asst. professor, Mangaluru. Mysuru.
Dr. Sushma
Asst. professor,
Rani Chennamma University, Belagavi.
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Karnataka State Open University
Mukthagangothri, Mysuru- 570006
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 Block- 1
FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION -I

Block Introduction:
In this block we study about Foundations of Education - I. This block consists of Four
Units. In Unit-1 we study Meaning of Philosophy, Meaning of Education, Definition of Philosophy
and Education, Importance and Need of Education in Human Society, Need of Philosophical
Foundations for Education , Concept, Components, Educative Processes as Unipolar, Bipolar and
Multipolar Process.
In Unit-2 Epistemology – Theory and Nature of Knowledge, Axiology – Theory of Values,
Philosophy and Logic, Ethics, Need of these Philosophical Concepts in Education we learned.
In Unit-3 we study about Meaning and Definition of Educational psychology, Evolution of
the Definitions of Psychology, Study of Behavior, Need, Importance of Psychology of Child in
Education and Educational Psychology as a Branch of Applied Psychology.
Unit-4 We learning Concept of Learning, Definitions of the Learning, Learning as Modification
of behaviour, Nature, Factors, Concept of Achievement, Individual Differences briefly.

*****
 UNIT -1 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION

Structure

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of Philosophy
1.3 Meaning of Education
1.4 Definition of Philosophy and Education
1.5 Importance and Need of Education in Human Society
1.6 Need of Philosophical Foundations for Education
1.7 Concept of Educative Process
1.8 Components of Educative Process
1.9 Educative Processes as Unipolar, Bipolar and Multipolar Process
1.10 Role of Teachers and Media in Educative Process
1.11 Check Your Progress
1.12 Summary
1.13 Glossary
1.14 Questions for Self - Study
1.15 References

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1.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to

 Explain the meaning of Philosophy.
 Explain the meaning of Education.
 State the definitions of Philosophy.
 State the definitions of Education.
 Explain the Importance and Need of Education in Human Society
 Explain the Need of Philosophical Foundations for Education
 Explain the concept of Educative Process
 List the components of Educative Process
 Differentiate between Unipolar, Bipolar and Multipolar Process
 Explain the role of teachers and media in Educative Process
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Education is the means to attain goals of life to the optimum level. Every human being is
made up of a core personality which is latent within him. This consists of his inborn talents,
attitudes, aptitudes temperaments etc. These personality traits are continuously influenced by
the external environment in which the individual lives. The need is to put these traits in right
use and guide them into right directions to develop into their highest potential. Education
paves way in the development of an individual. Education helps in bringing out the inborn
self of the individual by leading him towards wisdom. And seeking wisdom is nothing but the
Philosophy of life. In this way Philosophy and Education get intertwined in the development
of an individual. In this unit we shall understand the meaning of Philosophy and Education
and the need for applying the Philosophical foundations in Education.

1.2 MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY

The word Philosophy is made up of two Greek words – “philo” and “sophos”. Philo
means ‘love’ and Sophos means ‘wisdom’. Hence Philosophy comes to mean as the love of
wisdom. It is the study which deals with the ultimate realities of the universe and the general
causes and principles of those things that human being observes and experiences.
Since times immemorial there have been various pursuits for unfolding the mystery of the
universe, birth and death, sorrow and joy. Various ages have produced different thoughts
throwing light upon the mystic region. The ultimate truth is yet to be found out. This eternal
quest for truth 'lends the origin of philosophy. A love of wisdom is the essence for any
philosophy investigation. On the standard way of telling the story, humanity's first systematic
inquiries took place within a mythological or religious framework: wisdom ultimately was to
be derived from sacred traditions and from individuals thought to possess privileged access to
a supernatural realm, whose own access to wisdom, in turn, generally was not questioned.
However, starting in the sixth century BCE, there appeared in ancient Greece a series of
thinkers whose inquiries were comparatively secular (see "The Milesians and the Origin of
Philosophy"). Presumably, these thinkers conducted their inquiries through reason and
observation, rather than through tradition or revelation. These thinkers were the first
philosophers. Although this picture is admittedly simplistic, the basic 3 distinction has stuck:

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philosophy in its most primeval form is considered nothing less than secular inquiry itself.
The subject of philosophical inquiry is the reality itself. There are different schools of
philosophy depending on the answers they seek to the question of reality. It is the search for
understanding of man, nature and the universe. There are different branches of philosophy-
Epistemology, Metaphysics, etc. There are different fields of philosophy such as educational
philosophy, social philosophy, political philosophy, economic philosophy etc. There are also
different philosophical approaches such as idealism, naturalism, pragmatism, materialism,
and so on.
Indian Views of Philosophy
It may be instructive here to consider the Indian term ‘Darsana’ as an equivalent of
Philosophy. The word ‘Darsana’ literally means ‘seeing’. The simple physiological act of
seeing implies the seen and the ‘seer’ (he who sees the seen), which comparatively a good
word used by the Indians for the word Philosopher. The seeing is a vision of the entire
experienced reality; it is all encompassing, for it is the vision of truth itself. The term
Philosophy requires in its derived European sense an intelligible and coherent accounting of
the experience of life. It can be arrested at the intellectual level and remain a matter of logical
confrontation and argument. But the term ‘Darsana’ has an extra implication. It includes a
realisation, an experience of the postulated truth which takes it beyond mere polemics. The
Philosopher as a participant in ‘Darsana’ is not merely intellectually convinced of his
doctrine but has lived it, which meets the requirement of the existentialist for personal
commitment.
Philosophy as an Activity
Levison states that “Philosophy is first of all an activity of a certain kind and only
secondarily a subject-matter consisting of a definite body of literature.” Every day we are
engaged in many different activities. Can we name these as Philosophy? In its real sense,
Philosophy is a mental activity, involving the problems of human life, its nature and
purposes.
Philosophy as speculation
Since the earliest of recorded history, individuals have speculated on the nature of
reality and meaning of life itself. In doing so, these persons have dealt with one of the most
basic but also most pervasive concerns of human existence. The history of Philosophy
records the efforts of ancient Indian thinkers like the vedic seers and sages, Sankara, Sri
Aurobindo, Vivekananda, Tagore, Gandhiji and the western thinkers like Plato, Aristotle
Locke, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, John Dewey and others. These philosophers and many others
have speculated about the nature of reality. When they recounted or recorded their
speculations, they attempted to describe the nature of reality. Based upon their insights into
reality, philosophers have also sought to prescribe values and ideals.
Philosophy as a Way of Life
The derivation of the word states that philosophy means love of wisdom. Wisdom is
regarded as knowledge for the conduct of life and Philosophy is valued as a way of life. It
provides a means of enabling the individual to live the best kind of life. Therefore, Aldous

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Huxley says, “Men live in accordance with their philosophy of life, their conception of the
world. This is true even of the most thoughtless. Every individual takes things
philosophically. An individual, when he is not actively engaged in the task of earning his
living, at times attempts a kind of mental stock-taking and asks himself such questions as
what is the nature of the world in which he lives. What are his relations to his environment of
things and people, and what should be his purpose of life? When his belief about life
becomes vital, he develops genuine philosophy of life and tries to live in accordance with it.
Thus, Philosophy becomes a way of life.
Different Philosophies then will result in different ways of life. Gandhi believed that
“Action takes its origin from the imperishable Brahma, therefore the imperishable Brahma
present in all kinds of sacrifice or service.” Action thus becomes a distinctive factor of
Gandhiji’s Philosophy. Tagore looked upon joy as validating the realisation of truth.
“Gladness is the one criterion of truth, and we know when we have touched truth by the
music it gives, by the joy of greeting it sends forth to the truth in us.” Thus, the development
of an ‘ananda-yoga’ was the principal means through which the aesthetic sense was
cultivated and universal harmony was achieved. He saw his own pursuit of ‘ananda’ as the
effort of his life. His total philosophy is an attempt to articulate ‘ananda-yoga’ as the path of
salvation.
Philosophy as a Science
Generally, it is acknowledged that both Philosophy and Science inquire into truth. Let us
assume that there is a trait or state of being which predisposes the individual to act in a
certain way to start an inquiry to know the truth. In this sense philosophy may be described as
science.
Science is a study of the external world based on Observation, Measurement and
Experimentation made with the help of our five sensory organs together with a variety of
tools and instruments which are intelligently devised to substantially extend the natural limits
of our sensory perceptions. Inspite of the use of very sophisticated instruments, the universe
that we perceive through scientific knowledge is only the phenomenon or its outward
appearance. Behind this façade lies the actual universe the reality or the noumenon. Science
studies phenomena while philosophy studies noumena. Philosophy goes one step ahead of
science.

1.3 MEANING OF EDUCATION

The English word ‘education’ is supposed to be derived from either of the two Latin
words: educare and educere. The meaning of the first is to ‘bring up’ or ‘to raise’ and that of
the second is to ‘lead out’. Thus, from the origin of the word it is easy to understand that
there is supposed to be something lying hidden or latent in every human child and that
education is a process to convert this potentiality into reality. This explanation of the word
education is however not sufficient because acquisition of knowledge such as mathematical
formulae and historical events, development of skills such as dancing and playing tennis,
formation of favourable and unfavourable attitudes towards diverse aspects of our
environment are clearly not the result of automatic maturation of natural propensities. These

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things have to be deliberately acquired and inculcated. Therefore, education is not only ‘to
lead out’ or ‘to bring up’ the potential but also ‘to add to’ the life of the educand.
Education is the Modification of Behaviour
Form another angle, education can be seen as an attempt to change a person’s behaviour
according to the norms of the society in which he lives. In a broad sense, whatever a person
says or does can be termed as behaviour. Without education a person is not likely to say or do
, or in other words behave in a socially desirable way. It is only education that shapes a
person’s behaviour.
Some behaviours are innate (inborn) and some others are acquired. For example, making
sound with the help of the vocal chord is innate behaviour, whereas speaking a particular
language is acquired behaviour. Some behaviours are overt (meaning that they can be
observed by others), while some others are covert (which cannot be observed by others).
Speaking, sweating, body movements are overt behaviours, whereas digestion of food in the
stomach or muttering abuses at somebody are examples of covert behaviour. Some
behaviours are respondent and some others are operant. Respondent behaviours are those
behaviours that are shown in response to particular stimuli, for example, narrowing the pupil
of the eye-lenses when strong light is directed at them. Operant behaviour, on the other hand,
are those for which no stimulus can be identified, for example suddenly deciding to write an
letter to an old friend is operant behaviour. Some behaviour is adaptive while others are
maladaptive. A behaviour is called adaptive if it helps the person in adjusting himself to his
environment without harming others, for example doing physical exercise, telling truth are
maladaptive behaviour. Behaviour that harms the person and others around him are termed
maladaptive behaviour, for example smoking, drinking, stealing so on. All kinds of
behaviours – whether innate or acquired, covert or overt, respondent or operant, adaptive or
maladaptive – can be changed through processes that are included under the broad heading of
education.
Narrow Meaning of Education
In its narrow sense, school instruction is called education. In this process, the elders of
society strive to attain predetermined aims during a specified time by providing pre-
structured knowledge to children through set methods of teaching. The purpose is to achieve
mental development of children entering school. To make of narrow meaning of education
more clear, the following opinions of some other educationists are being given-
 Education is a process in which and by which knowledge, character and behaviour of
the young are shaped and moulded. Drever
 The influence of the environment of the individual with a view to producing a
permanent change in his habits of behaviour, or thought and attitude. G. H. Thompson
 The culture which each generation purposefully gives to those who are to be its
successors, in order to qualify them for at least keeping up and if possible for raising
the level of improvement which has been attained. John Stuart Mill
 In narrow sense, education may be taken to mean any consciously directed effort to
develop and cultivate our powers. S. S. Mackenzie

5
 Education, in the narrower sense, is regarded as equivalent to instruction. It consists of
the “specific influences” consciously designed in a school or in a college or in an institution
to bring in the development and growth of the child. The word school includes the whole
machinery of education from Kindergarten to the University. The education of the child
begins with his admission in the school and ends with his departure from the University. The
amount of education received by the child is measured in terms of degrees and diplomas
awarded to him. The school represents formal education as it imparts education directly and
systematically. There is deliberate effort on the part of the educator to inculcate certain
habits, skills, attitudes or influences in the learner, which are considered to be essential and
useful to him. According to John Dewey: “The school exists to provide a special environment
for the formative period of human life. School is a consciously designed institution, the sole
concern of which is to educate the child. This special environment is essential to explain our
complex society and civilization”. The influences or modes of influences in the school are
deliberately planned, chosen and employed by the community for the welfare of the members
of the rising generation. The purpose of these influences is to modify the behaviour of the
child in such a way that he may become different from what he would have been without
education. It makes possible a better adjustment of human nature to surroundings. According
to Mackenzie, education, in the narrower sense, is conscious effort to develop and cultivate
our innate powers. Education, in the narrow sense, is also regarded as acquisition of
knowledge. According to it education is a process by which knowledge or information on a
subject is acquired. But many sensible educationists have criticized this view. They argue that
emphasis on the knowledge is likely to reduce all schools to mere knowledge-shops. The
acquisition of knowledge is not the only or supreme aim of education, yet it is one of the
important aims of education.
Broader Meaning of Education
In its broader sense, education is the total development of the personality. In this sense.
Education consists of all those experiences, which affect the individual from birth till death.
Thus, education is that process by which an individual freely develops his self, according to
his nature in a free and uncontrolled environment. In this way, education is a lifelong process
of growth environment.
 Education in its widest sense includes all the influences, which at upon an individual
during his passage from cradle to the grave. Dumvile
 Education, in its broadest sense, is the means of the social continuity. John Dewey
 By education, I mean the all-round drawing out of the best in child and man’s body,
mind and soul. M. K. Gandhi
 In the wider sense, it is a process that goes on throughout life, and is promoted by
almost every experience in life. S. S. Mackenzie
Education in the wider sense is a life-long process. It begins with the birth of a child
and ends with his death. It is a continuous process. Continuity is the law of life. Education is
not limited to the classroom only; it is also not limited to a particular period of life. Education
is a lifelong process and goes on from birth to death. Throughout life one goes on learning to
adjust oneself to the changing patterns of life. Change it’s the fundamental law of human
existence. Life is a continuous process of growth and development and so education is also a
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continuous process. An individual learns through his experiences, which are acquired
throughout his life. Education is not merely collection of some information. It is acquisition
of experiences through life in the social and natural environment. It includes all the
knowledge and experiences, acquired during infancy, childhood, boyhood, adolescence,
youth, manhood or old age through any agency of education- the press, the travels, the club,
the nature- formally and informally. Thus, education becomes the sum-total of all experiences
that the child receives either in the school or outside. In this wider sense, life is education and
education is life. Whatever broadens our horizon, deepens our insight, refines our reactions
and stimulates thought and feeling, educates us.” In other words, education is the process
whereby a human being gradually adopts himself in various ways to his physical, social, and
spiritual environments. It is the development of all those capacities in the individual, which
will enable him to control his environment and fulfil his possibilities. Education, in the
broader sense, is transmission of life by the living, to the living, through living and for
living”. Education is a means for the development of balanced all- round harmonious
development of personality. Personality includes not only body and mind but also spirit.

1.4 DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION

Definition of Philosophy
Weber – “Philosophy is the search for a comprehensive view of nature, an attempt at
universal explanation of things.”
Schelling – “Philosophy is the attempt to determine what the world must be in order that it
may be understood by mind, and what the mind must be in order that it may understand the
world.”
Hegel – “Philosophy is the science of the absolute idea.”
Aristipus : “Philosophy is the ability to feel at ease in any society”.
Aristotle: “Philosophy is the science which investigates the nature of being, as it is in itself”.
Brightman: “Philosophy may be defined as the attempt to think truly about human
experience as a whole and to make our whole experience intelligible”.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius: “Philosophy is the mother of all arts and the true medicine of mind”.
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor: defined it as the, “Science of Sciences”.
Dr. Baldev upadhyaya: Methodical training or “Sadhana”.
Dr. Radhakrishnan: Philosophy is a logical inquiry into the nature of reality.
Herbert Spencer: Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science.
Plato: “He who has a taste for every sort of knowledge and who is curious to learn and is
never satisfied may be termed philosopher”.
Russel, Bertrand (1872-1970): States, “Philosophy is to be studied not for the sake of any
definite answers to its questions…. But rather for the sake of the questions themselves,
because these questions enlarge our conception of what is possible… but above all because

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the mind also is rendered great and becomes capable of that union with the universe which
constitutes its heist goal.”
Definition of Education
Rig-Veda: ‘Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless.
Upanishad: “Education is that whose end product is salvation.’
Bhagavad-Gita: “Nothing is more purifying on earth than knowledge”
Shankaracharya: “Education is the realisation of self.”
Kautilya: “Education is the training for the country and love for the nation.”
Panini: “Human education means the training one gets from nature.”
Rabindranath Tagore: “The widest road leading to the solution of all our problems is
education”
Mahatma Gandhi: “By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and
man – body, mind and spirit”.
Swami Vivekananda: “Education means the manifestation of the divine perfection, already
existing in man”
Sri Aurobindo: ‘Education which will offer the tools whereby one can live for the device, for
the country, for oneself and for others and this must be the ideal of every school which calls
itself national.’
Radhakrishnan: “Education means the training of the intellect, refinement of the heart and
the discipline of the spirit.”
Aristotle: “Education is creation of a sound mind in a sound body”
Pestalozzi: “Education is the natural, harmonious and progressive development of man’s
innate powers.”
Socrates: ‘Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which are
latent in the mind of every man.’
Plato: ‘Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. In develops in
the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection which he is capable
of.
Rousseau: ‘Education of man comments at his birth; before he can speak, before he can
understand he in already instructed.’

1.5 IMPORTANCE AND NEED OF EDUCATION IN HUMAN SOCIETY

Education is the guiding factor in all round development of an individual. It prepares an

individual to be a contributing factor of the society along with his own survival. Some of the
important areas of human life that are influenced by Education are
a. Enhancement of Knowledge: Education introduces the individual to the gamut of
knowledge which is necessary for his harmonious living with the society. He gets

8
 introduced to the theories and facts, knowledge of advancements and applications
which are vital for his survival in the society.
b. Formation of Mind: Education is a process of development of the mind. It guides the
mind into constructive and productive thoughts which in turn converts him into an
individual of caliber.
c. Preparation for Life: Education works as a process of preparation or getting ready for
the responsibilities and privileges of adult life. Preparation for complete living.
d. Develops mental Discipline: The theory of mental discipline is a traditional concept of
education. According to this theory, the process of learning is more important than the
thing learned. This theory is based upon the traditional ‘Faculty Theory’ of psychology
according to which the mind is divided into a good number of separate faculties such as
memory, attention, reasoning, imagination, perception, thinking etc.
e. Growth and development: It is a modern concept of education that change is the law
of nature. Man undergoes changes and transformations from cradle to grave. These
changes may be of different types such as physical, mental, moral and emotional.
Whenever there is change there is growth. Through change, a living organism can take
entirely a new shape and this again gives his/her power to grow. Thus, growing is
education and getting education is growing.
f. Guidance for life: Educating a child means directing the child in the proper direction.
The young learners have innate powers, attitudes, interests and instincts. It is the
essential function of education to direct those inborn instincts and power properly in
socially acceptable and desirable channels.
g. Adjustment and self-activity: Adjustment is essential to an individual for self-
development. Education gives an individual the power of adjustment in an efficient
manner. Through education, the child learns to adjust with the environment. Adjustment
requires self-activity. Education is nothing but adjustment through self-activity.
h. Social change and progress: A society is composed of individuals and when the ideas
of individuals change the society is bound to change. Change is the law of human life
and society. The function of education is to maintain this progressive trend.
i. Socialisation: After birth the child becomes a member of the society and the process of
socialization begins then. Then the formal education of the child begins. Besides formal
education the child continues to learn and gather experiences in informal or incidental
way. The process of socialization starts in family environment and then the educational
institutions take the responsibility of such process.
j. Career Advancement: There is a direct correlation between the level of education that
a person has and the likelihood of finding a decent job. Nowadays employers are
looking to hire people who have a high-level of education. Although that’s not
compulsory for all positions, most employers prefer candidates that have qualifications
in a certain field. The level of education of a person can show a particular interest in a
field, and this is a logical thing. Even though experience is vital in most cases, nothing
compares to having a degree in a certain field. Education does not mean just time spent
in school. It essentially means a set of skills, motivation, and self-discipline.
k. Character Building: Education is one of the main factors that allow people to grow
and develop as individuals. It teaches people important life values, and it opens their

9
 mind to a lot of interesting aspects of life. Classrooms are ideal places for healthy
discussions on all kinds of subjects. At the same time, education encourages people to
develop their social skills, problem-solving skills, and creative skills.

1.6 NEED OF PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR EDUCATION

Philosophy and Education are related like flower and fragrance, skeleton and flesh and
blood. They are two flowers of one stem, and two sides of a coin. The former is the
contemplative side, while the latter is the active side of the coin. Philosophical knowledge has
a fundamental role in clarifying questions of education. The following points ascertain the
need of Philosophical foundations for education
a. Education is Philosophy in Action: Philosophy provides the purpose or the aim and
education makes it practical. Their relationship is just like the relationship between a
lame man and blind man. Philosophy shows the direction while education proceeds in
that direction. Education is the dynamic side of Philosophy. In other words it is the
philosophy in action
b. Educational Philosophy is an Applied Philosophy: An educator does not pursue
knowledge for his own sake. His activities lie within the sphere of the practical
sciences, and he looks to Philosophy to provide him with principles so that he can place
his work on a sound basis. In practical experience, a philosopher must think out his
principles before they can be applied to human life. It is equally true that the purpose of
the educator in studying Philosophy is to concentrate not so much on theoretical
principles as upon their significance for life in general and for education in particular.
Most of the educators would be prepared to regard the study of education as a branch of
Applied Philosophy.
c. Education is used for the purpose of teaching people while Philosophy to believe:
Originally, a philosopher is a lover of or seeker of wisdom. Wisdom is regarded by
some as knowledge for the conduct of life and Philosophy is accepted as a way of life.
It helps us to live the best kind of life. A philosopher, being a constant seeker after
wisdom should not withdraw himself entirely from reality fand live in “an ivory tower”.
He propagates his own philosophy of life to convert others to his beliefs. Then only can
he become a true philosopher. After realising the truth, he should use education for
teaching people what to believe – to believe in monoism, in dualism or in pluralism, or
to believe in communism, in capitalism, democracy, Nationalism etc. Education thus is
used by the philosophers for the purpose of ideological propaganda. One of the
outstanding instances of Philosophy using education for the purpose of propagation is
Buddha and his followers. They could change the religious pattern of India through the
propagation of Buddhism. The teachings of Karl Marx and his followers too influenced
the communist countries in of the world. They regarded dialectical materialism as
taking the place of religion in the communist states.
d. Philosophy determines the real destination towards which education has to go:
Philosophy has always inspired educational theory as well as practice. It determines the
real destination towards which education has to go. In the words of Dewey: “Education
is laboratory in which philosophic distinctions become concrete, and are tested”.

10
 Philosophy is wisdom; education transmits that wisdom from one generation to the
other. Philosophy represents a system of thought; education embraces that thought in
the content of instruction. Philosophy embodies a way of life; education is the
preparation for life. Philosophy is the knowledge obtained by natural reason; education
is the development of that reason and other powers of mind.
e. Philosophy determines the various aspects of education: All the problems of education
are the problems of philosophy. That is why, Gentile says, “Education without
philosophy would mean a failure to understand the precise nature of education “. It is
because philosophy determines both aim of life and the aim of education. Every aspect
of education has a philosophical base. There is no aspect of education – aims,
curriculum, methods, text books, discipline, teacher etc. which is not influenced and
determined by philosophy. Height and breadth of education is probed by philosophy. It
is philosophy which provides aims to education and these aims determine the
curriculum, the methods of teaching, the text books, the role of the teacher and the
school discipline. It helps to construct curriculum according to the needs of the
individual and the society. J.S.Ross remarks, “From every angle of the educational
problems comes the demand for philosophical basis of life and education.
f. Great Philosophers have been great educationists also: Great Philosophers have been
great educationists in the East as well in the West. We can find the clearest examples of
the dependence of education on philosophy in the lives and teachings of all the great
philosophers from Yajnavalka down to Gandhi in the East and from Socrates down to
John Dewey in the West. Philosophers like Gandhi, Tagore, Radhakrishnan, Aurobindo
Gosh, Plato, Socrates, Locke, Comenius, Rousseau, Froebel and Dewey have been great
educators. They reflected their philosophical views in their educational schemes.
Socrates have given the world his “Socratic method” (Method of questioning & cross-
questioning) of teaching; Plato, the Republic, the first educational classic. Rousseau, the
great French philosopher, held that education should “follow nature”. John Dewey of
America took keen interest in solving the educational problems of his country. Gandhi
ji is the father of Basic Education. In the words of Ross “If further agreement is needed
to establish the fundamental dependence of education on philosophy, it may be found in
the fact that on the whole great philosophers have been great educationists”.

1.7 CONCEPT OF EDUCATIVE PROCESS

According to Charles H. Judd, “The educative process is a series of inner changes

through which an individual is transformed from an immature personality to a mature
personality”. The process of education is a life-long process, form infancy to old age.
Education is a process wherein there are a number of factors that work and influence each
other. Teaching is a two-way traffic. Adams calls education “ a bipolar process in which one
personality acts upon another to modify the proper development of the other,” There is a
continuous interaction between the two poles. Whereas the great educationist John Dewey
has put his idea that the process of education is psychological. It is therefore a tri-polar
process. The third factor is social environment. According to psychological aspect it is very
essential to comprehend the nature, interests and activities of the child to make education real
and useful for the future. The sociological aspect stresses that the child has to live in and for
11
the society and as such social forces also play their part in the education of the child. Thus,
education is a process which involves the interplay of the educator, the educand and the
social forces. It is therefore, a tri-polar process and not bi-polar. Education is a process and
any one act or single experience does not by itself make up education. Education is neither a
mere serial aggregates of facts. It has an intrinsic link between the individual and society. The
task of education is to create worthy individuals, who are intelligent and capable of solving
innumerable individual and collective problems.

1.8 COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIVE PROCESS

Following are the components of Educative Process.

a. Teacher: The teacher is considered as the component that has the main role in the
teaching-learning process. He/she is the prime mover of the educational processes; thus
he/she directs the flow of the whole process. The teacher is the one that facilitates the
whole process of leaning.
b. Learner: The learner is the key participant in the teaching and learning process. He is
considered as the primary subject or the main reason why the process is implemented.
The knowledge that is acquired by the learners will decide if the teaching and learning
objectives are achieved. Learners vary from one another in the aspects of learning.
There are those learners that learn fast while there are those who are average or slow.
c. Teaching Strategies: Teaching Strategy is generalized plan for a lesson which includes
structure, instructional objectives and an outline of planned tactics, necessary to
implement the strategies (Stone and Morris, in Issac, 2010). Furthermore, Issac (2010)
explains that teaching tactics are that behaviour of the teacher which he manifests in the
class i.e. the developments of the teaching strategies, giving proper stimulus for timely
responses, drilling the learnt responses, increasing the responses by extra activities and
so on.
d. The Learning Environment: The learning situation or learning environment means the
conditions in which learning take place. Each classroom has unique teaching - learning
conditions. According to Arend (2007), classes may seem similar from the distance but
are different in its procedures and the processes. A classroom setting has two major
components, namely, physical component and human component. Physical component
comprises all the physical objects present in the classroom E.g. black board, furniture,
lightings, projector, books, computers etc., whereas the human component comprises of
individuals i.e., teachers and students in the classroom. It generally involves the nature
of interaction of teachers with students and student-student as well. This pattern of
interaction generates a particular atmosphere which may be called as learning
condition/situation/environment.
e. The Curriculum: It is the totality of activities carried out at the auspices of the school
in response to societal demands. The curriculum embraces all the experiences which the
children have under the administration of the school. Curriculum is a combination of
classroom and out of classroom activities. According to Palma (1982) “It is the basic
infrastructure of a school’s education programme. Garcia (1973) “It is the collection of
leaning experiences proposed as a result of deliberation for student attainment.”

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 f. The Instructional Materials: These are devices that assist the facilitator/teacher in the
teaching-learning process. It is not self-supporting; they are supplementary training
devices. They are the materials that are designed for use by pupils and their teachers as
a learning resource and help pupils to acquire facts, skills or opinions or to develop
cognitive processes. Instruction materials may be printed on non-printed and may
include text-books, technology-based materials, other educational materials and tests. It
is the educational resource used to improve student’s knowledge, abilities and skills to
monitor their assimilation of information and to contribute to their overall development
and upbringing.
g. The Administration: It is defined as the organization, direction, coordination and
control of human and material resources to achieve desired ends. School administration
provides a broad range of services to schools and in particular school administrators.
The school administration department is directly responsible to the Director of the
School.

1.9 EDUCATIVE PROCESSES AS UNIPOLAR, BIPOLAR AND MULTIPOLAR

PROCESS

Education as a Unipolar Process: When the educator and the educand are one and the same
then Education becomes a unipolar process. It also happens when the educand feels the drive
to educate himself when he tries to modify his own nature, develop his own will and purpose,
build his own character, acquires knowledge and skills by his own efforts. In this case,
education is unipolar. It is then when the educational process achieves the main ideal. Self-
expression, self-motivation, self –improvement and self-control become the keywords.
Education as Bipolar Process: Adams in his Book ‘Evolution of Education Theory’ said that
education is a Bi-polar process in which one personality acts upon another to modify the
development of other personality. It considers that in the process of education two people are
involved. The one is an educator and the other is educand. It was said that the teacher seeks
the modification of the development not only through imparting knowledge and skills but
also through the direct influences on the child’s personality. According to Adams, the bipolar
education has two poles. At the one end is the teacher and at the other end is the child. Both
are equally important in the process of education. If the teacher gives, the child receives. If
the teacher instructs, the child follows. Thus, in the process of education, there is an
interaction between the teacher and child. The teacher tries to mould and modify the
behaviour of the child so that the latter develops his personality to the full. With the active
cooperation of the teacher and child, the process of education goes on smoothly and
efficiently.
Education as a Tripolar Process: The educational process not only has a psychological side
involving the educator and the educand, but it also has sociological aspects too. According to
John Dewey, education has two aspects (1) Psychological and (2) Sociological. He asserts
that the development of a child does not take place in a vacuum. He has to live in and for the
society, he belongs to. It takes place in and through the society in which the teacher and child
both lives. True education comes through the stimulation of the educand’s endowments by
the demands of the social situation in which he/she finds themselves in. The educator is

13
required to stimulate the educand’s power in the total social setting. It is the society which
will determine the aims, contents and method of teaching. Thus, the social aspects of
educational process become more important than the psychological aspects. The function of
the educator becomes then the modification of the personality of the educand in light of the
need of the society. In this Sense, John Dewey holds, education is a tri-polar process and not
a bipolar one. The process of education contains three poles namely-The Teacher, The Child,
Educational Environment or society. These three factors actively co-operate in the efficient
and successful working of the educational process.
Education as Multipolar Process: The new concept of education is influenced by teacher,
student, social environment and other several factors. The education is more flexible than
past, student centered and highly depends on technology. The student can access knowledge
through any modes including e-learning. However, no one could explain precisely on type of
factors influenced on education. It ranges from past experiences to upcoming technologies.

1.10 ROLE OF TEACHERS AND MEDIA IN EDUCATIVE PROCESS

Role of teacher in the Educative Process

Role of a teacher in the educative process is as follows
a. Teacher as an Educator: Teachers are educators, leaders, role models and
identifications for the students in their environment. Therefore, indeed being a teacher
must have specific standards and qualities that must be met. As a teacher, it is
mandatory to have a sense of responsibility, independence, authority, and discipline that
can be used as examples for students.
b. Teachers as Learning Resources: Teacher is more than often looked up by students as
their learning resource. A teacher is expected to have mastery over the subject she is
teaching in order to give the best knowledge and experiences to the students.
c. Teacher as Facilitator: In today’s world the role of teacher has more changed to a
facilitator while the student is placed in the position of a discoverer. Teacher has to
facilitate learning so that the students achieve optimum level of learning.
d. Teachers as Counsellors: The teacher can be mentioned as a travel guide, which is
based on his knowledge and experience and has a sense of responsibility in the smooth
running of the journey. This journey is not only physical but also a more residential and
deeper mental, creative, moral, emotional and spiritual journey.
e. Teacher as Demonstrator: The teacher has a role as a demonstrator is to have a role
which can indicate attitudes that can inspire students to do the same things can be even
better.
f. The teacher as manager: In the process of teaching and learning work, the teacher has
a role in holding control of the climate contained in the state of the learning process. It
can be likened if the teacher becomes the captain who holds the steering wheel and
takes the boat on a comfortable and safe journey. A teacher must be able to make the
atmosphere of the learning room conducive and comfortable.
g. Teacher As Advisor: The teacher has the role of being an advisor to his students as
well as to the parents, even though the teacher does not have specialized training to be

14
 an advisor. Students will always be faced with the need to make a decision, and in the
process, it requires teacher help. For the teacher to know well his role as an advisor and
a more profound belief person, the teacher should examine the psychology of
personality.
h. Teacher as an Innovator: The teacher translates empirically in the future into a more
meaningful life for his students. Since the teacher has more life experiences it becomes
her duty to translate valuable empirical and intelligence into more sophisticated
languages which students can accept.
i. Teachers as Motivator: The process of learning work will be successful if the students
inside are highly motivated. The teacher has a crucial role in growing motivation and
motivation in students in learning.
j. Teacher As Coach: The process of education and learning certainly requires skills
lessons, whether it’s intellectual or motoric. In this matter, the teacher will act as a
trainer to develop these skills. This is more emphasized in the 2004 curriculum which
has a competency basis. Without the lessons, surely a teacher will not be able to
indicate mastery of basic competencies and not be proficient in skills that match the
standard lessons.
k. Teachers as elevators: After the learning process takes place, surely a teacher must
assess the results that have been carried out during the learning work. This evaluation is
not merely to evaluate the success of students to reach goals in teaching and learning
work. But it also becomes an evaluation for the success of the teacher in the
implementation of teaching and learning work.
Role of Media in the Educative Process
a. Providing Information: These media help in disseminating information for the mass.
People acquire different knowledge very quickly.
b. Providing vocational information: Media help in providing vocational and professional
information to a larger group of the community.
c. Spreading awareness and civic responsibility: People can be aware of different
problems of the society and their role in changing society through mass media. People
know their rights and duties for the nation clearly.
d. Educational programmes: Mass Media help in forming suitable habit for different
programmes and they utilize their leisure time in a productive way. It also influences
the behavior of the people through different programmes.
e. Role as a non-formal agency: Now in an advanced society mass media are not treated
as informal agencies of education. They are called non-formal agencies due to its wide
coverage of educational items in a systematic way. It is viewed that these media can
substitute the classroom teaching in future.
f. Appeal to Multiple Learning Styles: Media appeal to visual, auditory and kinesthetic
learners. Students can watch a movie, listen to music or interact with digital media on
an interactive Smart Board. Effective teachers do not rely on teaching students in
merely one style but use a variety of styles to reach the greatest number of students.
Providing a rich learning experience through classroom media keeps students focused
and engaged in learning.

15
 g. Creates an Authentic Learning Experience: Using newspapers, brochures, job
application forms and news broadcasts provides authentic opportunities for students to
learn using real-world media. This method simulates real-life experiences in which
students must read, evaluate and interpret information based on items that they need in
their daily lives. When students use objects from the real world, they can see the
connection between what they learn in school and how they can use the knowledge as a
member of society.
h. Strengthens Critical-Thinking Skills: Teachers can use media to hone critical-thinking
skills. Students can write about a song, interpret a movie or interpret a news broadcast.
Teachers can use the media to ask probing questions and facilitate discussions that
extend beyond basic comprehension questions. Teachers can also create projects in
which students develop their own media, using classroom media as a model. This
hands-on activity challenges students to formulate media, using their own creativity and
interpretations from classroom media.
i. Teaches Students to Use Media: Using media in the classroom teaches students how to
use and care for resources to further their education. Students not only learn how to use
the Internet, a dictionary or a newspaper for information, but they also learn how to care
for and protect the items they use, according to the Center for Media Literacy. Students
can also learn how to determine the value of media and learn methods to contribute to
society, producing their own media.

1.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is Philosophy?
2. What is Education?
3. What is the need for Education in Human Society?
4. What is the need of Philosophical foundation for Education?
5. Explain the Concept of Educative Process
6. List the Components of Educative Process
7. What is Unipolar process?
8. What is Bipolar process?
9. What is Multipolar process?
10. What is the role of teachers in Educative process?
Answers to Check Your Progress
1. Philosophy is the study which deals with the ultimate realities of the universe and the
general causes and principles of those things that human being observes and
experiences.
2. Education is ‘to lead out’ or ‘to bring up’ the potential of an educand also ‘to add to’ his
life.

16
 3. Education is need for human society for Enhancement of Knowledge, Formation of
Mind, Preparation for Life, Develops mental Discipline, Growth and development,
Guidance for life, Adjustment and self-activity, social change and progress,
Socialisation, Career Advancement.
4. Philosophy and Education are related like flower and fragrance, skeleton and flesh and
blood. The former is the contemplative side, while the latter is the active side of the
coin. Philosophical knowledge has a fundamental role in clarifying questions of
education.
5. The educative process is a series of inner changes through which an individual is
transformed from an immature personality to a mature personality.
6. Components of Educative Process
 Teacher
 Learner
 Teaching Strategies
 The Learning Environment
 The Curriculum
 The Instructional Materials
 The Administration
7. When the educator and the educand are one and the same then Education becomes a
unipolar process
8. The bipolar education has two poles. At the one end is the teacher and at the other end
is the child. Both are equally important in the process of education.
9. When the teacher, student and other several factors actively co-operate in the efficient
and successful working of the educational process then it is called multipolar process.
10. Role of Teachers in Educative Process
 Teacher as an Educator
 Teachers as Learning Resources
 Teacher as Facilitator
 Teachers as Counsellors
 Teacher as Demonstrator
 The teacher as manager
 Teacher As Advisor
 Teacher as an Innovator
 Teachers as Motivator
 Teacher As Coach
 Teachers as elevators

1.12 SUMMARY

Philosophy: The word Philosophy is made up of two Greek words – “philo” and “sophos”.
Philo means ‘love’ and Sophos means ‘wisdom’. Hence Philosophy comes to mean as the

17
love of wisdom. It is the study which deals with the ultimate realities of the universe and the
general causes and principles of those things that human being observes and experiences.
Education: The English word ‘education’ is supposed to be derived from either of the two
Latin words: educare and educere. The meaning of the first is to ‘bring up’ or ‘to raise’ and
that of the second is to ‘lead out’. Education is not only ‘to lead out’ or ‘to bring up’ the
potential but also ‘to add to’ the life of the educand.
Narrow Meaning of Education: In its narrow sense, school instruction is called education. In
this process, the elders of society strive to attain predetermined aims during a specified time
by providing pre-structured knowledge to children through set methods of teaching.
Broader Meaning of Education: In its broader sense, education is the total development of
the personality. In this sense. Education consists of all those experiences, which affect the
individual from birth till death.
Importance and Need of Education in Human Society: Education is need for human society
for Enhancement of Knowledge, Formation of Mind, Preparation for Life, Develops mental
Discipline, Growth and development, Guidance for life, Adjustment and self-activity, social
change and progress, Socialisation, Career Advancement.
Need of Philosophical Foundations for Education: Philosophy and Education are related
like flower and fragrance, skeleton and flesh and blood. The former is the contemplative side,
while the latter is the active side of the coin. Philosophical knowledge has a fundamental role
in clarifying questions of education.
Concept of Educative Process: According to Charles H. Judd, “The educative process is a
series of inner changes through which an individual is transformed from an immature
personality to a mature personality.”
Components of Educative Process
 Teacher
 Learner
 Teaching Strategies
 The Learning Environment
 The Curriculum
 The Instructional Materials
 The Administration
Education as a Unipolar Process: When the educator and the educand are one and the same
then Education becomes a unipolar process
Education as Bipolar Process: According to Adams, the bipolar education has two poles. At
the one end is the teacher and at the other end is the child. Both are equally important in the
process of education.
Education as a Tripolar Process: The educational process not only has a psychological side
involving the educator and the educand, but it also has sociological aspects too. These three
factors actively co-operate in the efficient and successful working of the educational process.

18
Education as Multipolar Process: The new concept of education is influenced by teacher,
student, social environment and other several factors.
Role of Teachers in Educative Process
 Teacher as an Educator
 Teachers as Learning Resources
 Teacher as Facilitator
 Teachers as Counsellors
 Teacher as Demonstrator
 The teacher as manager
 Teacher As Advisor
 Teacher as an Innovator
 Teachers as Motivator
 Teacher As Coach
 Teachers as elevators
Role of Media in the Educative Process
 Providing Information
 Providing vocational information
 Spreading awareness and civic responsibility
 Educational programmes
 Role as a non-formal agency
 Appeal to Multiple Learning Styles
 Creates an Authentic Learning Experience
 Strengthens Critical-Thinking Skills
 Teaches Students to Use Media

1.13 GLOSSARY

Philosophy: The study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality and existence,
especially when considered as an academic discipline.
Darsana: (from the Sanskrit word for `to see') one of six orthodox philosophical systems or
viewpoints on the nature of reality and the release from bondage to karma
Operant behaviour: Operant behaviour (which goes along with operant conditioning) refers
to behaviour that "operates" on the environment or is controllable by the individual.
Educator: a person who provides instruction or education; a teacher.
Educand: one that is to be educated, a student.
Unipolar: having or relating to a single pole or kind of polarity. (Here one pole refers to the
educand)
Bipolar: having or relating to two poles (here two poles refer to the educator and educand)
Tripolar: having or relating to three poles (here three poles refer to the educator, educand and
the social environment).

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1.14 QUESTIONS FOR SELF - STUDY
1. Explain the meaning of Philosophy quoting pertinent definitions.
2. “Philosophy is a way of life”. Explain
3. Explain the meaning of Education.
4. Explain the narrow meaning of Education.
5. Explain the broad meaning of Education.
6. Explain how education is a modification of behaviour.
7. Explain the Importance and Need of Education in Human Society.
8. Explain the Need of Philosophical Foundations for Education.
9. Elucidate the concept of Educative Process.
10. Differentiate between Unipolar, Bipolar and Multipolar process of Education.
11. Explain the role of teachers in Educative Process.
12. Explain the role of media in Educative Process.

1.15 REFERENCES

1. Dr. P Ayodhya and B.N. Dash – “Foundations of Education”, Neelkamal Publication

2. Prof Mukul Kumar Sharma – “Philosophical and Sociological foundations of
Education” Volume 1 and 2, Neelkamal Publication
3. Samuel, S. Ravi – “Education in Emerging India”, Parima Book Publishing House.
4. Riaz Hussain Malik* and Asad Abbas Rizvi, “Effect of Classroom Learning
Environment on Students' Academic Achievement in Mathematics at Secondary Level”,
Bulletin of Education and Research August 2018, Vol. 40, No. 2 pp. 207-218
5. Issac, Jerin C. (2010). Methods and Strategies of Teaching: an overview. Pondicherry
University Press.
6. Preeti, “Education and Role of Media in Education System”, International Journal of
Scientific Engineering and Research (IJSER), Volume 2 Issue 3, March 2014
7. http://www.wbnsou.ac.in/online_services/SLM/BED/SEM-01_A2.pdf
8. https://ddceutkal.ac.in/Syllabus/MA_Education/Paper_1.pdf
9. https://www.educationviews.org/the-importance-of-education-in-our-society/
10. http://varron.expertscolumn.com
11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327433965_TEACHING_STRATEGIES
12. https://understandnursing.blogspot.com/2017/08/education-as-process.html
13. https://educerecentre.com/education-as-a-bipolar-and-tripolar-process
14. http://www.forchescross.org/12-the-role-of-teachers-in-the-learning-process

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 UNIT -2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHILOSOPHY

Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Epistemology – Theory and Nature of Knowledge
2.3 Axiology – Theory of Values
2.4 Philosophy and Logic
2.5 Ethics and Logic
2.6 Need of these Philosophical Concepts in Education
2.7 A Brief Note on Indian Philosophical Legacy
2.8 Check Your Progress
2.9 Summary
2.10 Glossary
2.11 Questions for Self - Study
2.12 References

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to,

 Explain the meaning of Epistemology
 List the sources of Knowledge
 Explain the relationship between Epistemology and Education
 Explain the meaning of Axiology
 Explain the relationship between Axiology and Education
 Explain the meaning of Logic
 Explain the relationship between Philosophy and Logic
 Explain the meaning of ethics
 Explain the relationship between Ethics and Logic
 Explain the need for Philosophical concepts (Epistemology, Axiology, Logic, Ethics)
in Education
 Explain the six systems of Indian Philosophy
2.1 INTRODUCTION

The important characteristics which differentiate human society from animals is the
capacity to reason and the value system. Human beings seek knowledge, reason out and are
capable of differentiating between the right and the wrong. Education is the means of seeking
knowledge and works on the basis of value. Good education consists of four main features –
man making, character building, training of mind, body and soul. It is these aims that
integrate culture and technology. It is the hunt for that goal which liberated man from fear,
inertia, ignorance and superstition. Real education should combine science and ethics. It
should aim at the perfection and excellence. Philosophy gives a strong foot-hold to these
aspects which form the basis of education. In this Unit we shall understand the basic concepts
of Philosophy such as epistemology, axiology, logic and ethics and understand its influence
on education. We shall also go through the Indian Philosophical Legacy.

2.2 EPISTEMOLOGY – THEORY AND NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE

Meaning of Epistemology
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of
knowledge and is also referred to as “theory of knowledge”. Etymologically the word
epistemology has been derived from the Greek words episteme, meaning “knowledge,
understanding”, and logos, meaning “study of”. In other words we can say that Epistemology
is the study of the nature, source, and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer of the basic
questions as “What is true?” and “How do we know?” Thus epistemology covers two areas:
the content of thought and thought itself. Or in educational terms: curriculum and instruction
or content and method.
The study of epistemology deals with issues related to the dependability of knowledge
and the validity of the sources through which we gain information. Epistemology seeks
answers to a number of fundamental issues. One is whether reality can even be known.
Skepticism in its narrow sense is the position claiming that people cannot acquire reliable
knowledge and that any search for truth is in vain. That thought was well expressed by

22
Gorgias (c. 483-376 B.C.), the Greek Sophist who asserted that nothing exists, and that if it
did, we could not know it. A full-blown skepticism would make intelligent action impossible.
A term closely related to skepticism is agnosticism. Agnosticism is a profession of
ignorance in reference to the existence or nonexistence of God. Most people claim that reality
can be known. However, once they have taken that position, they must decide through what
sources reality may be known, and must have some concept of how to judge the validity of
their knowledge.
A second issue foundational to epistemology is whether all truth is relative, or whether
some truths are absolute. Is all truth subject to change? Is it possible that what is true today
may be false tomorrow? If the answer is “Yes” to the previous questions, such truths are
relative. If, however, there is Absolute Truth, such Truth is eternally and universally true
irrespective of time or place. If Absolute Truth exists in the universe, then educators would
certainly want to discover it and make it the core of the school curriculum.
Closely related to the issue of the relativity and absoluteness of truth are the questions of
whether knowledge is subjective or objective, and whether there is truth that is independent
of human experience.
Sources of Knowledge
A major aspect of epistemology relates to the sources of human knowledge. If one
accepts the fact that there is truth and even Truth in the universe, how can human beings
comprehend such truths? How do they become human knowledge? Central to most people’s
answer to that question is empiricism (knowledge obtained through the senses).
1. Sensory Knowing: Empirical knowledge appears to be built into the very nature of
human experience. Thus, when individuals walk out of doors on a spring day and see the
beauty of the landscape, hear the song of a bird, feel the warm rays of the sun, and smell
the fragrance of the blossoms, they “know” that it is spring. Sensory knowing for humans
is immediate and universal, and in many ways forms the basis of much of human
knowledge. The existence of sensory data cannot be denied. Most people accept it
uncritically as representing “reality.” The danger of naively embracing this approach is
that data obtained from the human senses have been demonstrated to be both incomplete
and undependable. (For example, most people have been confronted with the
contradiction of seeing a stick that looks bent when partially submerged in water but
appears to be straight when examined in the air.) Fatigue, frustration, and illness also
distort and limit sensory perception. In addition, there are sound and light waves that are
inaudible and invisible to unaided human perception. Humans have invented scientific
instruments to extend the range of their senses, but it is impossible to ascertain the exact
dependability of these instruments since no one knows the total effect of the human mind
in recording, interpreting, and distorting sensual perception. Confidence in these
instruments is built upon speculative metaphysical theories whose validity has been
reinforced by experimentation in which predictions have been verified through the use of
a theoretical construct or hypothesis. In summary, sensory knowledge is built upon
assumptions that must be accepted by faith in the dependability of human sensory

23
 mechanisms. The advantage of empirical knowledge is that many sensory experiences
and experiments are open to both replication and public examination.
2. Revelation: A second influential source of knowledge throughout the span of human
history has been revelation. Revealed knowledge has been of prime importance in the
field of religion. It differs from all other sources of knowledge because it presupposes a
transcendent supernatural reality that breaks into the natural order.. On the other hand, it
is generally realized that distortion of revealed truth can occur in the process of human
interpretation. Some people assert that a major disadvantage of revealed knowledge is
that it must be accepted by faith and cannot be proved or disproved empirically.
3. Authority: A third source of human knowledge is authority. Authoritative knowledge is
accepted as true because it comes from experts or has been sanctified over time as
tradition. In the classroom, the most common source of information is some authority,
such as a textbook, teacher, or reference work. Accepting authority as a source of
knowledge has its advantages as well as its dangers. Civilization would certainly stagnate
if people refused to accept any statement unless they personally verified it through direct,
first-hand experience. On the other hand, if authoritative knowledge is built upon a
foundation of incorrect assumptions, then such knowledge will surely be distorted.
4. Reason: A fourth source of human knowledge is reason. The view that reasoning,
thought, or logic is the central factor in knowledge is known as rationalism. The
rationalist, in emphasizing humanity’s power of thought and the mind’s contributions to
knowledge, is likely to claim that the senses alone cannot provide universal, valid
judgments that are consistent with one another. From this perspective, the sensations and
experiences humans obtain through their senses are the raw material of knowledge. These
sensations must be organized by the mind into a meaningful system before they become
knowledge. Rationalism in a less extreme form claims that people have the power to
know with certainty various truths about the universe that the senses alone cannot give. In
its more extreme form, rationalism claims that humans are capable of arriving at
irrefutable knowledge independently of sensory experience. Formal logic is a tool used by
rationalists. Systems of logic have the advantage of possessing internal consistency, but
they risk being disconnected from the external world. Systems of thought based upon
logic are only as valid as the premises upon which they are built.
5. Intuition: A fifth source of knowledge is intuition- the direct apprehension of knowledge
that is not derived from conscious reasoning or immediate sense perception. In the
literature dealing with intuition, one often finds such expressions as “immediate feeling of
certainty.” Intuition occurs beneath the threshold of consciousness and is often
experienced as a sudden flash of insight. Intuition has been claimed under varying circum
- stances as a source of both religious and secular knowledge. Certainly, many scientific
breakthroughs have been initiated by intuitive hunches that were confirmed by
experimentation. The weakness or danger of intuition is that it does not appear to be a
safe method of obtaining knowledge when used alone. It goes astray very easily and may
lead to absurd claims unless it is controlled by or checked against other methods of
knowing. Intuitive knowledge, however, has the distinct advantage of being able to
bypass the limitations of human experience. At this juncture, it should be noted that no
one source of information is capable of supplying people with all knowledge. The various

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 sources should be seen as complementary rather than antagonistic. It is true, however, that
most people choose one source as being more basic than, or preferable to, the others. That
most basic source is then used as a benchmark for testing other sources of knowledge. For
example, in the contemporary world, knowledge obtained empirically is generally seen as
the most basic and reliable type.
Epistemology & Education
Epistemology and education are tacit companions since both are primarily the act of
knowing. Epistemology is the motor of education in a sense because it drives the educational
process. Whatever educational theories and practices one employs will be consistent with his
or her theories and practices of epistemology. Epistemology has a direct impact upon
education on a moment-by-moment basis. In fact, the philosophic worldview of their faith
will shape the presentation of every topic they teach. That, of course, is true for teachers from
every philosophic persuasion and thus constitutes an important argument for educating .

2.3 AXIOLOGY – THEORY OF VALUES

Meaning of Axiology
Axiology, which stems from two Greek words- “Axios” means “value, worth” and
“logos” means “reason/ theory/ symbol / science/study of”. Hence, Axiology is the
philosophical study of value and “value” originally meant the worth of something. Axiology
asks the questions: What is a value? Where do values come from? How do we justify our
values? How do we know what is valuable? What is the relationship between values and
knowledge? What kinds of values exist? Can it be demonstrated that one value is better than
another? Who benefits from values? etc. The question of values deals with notions of what a
person or a society regards as good or preferable.
Axiology, like metaphysics and epistemology, stands at the very foundation of the
educational process. A major aspect of education is the development of values. And in that
context, the classroom is an axiological theatre in which teachers cannot hide their moral
selves. By their actions, teachers constantly instruct groups of highly impressionable young
people who assimilate and imitate their teachers’ value structures to a significant extent.
Axiology has two main branches- ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the study of moral
values and conduct. “How should I behave?” is an ethical question. Ethical theory seeks to
provide right values as the foundation for right actions. What is good and evil, right and
wrong? Is it ever right to take something that does not belong to you? In many ways, ethics is
the crucial issue of our times. World societies have made unprecedented technological
advances, but have not advanced significantly, if at all, in their ethical and moral conceptions.
Both as individuals and within societies, human beings exist in a world in which they cannot
avoid meaningful ethical decisions. Thus, schools must teach ethical concepts to their
students. The problem is that people embrace different ethical bases and feel quite negatively
about having their children “indoctrinated” in a moral view that is alien to their fundamental
beliefs. That fact has put schools at the center of the various “culture wars” that have rocked
society at large.

25
 The desire to pass on to their children a specific system of moral values is a powerful
motivator for most parents. At the heart of ethical discussions are such questions as, “Are
ethical standards and moral values absolute or relative?” “Do universal moral values exist?”
“Can morality be separated from religion?” and “Who or what forms the basis of ethical
authority?”
The second major branch of axiology is aesthetics. Aesthetics asks such questions as
“What is beautiful?” and “What should I like?” How do we recognize a great piece of music?
Art? Can there be beauty in destruction? Aesthetics is the realm of value that searches for the
principles governing the creation and appreciation of beauty and art in both “the higher arts”
and the things of daily life, such as school architecture, television programs, and billboards.
Evaluations of beauty and ugliness fall into the aesthetic realm. Thus, aesthetic valuation is a
part of daily life and cannot be avoided. The aesthetic experience is tied to the cognitive
world of intellectual understanding, but also soars beyond the cognitive into the affective
realm because of its focus on feeling and emotion. Aesthetic experiences enable people to
move beyond the limits imposed by purely rational thought and the inadequacies of human
language. A picture, song, or story may create an impression in a person that could never be
conveyed through logical argument.
Human beings are aesthetic beings; thus, it is equally impossible to avoid teaching
aesthetics in the school, home, media, or church as it is to avoid inculcating ethical values.
However, the realm of aesthetics does not exist in a vacuum. To the contrary, aesthetic belief
is directly related to other aspects of people’s philosophy. For example, if subjectivity and
randomness are embraced in epistemology and metaphysics, they will be reflected in both
aesthetics and ethics. People’s aesthetic values reflect their total philosophy.
Axiology & Education
Our contemporary age is an age of great confusion and turmoil. Wars and conflicts
continue unabatedly, and innumerable alarming and tragic phenomena, including terrorism,
destruction, arson, kidnapping, murder, drug abuse, alcoholism, sexual immorality, family
breakdown, injustice, corruption, oppression, conspiracy, and slander, are occurring
worldwide. At the vortex of this turmoil, humankind’s most valuable assets are now almost
obliterated. It is referring to the loss of personal human dignity, the loss of time-honoured
traditions, the loss of the dignity of life, the loss of mutual trust among people, the loss of the
authority of parents and teachers, and the list goes on. In this context education plays an
important role for inculcating the value (such as- truth, beauty and goodness etc.) and
transmitting from one generation to another through its curriculum. It has been rightly stated
that culture is a totality of values created throughout history and that education is the means
of performing culture. This is why axiology requires an important educational dimension.
Which are the components of this dimension?
First, axiology, by projecting a system of values, proposes educational aims under the
form of axiological objectives and ideals.

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 Second, axiology comprises both general human or universal and specific values for a
determined community, thereby giving it its personality. Education preserves and transmits
values that guarantee the cultural identity of the human community.
Third, the performance of values requires knowledge and experience, which means the
involvement in this process of education on its two interrelated planes: cognitive and
emotional.
Finally, as axiology is the horizon of the manifestation of human creativity, education has
among its fundamental functions that of cultivating the creative power of the individual and
the human community. Otherwise expressed, though personality is the source of all values, it
is not born, but is developed by education. That is why we estimate nowadays that education
is one of the fundamental resources for future social development. From this concise
presentation of the elements making up the content of the educational dimension of axiology,
there results a very important conclusion: without education, axiology would be deprived of
living power, and, without the light of axiology, education would grope about in the dark

2.4 PHILOSOPHY AND LOGIC

Meaning of Logic
Logic in general a scientific study (or systematic study) of the general principles on which
validity in thinking depends. It deals with propositions and their inferential interrelations also
called the science of inference and proof or science of implication. It comes form the Greek
word ‘Logos’ which means discourse, reason, rule, ration and rationale, principle and
definition.
Logic is the branch of philosophy that deals with the rules of correct reasoning. It deals
with a form of reasoning called the argument. An argument consists of a set of premises
followed by another statement called conclusion. If premises support the conclusion the
argument is correct, otherwise the argument is incorrect.
Types of Logic: There are three types of logic
Deductive Logic: Deductive logic is concerned with inferences from the general to the
particular. It deals with reasoning which attempts to establish conclusive inferences. To say
that an inference is conclusive means that if the reasons given are true, then it will be
impossible for the inference based upon these reasons to be false. Such reasoning is called
valid reasoning or valid inferences.
For example, If statement “it is raining” implies “the ground is wet” and if the “ground is
wet” implies “the river is swollen” then “it is raining” implies “rivers will be swollen”.
If sentence A implies B and B implies C then A will imply C.
Inductive Logic: Inductive logic is concerned with inferences from the particular to general.
Conclusions are based upon premises as logic also studies the ground for belief.
Example: All women are intelligent
Intelligent women are gentle

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All women are gentle.
Symbolic Logic: Symbols are used instead of words in order to make deductive logic. It is
purely a mechanical procedure like physics. Symbolic logic has extended the knowledge of
logic a great deal.
Example : If A is true and A implies B then B is true.
Philosophy and Logic
In order to understand the connection between logic and philosophy, it is important to
first understand what each study entails. Logic is the study of reasoning, whereas philosophy
is better characterized as a study of general problems. Both of these disciplines involve using
reasoning, but the rules of reasoning in logic are sometimes independent from the rules of
reasoning in philosophy. Likewise, whereas logic often has specific forms concerning what is
and is not a valid conclusion, philosophy is more open.
Given these differences, the connection between philosophy and logic would seem to be one
of reliance. Philosophy relies on logic in order for its claims to be true, but it does not rely on
any specific system of logic in particular. Without reasoning, there cannot be valid solutions
to problems faced by philosophy.
Even so, it could be said that the relationship between logic and philosophy is actually
the reverse. Logical systems might be said to depend on philosophical solutions, because
logic has been conceived of in many different ways. This understanding of the connection is
perhaps less common but no less true. In essence, the science known as logic is a
philosophical solution to the problem of reasoning.
It is also possible to conceive of the connection between logic and philosophy in a
historical sense, looking at the many philosophers who have pondered this
problem. Aristotle, Kant, and Hegel all considered logic in their times. In this case,
philosophy is related to logic through historical proximity, and both sciences affect each
other.
Both logic and philosophy are exercises in thought, and both depend on individual
reasoning for their success. While logic does not usually concern itself with the meanings of
its conclusions, philosophy seeks to solve problems using logical processes. This perhaps is
the biggest difference between logic and philosophy: While logic looks at the process,
philosophy desires the conclusion. Even so, these two disciplines are deeply intertwined and
cannot be easily separated.

2.5 ETHICS AND LOGIC

Meaning of Ethics
At every step-in life, we have to take decisions concerning actions, what is good and
what is bad, what is desirable and what is not desirable. The basis of such decision is a
standard. Every person keeps before him consciously or unconsciously a standard of right and
wrong, even though the measures and means may not be same all time. Every person uses a

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scale of measuring, good and bad right and wrong without knowing of it. Ethics gives the
scale of duties, responsibilities and rights on a scientific way.
The word ‘Ethics’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Ethos’ which means character,
habits and activity or behaviour of human beings. Ethics is also called the science of
morality. The word moral is derived from the Latin word ‘mores’ which means conventions
or practice.
 Ethics is the science of human character. Conduct is the mirror of human character.
 Ethics evaluates human habits, character, duties and responsibilities.
 Ethics is a normative science. Its function is to give decisions on behaviour whether the
behaviour is right or wrong. This process of decision making is known as moral
judgement.
 It is the opinion that something is right or wrong. It is highly important to notice that
moral judgement are not emotional reactions or attitudes or expression of approval but
opinions which could be true or false.
Nature and Scope of Ethics
 The central theme of ethics is the moral judgement.
 It is the science of ideas related to human life
 Morality is the attempt to discuss the nature of good life and then to love it. There is a
continuous interaction between man’s conduct and moral judgements on one hand and
his physical and social environment on the other hand.
 Ethics constitute on important aspect of culture, religion and philosophy. In judging our
actions, motives, consequences, intentions, character and conduct we always verify
them with the standard prescribed, scriptures, opinions expressed by great social,
religion reformers
The scope of ethics is as broad as life itself. All our human problems are usually
subjected to scrutiny and judgement. The scope of ethics includes the study of the following
 Nature of human character
 Search for a moral standard – duties, obligations and rights
 Problems of social and personal morality.
 Implications of moral philosophy to education, religion
All the above-mentioned subjects are the problems of ethics, which at the same time makes
its scope. As a normative science, ethics describes ideas. Ethics has nothing to o with either
the origin or the development of human behaviour. Its scope is to study the ultimate good
according to which we are to progress. Ethics is concerned with the examination or
judgement of viewpoints of human nature and character.
Place of Ethics in Education
 Education is to bring positive behavioural changes in learner. Ethics is the study of
human behaviour. Ethics gives decisions on behaviour whether the behaviour is right or
wrong.

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  Education is concerned with the development of abilities to solve problems faced by
human beings; knowledge of ethics helps every person to achieve the aim of education.
 The tasks of education is to complete the moral growth of man. Morals and ethics form
the core of education and social activities.
 Morality is the foundation, without which there can be no true human progress and
advancement.
 One goal of education is the development of character. Ethics deals with nature of
human character.
 Our concepts of freedom, duties, rights are rooted in ethics. Morality according to our
ancient cultural heritage is based on two important concepts, the principle of ‘Dharma’
and doctrine of ‘Karma’.
Ethics and Logic
Ethics and Logic are closely entwined, as flip sides of the same coin. Ethics concerns
right conduct, as logic relates to right reasoning. Where logic deals with the reasoning
process pertaining to the truth or falsehood of statements, ethics deals with the rightness or
wrongness of actions. Both logic and ethics presuppose that truth and goodness are real, and
that reasoning logically or ethically can bring us closer to the ideal or the standard. Logic is
foundational to ethics, because ethics is reasoning about the rightness or wrongness of
conduct. That reasoning can either be logical, and conclusions necessarily derived from
premises, or illogical and inconsistent. Logic also helps us to think clearly about what is
being argued ethically, and whether the basis of an argument has been assumed, or actually
proved.

2.6 NEED OF THESE PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPTS IN EDUCATION

Need of Philosophical Concepts (Epistemology, Axiology, Logic, Ethics) in Education

1. To Develop Values in life: Values are concepts that conserve life, comfort life,
promote life and protect life. They foster peace, order, dignity, beauty, grace and
delight. For a harmonious living of mankind values play an important role. Axiology
initiates the value system among people.
2. To Develop Universal Brotherhood: Morality develops in us kindness, friendliness,
compassion, non-violence and love towards all creatures. Universal brotherhood
without any distinction of caste, creed and sex is the heart of moral life.
3. To bring out the creative side of human beings: Educationist have emphasized that in
addition to cognitive subjects and curricular activities. Activities to promote aesthetic
experience such as art, craft and music. This develops the imaginative faculty which is
the source of scientific inventions.
4. To Develop Logical thinking: In education scientific view point and accuracy has been
achieved through logical reasoning. Logic makes it clear that ideas given by education
should be distinct. Distinct ideas are those that have been verified.
5. Lead the pupil towards perfection: The endeavour of education is to bring perfection
in man. When the minds of teacher and students confirm to and obey the logical order,
perfection can be achieved in life.

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 6. Construct new Knowledge: Learning is a continuous process, and through the process
of learning, people acquire or construct new knowledge. Epistemology throws light on
the conditions under which knowledge takes place. It gives an insight into the theory of
knowledge.

2.7 A BRIEF NOTE ON INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL LEGACY

Six Systems of The Indian Philosophy

The Six systems of the Indian Philosophy are Nyaya, Vasiseshika, Samkhya, Yoga,
Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa. Each of these systems differs in one way or the other
in terms of its concepts, phenomena, laws and dogmas. Each system has its own founder as
well. Each system of Indian philosophy is called a Darshana. Thus, the Sanskrit word ‘Shad-
Darshna’ refers to the six systems of philosophy’.
1. Nyaya: Gautama is known as the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya
belongs to the category of Astika Darshanas. Astika Darshanas realise the significance
of verbal testimony or the authority of the Vedas, Gautama, who is also called
Akshapada is thought to have lived during the mid-fifth century BC. He was the first
philosopher to stress the importance of the valid means of knowledge and hence, the
Nyaya system of philosophy is said to have laid the firm foundation to the development
of the Science of Hindu logic. Gautama’s Nyaya System of Philosophy is called by
names such as Nyaya Sastra and Tarka Sastra.
2. Vaisheshika : The Vaisheshika System of Indian Philosophy was founded by Kanada
or uluka. That is why it is called Aulukya Darshana. Vaisheshika System followed the
Nyaya System very closely and hence, experts in the study of philosophy often combine
the two schools as Nyaya-Vaisheshika. The Vaisheshika System recognises seven
‘Padarthas’ or categories which are: substance, quality, action generality, particularity,
relation of inherence and non-existence.
3. Samkhya: Sage Kapila founded the Samkhya System of Philosophy. The Samkhya
system laid the firm foundation for the Advaita Vedanta later on. The dogmas put forth
by Kapila were further expounded by his disciples Asuri and Panchashikha. The
Samkhya system accepts only three Pramanas or the valid means of acquiring
knowledge. They accept Pratyaksha or perception, Anumana or inference and Shabda or
verbal testimony. The Samkhya Sutras compiled by Kapila were commented on later by
lshvara Krishna of the fifth century AD.
4. Yoga: The Yoga System of Philosophy was founded by Patanjali. He authored the
Yoga sutras or the aphorisms of Yoga. Yoga aims at the final state of spiritual
absorption through eights component parts together called Ashtanga Yoga. According
to Patanjali, the eight limbs of yoga are Yama, Niyama Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara,
Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi. All the eight are jointly called Raja Yoga. The Yoga
System of Philosophy accepts three fundamental realities namely Ishwara. Purusha and
Prakriti or the Primordial matter. Patanjali names some obstacles to the path of Yoga.
They are called ‘Antarayas’ and they include Vyadhi (illness), Styana (apathy),
Samsaya (doubt), Pramada (inadvertence), Alasya (lazyness), Avirati (incontinence),

31
 Bhrantidarshna (wrong understanding), Alabdha Bhumikatva (nonattainment of mental
plane) and Anavasthitatva (instability).
5. Purva Mimamsa: The Mimamsa Darshna belives firmly in the performance of rituals
and supports the view that the body is perishable but the soul survives even after the
death of the body and it reserves the right to enjoy the fruits of the rituals in heaven.
The school firmly believes in the preservation of the effect or the fruits of the rituals by
a remarkable power. This philosophical system of Purva Mimamsa was founded by
Jaimimi He accepts two types of knowledge namely Pratyaksha (immediate knowledge)
and Paroksha (mediate knowledge). Mimamsa does not speak about the existence of
God. Performance of daily duties or the Nitya Karmas is the uttimate goal of man.
6. Uttara Mimamsa: The Philosophical System of Uttara Mimamsa does not have a
specific founder because it is a conglomeration of three different schools of thought
namely Advaita, Visishtadvaita and Dvaita. ‘The Philosophical system of Uttara
Mimamsa is otherwise called Vedanta. All the three schools of Vedanta had different
teachers. Adi Sankara was the head of the Advaita system, Ramanuja was the architect
of the Visishtadvaita system and Madhva was the head of the Dvaita system of Vedanta
Philosophy. It is important to note that all the three teachers accepted Vedas as a valid
means of knowledge. The Upanishads at the end of the Vedic period, we notice that
there was a strong reaction against the Domination of priests, cults and rituals,
particularly in the regions of the Panchalas and the Videha. In this background, in about
800 to 500 BC the Upanishads were compiled. The Upanishads were philosophical texts
that criticised the rituals and stressed on the value of right belief and knowledge. They
also criticised the ceremonies and sacrifices. The Upanishads me the major source of
Indian philosophy. There are nearly 108 Upanishads. Of these, 10 have been greatly
appreciated at a global level because they deal with the philosophy and theology of the
Aryans. These ten Upanishads are Ishopanishat, Kenopanishat, Kathopanishat,
Parshnopanishat, Mandukopanishat, Koushikopanishat, Thaittariyopanishat,
Aittareyopanishat, Chandogyopanishat and Brihadaranyakopanisha. These are in form
of commentaries attached to the Aranayukas and associated mainly with philosophy and
religion.
The Brahmanas They presents the socio-political life of the Aryans. They also explain
their religion, particularly the sacrifices. They also involve ritualistic formulae for the
respective Vedas and the priests.
The Aranyakas These are the forest books on mysticism and philosophy and arc the last
parts of the Brahmanas. They are associated with the metaphysics and symbolism of
sacrifice. They do not emphasise on sacrifice but on meditation. They oppose sacrifices and a
number of the early rituals. They stress on tire moral virtues. They form a bridge between the
way of works (karma) and the way of knowledge (gyan).
The Smritis are the additional Treatise or the supplementary of the Vedas. Smritis refer
to the literature that has been carried on from one generation to the other. It is a derivative
word and considered less authoritative than ‘Shrutis’, which is considered authorless and
literally means that ‘which is heard. Manusmriti is the most important of all the smritis. It

32
 deals with the laws of inheritance, duties of kings and their subjects Manusmriti or ‘Laws of
Manu’, served as a foundational work on Hindu law for the ancient Indian society. The
Puranas There are 18 Puranas totally. The Bhagawat Purana and Vishnu Purana are the most
important.

2.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What is Epistemology?
2. What is Axiology?
3. List the sources of Knowledge.
4. What is Logic?
5. Name the types of Logic.
6. What are Ethics?
7. Which are the six systems of Indian Philosophy?
Answers to Check Your Progress
1. Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of
knowledge and is also referred to as “theory of knowledge”.
2. Axiology is the philosophical study of value.
3. Sources of Knowledge are Sensory Knowing, Revelation, Authority, Reason, Intuition
4. Logic in general a scientific study (or systematic study) of the general principles on
which validity in thinking depends.
5. There are three types of logic -Deductive Logic, Inductive Logic and Symbolic Logic
6. Ethics is the science of human character.
7. Six Systems of The Indian Philosophy are Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva
Mimamsa, Uttara Mimamsa

2.9 SUMMARY

 Meaning of Epistemology: Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the

nature and scope of knowledge and is also referred to as “theory of knowledge”.
 Sources of Knowledge
 Sensory Knowing:
 Revelation:
 Authority:
 Reason:
 Intuition
 Epistemology & Education: Epistemology and education are tacit companions since
both are primarily the act of knowing. Whatever educational theories and practices one
employs will be consistent with his or her theories and practices of epistemology.
 Meaning of Axiology: Axiology is the philosophical study of value. It has two main
branches- ethics and aesthetics. Ethics is the study of moral values and conduct.

33
 Aesthetics is the realm of value that searches for the principles governing the creation and
appreciation of beauty and art
 Axiology & Education: education plays an important role for inculcating the value and
transmitting from one generation to another through its curriculum
 Meaning of Logic: Logic in general a scientific study (or systematic study) of the general
principles on which validity in thinking depends. It deals with propositions and their
inferential interrelations also called the science of inference and proof or science of
implication.
 Types of Logic: There are three types of logic -Deductive Logic, Inductive Logic and
Symbolic Logic
 Philosophy and Logic: Both of these disciplines involve using reasoning, but the rules of
reasoning in logic are sometimes independent from the rules of reasoning in philosophy.
Likewise, whereas logic often has specific forms concerning what is and is not a valid
conclusion, philosophy is more open.
 Meaning of Ethics: Ethics is the science of human character. It evaluates human habits,
character, duties and responsibilities. Ethics and Logic: Both logic and ethics presuppose
that truth and goodness are real, and that reasoning logically or ethically can bring us
closer to the ideal or the standard.
 Place of Ethics in Education: Education is to bring positive behavioural changes in
learner. Ethics is the study of human behaviour. Ethics give decision on behaviour
whether the behaviour is right or wrong.
 Six Systems of The Indian Philosophy
 Nyaya: Nyaya belongs to the category of Astika Darshanas. Astika Darshanas realise
the significance of verbal testimony or the authority of the Vedas.
 Vaisheshika : The Vaisheshika System recognises seven ‘Padarthas’ or categories
which are: substance, quality, action generality, particularity, relation of inherence
and non-existence.
 Samkhya: The Samkhya system accepts only three Pramanas or the valid means of
acquiring knowledge. They accept Pratyaksha or perception, Anumana or inference
and Shabda or verbal testimony.
 Yoga: The Yoga aims at the final state of spiritual absorption through eights
component parts together called Ashtanga Yoga. According to Patanjali, the eight
limbs of yoga are Yama, Niyama Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana
and Samadhi.
 Purva Mimamsa: The Mimamsa Darshna believes firmly in the performance of
rituals and supports the view that the body is perishable but the soul survives even
after the death of the body and it reserves the right to enjoy the fruits of the rituals in
heaven.
 Uttara Mimamsa: It is a conglomeration of three different schools of thought
namely Advaita, Visishtadvaita and Dvaita.

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2.10 GLOSSARY
Epistemology: The theory of knowledge, especially with regard to its methods, validity and
scope and the distinction between justified belief and opinion.
Axiology: The study of the nature of value and valuation and if the kinds of things that are
valuable.
Logic: Reasoning conducted or assessed according to strict principles of validity.
Ethics: Moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour or the conducting of an activity.
Nyaya: Nyaya is Sanskrit word that means “method,” “rules” or “judgment.” It is one of the
six darshans, or ways of viewing the world, according to Hindu philosophy.
Vaisheshika: Vaisheshika is derived from the Sanskrit, vishesa, meaning “distinction” or
“distinguishing feature.”
Samkhya: Samkhya is a Sanskrit word meaning “number”, “empirical” or “ enumeration”
that used to describe one of the classic schools of Indian Philosophy.
Yoga: a Hindu spiritual and ascetic discipline, a part of which, including breath control,
simple meditation and the adoption of specific bodily postures, is widely practised for health
and relaxation.”
Purva Mimamsa: Mimamsa is also called karma-mimamsa (“study of actions”) or purva-
mimamsa (“prior study”) because it is concerned with the earliest of the vedas, the samhitas
and the Brahmanas, which focus on the rituals.
Uttara Mimamsa: Uttara means “latter”; because it deals with the latter part of the Vedas. Its
scope is to interpret the knowledge revealed in the Vedas, leading to Liberation.
2.11 QUESTIONS FOR SELF - STUDY
1. Explain the meaning of Epistemology in terms of theory and nature of knowledge.
2. Elucidate the sources of Knowledge.
3. Elucidate the relationship between Epistemology and Education.
4. Explain the meaning of Axiology.
5. Explain the relationship of Axiology with education.
6. What is logic.? Explain its types.
7. Elucidate the relationship between Philosophy and Logic.
8. What are ethics? Explain
9. Critically analyse the relationship between ethics and education.
10. Explain the need for Philosophical Foundation of Education.
11. Give a brief note on Indian Philosophical Legacy.

2.12 REFERENCES
1. Dr. P Ayodhya and B.N. Dash – “Foundations of Education”, Neelkamal Publication
2. Prof Mukul Kumar Sharma – “Philosophical and Sociological foundations of
Education” Volume 1 and 2, Neelkamal Publication

35
3. Samuel, S. Ravi – “Education in Emerging India”, Parima Book Publishing House.
4. John P Wyne – Philosophies of Education
5. Robert Audi – Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
6. Pandey – An introduction to Major Philosophy of education
7. T.S. Sodhi, G.S. Sandhu, S.B. Singh – Philosophies of Education
8. Tara Barnett, “What Is the Connection between Logic and Philosophy?”,
https://www.languagehumanities.org
9. https://www.bincube.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/2377488.pdf
10. https://examsdaily.in/six-systems-of-indian-philosophy-pdf

*******

36
 UNIT – 3 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Meaning and Definition of Educational psychology
3.3 Evolution of the Definitions of Psychology
3.4 Psychology as a Study of Behavior
3.5 Need for Psychological bases for Education
3.6 Importance of Psychology of Child in Education
3.7 Educational Psychology as a Branch of Applied Psychology
3.8 Check Your Progress
3.9 Summary
3.10 Glossary
3.11 Questions for Self-Study
3.12 References

37
3.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit carefully, you should be able to

 Define the term Psychology.
 Explain the evolution of definitions of psychology,
 Describe the term psychology the study of behavior
 Critically analyse the importance of psychology of child in education,
 Write a perspective on educational psychology is applied branch of psychology.

3.1 -INTRODUCTION
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior, cognition, and emotion. Psychology is
an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and
behavior. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of
human activity, including relating to individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental
illness.
Psychology differs from the other social sciences — anthropology, economics,
political science, and sociology — in that psychology seeks to explain the mental processes
and behavior of individuals. Whereas biology and neuroscience study the biological or neural
processes and how they relate to the mental effects they subjectively produce, psychology is
primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior on a systemic
level. The subfield of neuropsychology studies the actual neural processes while biological
psychology studies the biological bases of behavior and mental states.
3.2 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Meaning of Psychology
The term ‘psychology’, literally means the science of the soul. (Psyche—soul; logos
=science). Formerly, psychology was a part of metaphysics, and dealt with the nature, origin,
and destiny of the soul. It was called rational psychology. But modern psychology is
empirical, and does not deal with the problems relating to the soul.
It deals with mental process apart from the soul or mental substance. It is the science
of experience and behaviour, which tells us how the mind works and behaves. It can predict
the behaviour of an individual, and control it to a certain extent by putting him under proper
conditions. It seeks to discover the laws of mind.
Psychology is concerned with the experience and behaviour of the individual.
Behaviour is the expression of experience, which belongs to a subject, and which is due to the
interaction of subject and object. It implies the duality of subject and object. If there were no
subject and object, there would be no experience.
Experience presupposes a subject, or mind, or self that experiences an object, and
involves the reality of subject and object. So Psychology has to assume the reality of the

38
subject, or mind as an experiment, but it does not enquire into its nature. Modern psychology
tries to explain the nature and development of experience and behaviour.
The modern Behaviourists reject the notions of mind and consciousness, and regard
psychology as the science of behaviour or response of an organism to the stimulus. They
reduce psychology to a biological science. They regard the so-called mental processes as
mere responses of an organism to stimuli in the environment, and define psychology as the
science of behavior. We do not believe in the doctrine of behaviorism.
We believe in subjective experience and its outward expression or behavior. Fear or
anger is an experience. Trembling or striking is a behavior. Empirical psychology banished
the soul from psychology, and behaviorism banished the mind and the mental processes from
it.
3.3 EVOLUTION OF THE DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY
Etymologically psychology means the science of the soul, viz., ‘psyche’ mean ‘soul’
and ‘logos’ means ‘science.’ The earlier psychologists maintained that the function of
psychology was to study the nature, origin and the destiny of the human soul. Modern
psychologists, however, doubt the existence of the soul since there is no empirical evidence
for its existence.
Earlier psychology was part of Philosophy. Ancient philosophers were interested in
the study of the soul. Thus, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle was interpreted Psychology as ‘the
science of soul’. However, since the term ‘soul’ has very wide and comprehensive meanings,
it was considered as a vague term and was criticized severely, in the middle ages. There were
questions regarding the physical existence, weight, and volume of soul. Definition of
Psychology as the study of soul became unacceptable primarily because no convincing proof
or evidence of the precise nature of soul was furnished. Next, Kant, German philosopher
defined Psychology in terms of ‘the science of mind’, psychology was held as a branch of
mental philosophy. Since this definition does not include overt behavior of human beings and
mind cannot be measured directly, this definition was also dropped by psychologists. Then,
the psychologist like Willhelm Woundt, William James were defined psychology as ‘the
science of consciousness’. at one time during the history of Psychology, it was felt that the
main business of Psychology was the conscious experience. Consciousness makes us
conscious or aware of the situation or a thing around us. This definition too is now
superseded and it has been rejected due to the following reasons: Consciousness cannot be
studied objectively as it is more personal and subjective. The second objection came from the
fast development branch of the abnormal psychology, which brought the study of the
unconscious part of our mind within the province of Psychology. The term consciousness
does not include animal or human behavior hence it was not accepted by the modern
scientific minded psychologists. Finally, modern Psychology has been defined as ‘a science
of behaviour.’
3.4 PSYCHOLOGY AS STUDY OF BEHAVIOUR
Psychology as Study of Behaviour, This was popularized by J.B Watson In the early
decades of twentieth century, Watson, the father of the school of ‘Behaviourism’, defined

39
psychology as ‘the study of behaviour’. According to Morgan et al. (1986), Watson rejected
mind as the subject of psychology and insisted that psychology be restricted to the study of
behaviour – the observable (or potentially observable) activities of people and animals.
Watson held that there are no essential differences between human and animal behaviour and
that we can learn much about our own behaviour from the study of what animals do. Watson
emphasised that nothing is innate and everything can be learned. In his view, psychology as a
science studies the response pattern of an individual in reaction to the stimuli coming from
the environment.
Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behavior, mind
and thought and the subconscious neurological bases of behavior. Psychology also refers to
the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems
of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. It is largely concerned with
humans, although the behavior and mental processes of animals can also be part of
psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g. animal cognition and
ethology), or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human
psychology by means of comparison (including comparative psychology). Psychology is
commonly defined as the science of behavior and mental processes.
“Psychology is the scientific study of the activities of the individual in relation to his
environment”.
“Psychology today concerns itself with the scientific investigation of behaviour,
including from the stand-point of behaviour, much of what earlier psychologists dealt with as
experience”.
Some of the more recent definitions of Psychology, in chronological order, are as
follows:
 Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour. It includes the application of
this science to human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986).
 The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Feldman,1996)
 The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by an
organism’s physical state, mental state and external environment (Tavris and Wade,
1997)
 Psychology is all about human behaviour, about mental processes, and about the
context in which behaviour and mental processes occur. (Das, 1998)
 The science of behaviour and mental processes. (Lahey,1998)  The science of
behaviour and cognitive processes. (Baron, 1999)  Scientific study of behaviour and
mind. (Nairne, 2003)
 A science in which behavioural and other evidence is used to understand the internal
processes leading people (and members of other species ) to behave as they do.
(Eysenck, 2004)
 The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Ciccarelli & Meyer,2006;
Coon & Mitterer, 2007, 2008)
 The science that studies behaviour and mental processes.( Rathus,2008)

40
 As is evident in the above definitions, the study of behavior (human and animal) has
been emphasized in all of them. In addition, most authors have also included
‘cognitive/mental processes’ in their definitions of psychology.
3.5 NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES FOR EDUCATION
Educational Psychology has developed to study scientifically the behaviour of the
students and to help the process of education. It is particular field applied psychology. It tries
to study the educational behaviour of the child and applies the knowledge psychology in
education. Judd has defined Educational Psychology as the science which describes and
explains the changes that take place in individuals as they pass through various stages of
development from birth to maturity. “Apparently Educational Psychology deals with various
problems of learning and teaching. That is why Educational Psychology is known as
“psychology of teaching and learning.” A large number of educationists and psychologists
have contributed to the origin and development of educational psychology.
In other words, educational psychology may be defined as that branch of psychology
which studies the behaviour of the learner in relation to his educational needs and his environment.
Educational psychology has been defined by various psychologists and scholars. For the sake
of understanding what educational psychology is, let us analyse a few important definitions.
 B. F. Skinner (1958): Educational psychology is that branch of psychology, which deals
with teaching and learning.
 Crow and Crow (1973): Educational psychology describes and explains the learning
experiences of an individual from birth through old age.
 E. A. Peel (1956): Educational psychology is the science of education.
products of the teaching–learning, and it is this which helps the teacher and the learner.
The definition given by L. D. Crow and Alice Crow describes educational psychology
as that subject area of the curriculum through which one can study the development of an
individual in terms of his learning achievement during his life- span. How one goes on learning
as a result of interaction with the environment and how one can learn effectively is covered by
educational psychology.
Learning, however, on account of its close association with experience, often said to be a
great teacher, is never independent of teaching. Therefore, what we find in the process of
development is nothing but a planned spontaneous scheme of teaching and learning. All our
efforts and energies in the field of education are directed to planning and devising the
appropriate means of better teaching and effective learning. Educational psychology is mainly
meant for solving the practical problems related to the field of education, especially the process
of teaching and learning.
It is these considerations that led E. A. Peel to define and describe educational psychology
as the science of education, i.e., a discipline that can be used to improve the process and
products of education in a scientific way.

41
3.6 IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY OF CHILD IN EDUCATION
Children spend a major part of their time either in school or at home. Thus,
parents and teachers are the ones who tend to have a big impact on their development.
They play an important role in shaping a child’s attitudes and behaviour.
Psychology of Child in Education is a vital part of the learning process, especially in this era.
It is important for both educators and students.
 It helps the teacher to get to know his potential to teach and the abilities of the learners.
 It assists the teacher in the identifying the learning process.
 It helps the teacher to asses each student and to know where he stands and how he has
grown.
 It helps the teacher to adjust his method of learning to the demand of the learner.
 It helps the teacher to solve the learning problems of each student.
 It helps the teacher to motivate the student to learn and to increase his ability in
memorising.
 It helps to teacher to identify the differences each student has according to his or her
own limits.
 It helps the teacher to channel the students’ abilities in the right direction
 As a learner, it enables him to get to know about himself and identify his behaviour.
 It facilitates the learning process by determining factors of the classroom environment
and how discipline should be maintained.
 It helps curriculum generators to identify what needs to be added to the curriculum to
support the teachers and students with the learning process to transfer to the next
generation.
 It helps to identify how to evaluate students in order to test to what extend the
information and concepts taught have been transferred.
All of these benefits only tell you how important educational psychology is. This means
that it is the right time for you to consider following one of the psychology courses online so
that you get to master the above techniques
3.7 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A BRANCH OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which deals with the
application of psychological findings in the field of education. In other words, it deals with
the human behavior in educational situations. It is the systematic study of the development of
the individual in the educational settings.
It is the scientific study of human behaviour by which it can be understood, predicated
and directed by education to achieve goals of life. Trow describes, “Educational psychology
is the study of psychological aspects of educational situations”. Stephens says, “Educational
psychology is the study of educational growth and development”.
Judd describes educational psychology as, “a scientific study of the life stages in the
development of an individual from the time he is born until he becomes an adult.” Charles E.
Skinner defines, “Educational psychology is the branch of psychology which deals with

42
teaching and learning”. So educational psychology aims at studying the peculiar problems
and situations arising in educational situations. It helps a teacher to understand his pupils and
make educative efforts for solving different educational problems.

Educational psychology is an applied science. It applies psychological principles and

methods in the field of education. The knowledge of the growth and development of the
child, learning conditions and theories belonging to the field of psychology is used for
methods of teaching and school organization.

3.9 SUMMARY
 Psychology was the science of soul, science of mind and science of conciousnesss as
earlier notions now it is the “science of behavior”,
 Educational Psychology has developed to study scientifically the behaviour of the
students and to help the process of education. It is particular field applied psychology. It
tries to study the educational behaviour of the child and applies the knowledge
psychology in education.
 Thus Educational Psychology is an applied branch of psychology that deals with the
application of the principles of general psychology to the problems of education. We
can, in more simple words, say that ‘educational psychology’, applies knowledge to
educational problems.
3.10 GLOSSARY
Psychology: the scientific study of the mind and how it influences behavior
Education: a process of teaching, training and learning, especially in schools, colleges or
universities, to improve knowledge and develop skills.
Educational Psychology: A branch of psychology that studies children in an educational
setting and is concerned with teaching and learning methods, cognitive development, and
aptitude assessment.
Applied Psychology: he branches of psychology in which research findings are applied to
practical problems, considered collectively.

43
3.11 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY
1. Describe the evolution of definitions of psychology.
2. Psychology is the science of behaviour write your own perspective on this
3. Discuss the importance of psychology of child in education
3.12 REFERENCES
1. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. Woodworth, R. S. (1948). Contemporary Schools of
Psychology. New York: Ronald.
2. Allyn & Bacon. Beyer,B. K. (1995). Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta
Kappa Educational Foundation.
3. Allyn and Bacon. C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction to
Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill References
4. Atkinson, R. C., & Atkinson, R.L. (1975). Introduction to Psychology (6th edition).
New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
5. Bagga, Q. L. & Singh, A. (1990). Elemrnts of General Psychology. New Delhi: Arya
Book Depot.
6. Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA:
7. Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA:
8. Bolles,R.C. (1993). The Story of Psychology. Portland:Brooks/Cole Pub Co.
9. Ciccarelli, S.K.& Meyer, G.E.(2006). Psychology. Delhi (India): Pearson Education,
Inc.
10. Clark, K. E. & Miller, G. A. (eds.) (1970). Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
11. Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and
Behaviour (11th edition). Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.
12. Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition) Delhi (India):
Thomson Wadsworth.
13. James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. N.Y.:Holt. Lahey, Benjamin B.
(1998). Psychology: An Introduction. New Delhi; Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited.
14. Nairne, J.S. (2003). Psychology: The Adaptive Mind (3rd edition). USA:Wadsworth.
15. Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002) An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad,
(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd..
16. Rathus, S.A. (2008). Psychology: Concepts & Connections. (9th edition). Canada:
Wadsworth.
17. Rush, Harold M.F.(1972).The world of work and the behavioural sciences: A
perspective and an overview. In Fred Luthans (Ed.). Contemporary readings in
organisational behaviour. New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
18. Schick, T. & Vaughn, L.(2001). How to think about weird things: Critical thinking for a
new age. New York: McGraw-Hill. Tavris,C. & Warde,C. (1997). Psychology in
Perspective (2nd Ed). New York:

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 UNIT-4 BASIC CONCEPT IN PSYCHOLOGY RELATED TO
EDUCATION

Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Concept of Learning, Definitions of the Learning.
4.3 Learning as Modification of behaviour.
4.4 Nature of Learning Process.
4.5 Factors influencing learning.
4.5 Concept of Achievement.
4.7 Individual Differences
4.8 Need to manage individual differences
4.9 Check Your Progress
4.10 Summary
4.11 Glossary
4.12 Questions about Self study
4.13 References

45
4.0. OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to,
 Define the term Learning.
 Explain the nature of Learning Process.
 Describe the different factors influencing learning
 Critically evaluate the role of Individual differences in learning
 Apply the Strategies to cater the Individual differences while teaching.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
learning is continuous which starts right from the time of birth of an individual and
continues till the death. We all are engaged in the learning endeavors in order to develop our
adaptive capabilities as per the requirements of the changing environment. Behaviour
modification procedures are designed to change behaviour, not a personal characteristic or
trait. Therefore, behavior modification de-emphasizes labelling. For example, behaviour
modification is not used to change autism (a label); rather, behaviour modification is used to
change problem behaviours exhibited by children with autism. Behavioural excesses and
deficits are targets for change with behaviour modification procedures. In behaviour
modification, the behaviour to be modified is called the target behaviour. A behavioral excess
is an undesirable target behavior the person wants to decrease in frequency, duration, or
intensity. Smoking is an example of a behavioural excess.
4.2 CONCEPT OF LEARNING, DEFINITIONS OF THE LEARNING
Concept of Learning
The process of learning is continuous which starts right from the time of birth of an
individual and continues till the death. We all are engaged in the learning endeavors in order
to develop our adaptive capabilities as per the requirements of the changing environment. For
a learning to occur, two things are important:
1. The presence of a stimulus in the environment and
2. The innate dispositions like emotional and instinctual dispositions. A person keeps on
learning across all the stages of life, by constructing or reconstructing experiences under
the influence of emotional and instinctual dispositions.
Definition of Learning
John B Watson is one amongst the first thinkers who has proven that behavioural
changes occur as a result of learning. Watson is believed to be the founder of Behavioural
school of thought, which gained its prominence or acceptability around the first half of the
20th century.
Crow and Crow defined learning as the process of acquisition of knowledge, habits and
attitudes.
E. A, Peel, Learning can be described as a change in the individual which takes place as a
result of the environmental change.

46
H.J. Klausmeir described Learning as a process which leads to some behavioural change as a
result of some experience, training, observation, activity, etc.
Woodworth. R.S(1945) “Any activity can be called learning so far as it develosthe individual
and makes his behaviour and experiences different from what that would otherwise have
been”
Gates and others ―Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience‖
Henry, P Smith ―Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or strengthening or
weakening of old behaviour as a result of experience
Skinner―Learning is the process of progressive behaviour adaptation.
Munn―To learn is to modify behaviour and experience.
M. L. Bigge ―Learning may be considered as change in insights, behaviour, perception,
motivation or a combination of these.
The above definitions emphasize
Four attributes of learning…
 As Process: the first is that learning is permanent change in behaviour.
 It does not include change due to illness, fatigue, maturation and use of intoxicant.
 The learning is not directly observable but manifests in the activities of the individual.
 Learning depends on practice and experience.
4.3 LEARNING AS MODIFICATION OF BEHAVIOUR
Behaviour modification is the field of psychology concerned with analysing and
modifying human behaviour. Analysing means identifying the functional relationship
between environmental events and a particular behaviour to understand the reasons for
behaviour or to determine why a person behaved as he or she did. Modifying means
developing and implementing procedures to help people change their behaviour. It involves
altering environmental events so as to influence behaviour. Behaviour modification
procedures are developed by professionals and used to change socially significant behaviours,
with the goal of improving some aspect of a person’s life.
Characteristics of Behaviour Modification Following are the characteristics of
behaviour modification:
1. Focus on behaviour: Behaviour modification procedures are designed to change
behaviour, not a personal characteristic or trait. Therefore, behavior modification de-
emphasizes labelling. For example, behaviour modification is not used to change autism
(a label); rather, behaviour modification is used to change problem behaviours exhibited
by children with autism. Behavioural excesses and deficits are targets for change with
behaviour modification procedures. In behaviour modification, the behaviour to be
modified is called the target behaviour. A behavioral excess is an undesirable target
behavior the person wants to decrease in frequency, duration, or intensity. Smoking is
an example of a behavioural excess. A behavioural deficit is a desirable target

47
 behaviour the person wants to increase in frequency, duration, or intensity. Exercise and
studying are possible examples of behavioural deficits.
2. Procedures based on behavioural principles: Behaviour modification is the application
of basic principles originally derived from experimental research with laboratory
animals. The scientific study of behaviour is called the experimental analysis of
behaviour, or behaviour analysis. The scientific study of human behaviour is called the
experimental analysis of human behaviour, or applied behaviour analysis. Behaviour
modification procedures are based on research in applied behaviour analysis that has
been conducted for more than 40 years.
3. Emphasis on current environmental events: Behaviour modification involves assessing
and modifying the current environmental events that are functionally related to the
behaviour. Human behaviour is controlled by events in the immediate environment, and
the goal of behaviour modification is to identify those events. Once these controlling
variables have been identified, they are altered to modify the behaviour. Successful
behaviour modification procedures alter the functional relationships between the
behaviour and the controlling variables in the environment to produce a desired change
in the behaviour. Sometimes labels are mistakenly identified as the causes of behaviour.
For example, a person might say that a child with autism engages in problem
behaviours (such as screaming, hitting himself, refusal to follow instructions) because
the child is autistic. In other words, the person is suggesting that autism causes the child
to engage in the behavior. However, autism is simply a label that describes the pattern
of behaviours the child engages in. The label cannot be the cause of the behaviour
because the label does not exist as a physical entity or event. The causes of the
behaviour must be found in the environment (including the biology of the child.
4.4 NATURE OF LEARNING PROCESS
Learning is a Continuous Process: After birth, the child acquires skill from experiences
obtained from the environment. Hence, leaning goes on throughout life. Learning can be
formal or informal and it may be direct or indirect. When a learner learns he develop,
knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes, and aptitudes.
Learning is Change in behavior: The result of the Learning process can be measured as
behavioral changes. This change can be in any form. It can be desirable or undesirable. But in
desirable form, i.e. these changes should occur in a positive direction. Learning includes all
three aspects of human behavior. So, it includes cognitive, affective and conative aspects of
mental process.
Learning is a universal process: Learning is a universal process. It can happen everywhere.
Learning is a process for all living creatures. Human being across all cultures learn as it is a
life-long process.
Learning is Purposive and Goal-oriented: Learning is, always has a purpose. It is goal-
oriented in the sense that the teacher always has learning objectives in mind while teaching. If
we don’t have any aim and goal, then the process of learning will not show any effect.
Through the process of learning, we can move towards pre-determined learning objectives.
As the learner learn, he/she move towards a pre-determined goal.
48
Learning is a process of progress and Development: Learning can occur in any direction.
Theses directions can be desirable or undesirable. We want to bring the individual’s
development in a desirable direction through learning. We do not want a child to learn in
undesirable directions like stealing or pickpocketing. So learning should bring progressive
changes in the behavior of the learner.
Learning is the Organisation of Experiences: The basis of learning is the acquisition of
new experiences. Behaviors of learners change as a result of new experiences. New learning
experiences evolve as a result of past experiences acquired by the learner.
Learning occurs due to Activity and Environment: Interaction with the environment is
very essential for the learning process. The more children interact with their environment, the
more they learn. The absence of activity and interaction hampers the quality of learning in the
child. These interactions provide experience to the children. Due to these interactions changes
occur in the behavior of the children.
Learning Helps in Achieving Teaching-learning Objectives: Teaching and learning
situations have different goals, aims, and objectives. The process of learning helps in
achieving the objectives of teaching. With learning, we expect a change in the behavior of the
individuals. This change happens with the development of knowledge, insight, interests,
skills, and attitudes. So, for achieving teaching-learning objectives, the learning process plays
an important role.
Learning is the Fundamental process of Life: Without learning the progress of a person is
not possible. It acts as the basis for the progress of society and civilization.
Learning is the Relationship between stimulus and Response: Learning is, generally, a
relationship between stimulus and response. A person is considered as a learned-person if he
reacts according to the task to be learned. Through learning, a person learns reactions
according to the stimuli associated with the environment and other aspects of life.
Learning is transferable: The learning acquired in one situation is capable of transfer to
some other situation. The knowledge acquired in one situation proves helpful in acquiring
knowledge in other situation. This is known as the transfer of learning. The learner should be
careful not to let previously gained knowledge interfere with acquiring new knowledge and
experiences.
4.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING
The learner is the focal point in any learning. Without learner, there cannot be learnt.
There are some personal factors affecting learning that deal with the innate aspects of an
individual and are unique to learner. These are extremely significant as they influence what
the individual can learn, how much time, effort and energy is required to put in and how well
is likely to learn. The environmental factors are other factors which mediate the learning
process. Research has shown that the following are the key factors that affect learning:
 Intelligence,
 Personality
 Interest

49
  Attitude
 Atitude
 Motivation
Let us examine them one by one
Intelligence: Intelligence is one of the most talked-as influencing factors of learning,
intelligence is a single, general ability. Other theories of intelligence hold that intelligence
encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills, and talents. Learning is greatly facilitated by
intelligence. The earliest among these was the psychometric tradition beginning with the
work of Alfred Binet. This tradition is based on statistical analyses of conventional tests of
intelligence, requiring students to show basic vocabulary, mathematical ability, reasoning and
other skills. In a broad sense, intelligence is understood as a combination of several specific,
component abilities. Binet for instance, suggested three main elements of intelligence: (1)
direction, which involves knowing what has to be done and how to do it; 2) adaptation or
figuring out how to perform a task and (3) criticism, or the ability to critique one's own
thoughts and actions.
British psychologist Charles Spearman suggested that intelligence can be understood
in terms of two dimensions or factors. A single general factor (g factor), general mental
ability, which would affect all tasks and activities, and specific factors (s factors) which affect
performance in a single discrete area of mental ability, such as vocabulary, mathematics,
reasoning, etc.
The American psychologist Thurstone, however, argued that a single factor was an
inadequate index of intelligence and suggested seven inter-related factors which he called
primary mental abilities. According to him learning and performance were the outcome of
these seven primary mental abilities which, he labeled as: i) Verbal comprehension, ii) Verbal
fluency, iii) Inductive reasoning, (iv) Spatial visualization, (v) Number, (vi) Memory, and
(vii) Perceptual speed.
Other approaches to intelligence and learning view them as abilities to process
information meaningfully (Sternberg) to adapt to the demands of the environment (Piaget), to
construct knowledge based on one's experiences (constructivism), and to be emotionally well
adjusted and secure (Goleman). The conceptualization of intelligence, thus in these different
frameworks is much broader and recognizes that children as well as adults can be intelligent
in many different ways.
The most dominant contemporary view in the intelligence which has a marked
influence on educational practice is the one proposed by Gardener. He has advanced a theory
of multiple intelligences in which there are eight distinct and relatively independent
intelligences. Each is a separate system of functioning, although. The various systems can
interact to produce overall intelligent performance. The eight intelligences are: Linguistic
intelligence Logical-mathematical intelligence Spatial intelligence Musical intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence Interpersonal intelligence Intrapersonal intelligence Naturalist
intelligence The Learner The intelligence on which one is high in terms of manifestation will
thus determine what one learns, how well one learns, and also influence the various ways in

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which one seeks engagement. Thus, irrespective of how we define intelligence, in relating it
to learning, there is no doubt that it affects what, when and how we learn. Further, in
operational terms, it definitely is a capacity or an ability for problem solving, thinking,
reasoning, relating to others, dealing with emotions, developing interests, sense of right and
wrong and living in consonance with our environment.
Personality: Personality describes a person’s dispositional and distinctive pattern of
thoughts, feelings, and behavior across various situations. At any given moment, personality
traits may be poor predictors of behavior, but by comparing reactions over a wide range of
contexts, consistencies are likely to appear. Personality may influence learning indirectly
through attitudes and motivation which create particular conceptions of learning, learning
investment, and preferred ways to learn. Personality traits may thus be expressed in learning
styles, which in turn create learning strategies and produce a certain learning outcome.
Personality traits, thus serve as indications of likely patterns of behavior. It helps gain
confidence, self-esteem, positive impact on one's communication skills and the way one sees
the world. Students should develop an outgoing and impressive personality that will enhance
the quality of learning. Everyone has qualities that make them unique in trying to develop
their persona. Personality traits may have a directing, framing, strengthening, or weakening
impact on educational processes depending on the trait in difficulty and on what is being
learnt. Personality may influence learning indirectly through attitudes and motivation which
create particular conceptions of learning, learning investment, and preferred ways to learn.
Personality traits may thus be expressed in learning styles, which in turn create learning
strategies and produce a certain learning outcome. For instance deep learning, which reflects
intrinsic motivation and often results in a good study outcome, has been related to personality
traits such as openness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability (e.g., Diseth 2003).
Personality also influences how a student behaves in an educational context, which is another
influencing factor in learning outcome. Conscientious students, for instance, are likely to
attend classes, while extraverts often have a higher degree of absence.
Personality, interest, and intelligence are all fundamentally intertwined as each part of
the triad influences the development of the others (Ackerman 1996). General knowledge
(crystallized intelligence) grows through investment of reasoning ability (fluid intelligence),
personality, motivation, interest, and effort in learning processes.
Mere cognitive ability is thus not enough for knowledge development if not supported
by motivation and drive. Openness to experience, intellectual engagement, and need for
cognition, for instance, are all personality traits that trigger a curiosity to find out more. Mere
interest, however, is not sufficient if it is not supported by effort and dedication. Here, a
personality trait such as conscientiousness may provide the determination, discipline, and
persistence which would further support knowledge acquisition.
Personality The most established model of personality to date is the five-factor model
(Costa and McCrae 1992). This model describes personality as a combination of traits along
five central dimensions: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism.

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Attitude: A negative attitude limits performance, weaken motivation, and inhibits learning.
Negative attitudes discourage, limit, and even prevent learning, positive change, and growth.
Learner attitudes have an impact on the learning. Thus, learners with positive attitudes
(motivated one) will experience success. Similarly, learners with negative attitudes
(demotivated one) will not experience success rather failure. A positive attitude lets one
relax, remember, focus and absorb information. Can welcome new experiences and recognize
many different kinds of learning opportunities which increases hope to learn.
Nature of Attitude
Attitude is a complex combination of things we tend to call personality, beliefs, values,
behaviors, and motivations.
An attitude exists in every person’s mind. It helps to define our identity, guide our actions,
and influence how we judge people.
Although the feeling and belief components of attitude are internal to a person, we can view a
person’s attitude from his or her resulting behavior.
Attitude helps us define how we see situations, as well as define how we behave toward the
situation or object.
Attitude provides us with internal cognitions or beliefs and thoughts about people and
objects.
Attitude cause us to behave in a particular way toward an object or person.
Characteristics of attitudes
Attitude can be characterized by:
Affective Cognitive consistency: The degree of consistency between the affective and
cognitive components influences the attitude—behavior relationship. That is, the greater the
consistency between cognition and evaluation, the greater the strength of the attitude-
behavior relation.
Strength: Attitudes based on direct experience with the object may be held with greater
certainty. Certainty is also influenced by whether affect or cognition was involved in the
creation of the attitude. Attitudes formed based on affect are more certain than attitudes based
on cognition
Valence: It refers to the degree or grade of likeliness or unlikeliness toward the
entity/incident. If a person is fairly unconcerned toward an object then his attitude has low
valence.
Direct Experience: An attitude is a summary of a person’s past experience; thus, an attitude
is grounded in direct experience predicts future behavior more accurately. Moreover, direct
experience makes more information available about the object itself.
Multiplicity: It refers to the amount of features, creating the attitude. For example, one may
show interest in becoming a doctor, but another not only shows interest, but also works hard,
is sincere, and serious.

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Relation to Needs: Attitudes vary in relative to requirements they serve. Attitudes of an
individual toward the pictures serve only entertainment needs, but attitudes of an employee
toward task may serve strong needs for security, achievement, recognition, and satisfaction.
Interest: Interest is a feeling or emotion that causes attention to focus on an object, event, or
process. In contemporary psychology of interest, the term is used as a general concept that
may encompass other more specific psychological terms, such as curiosity and to a much
lesser degree surprise. An interest is not the same the preference for some object, event or
behaviour over others and which provides engagement and joy. Interests are actually deep
rooted constructs and are determined by the need structure of an individual. An individual
with strong social needs such as belongingness, affiliation , and recognition will direct all
his/her energies into activities which enable him/her to fulfill these needs such as meeting
people, going to dubs, associations, parties, meetings etc. In theoretical terms, an interest may
be dead as a learnt or acquired motive stemming from some inherent needs of the individual
which drive hither to act in a way that will sustain or satisfy his inner need structure.
Individuals differ greatly in their patterns of interests because their need structures vary. For
some persons, social and emotional needs become the guiding forces, for others, aesthetic or
higher cognitive needs may be the preponderant factors. Age variations are also visible.
Young children have a need for activity, play, adventure, etc. and thus they learn much better
through a playway approach. They arouses their interest in studies and helps to maintain their
involvement in work. For adolescents and older learners, Interests are thus determined by
both age related and human needs factors. They influence not only what one will learn best,
but also serve to explain why learning sometimes flags or becomes inadequate. Interests are
usually classified on the basis of the nature of the activity involved, for example, spiritual
interests, recreational interests, scholarly or academic interests, social interests etc.
Aptitude: An aptitude is a component of a competence to do a certain kind of work at a
certain level. Outstanding aptitude can be considered "talent." An aptitude may be physical or
mental. Aptitude is inborn potential to do certain kinds of work, whether developed or
undeveloped. An aptitude is thus best understood as a stable ability of an individual, that is
readily available as a resource, which can be applied to specific tasks requiring this ability,
thereby enhancing the potential for learning. Different jobs require different skills and their
corresponding aptitudes. Recognising this, psychologists have developed many tests for
assessing specific aptitudes so as to predict how an individual may perform on a specific
skill. One of the most popularly used tests is the Differential Factors Affecting Learning-I.
Aptitude Test Battery (DATB) which measures aptitudes like verbal reasoning, abstract
reasoning, numerical ability, mechanical reasoning, spatial ability, language ability and
clerical speed and accuracy.
These tests help to identify an individual's aptitudes, and to predict what will learn
and do with ease. The knowledge about various types of aptitudes enables us to economize
our efforts and maximize learning. Teachers encourage students having an aptitude for
scholastic ability to strive towards excellence and high achievement by providing them
beneficial learning opportunities. Thus, an aptitude is a measure of the probable rate of
learning, which results in interest and satisfaction. Aptitudes are often used synonymously

53
with talents and specific abilities, which are actually manifested concepts, judged through
performance parameters.
Motivation: Motivation is a reason for actions, willingness, and goals. Motivation is derived
from the word ‘motive’, or a need that requires satisfaction. These needs, wants or desires
may be acquired through influence of culture, society, lifestyle, or may be generally innate.
Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
Motivation is an important factor that encourages individuals to give their best performance
and help them reach enterprise goals. A strong positive motivation will enable increased
production of employees, but a negative motivation will reduce their performance. A key
element in personnel management is motivation.
Definitions of motivation by jurist’s
Berelson and Steiner: – “A motive is an inner state that energizes, activates, or moves and
directs or channels behaviour goals.”
Lillis: – “It is the stimulation of any emotion or desire operating upon one’s will and
promoting or driving it to action.”
The Encyclopedia of Management: – “Motivation refers to degree of readiness of an
organism to pursue some designated goal and implies the determination of the nature and
locus of the forces, including the degree of readiness.”
Dubin: – “Motivation is the complex of forces starting and keeping a person at work in
an organization.”
Vance: – “Motivation implies any emotion or desire which so conditions one’s will that the
individual is properly led into action.”
Nature of motivation
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a person. A person lacks some
needs, which makes him satisfied that he works more. The need to satisfy the ego motivates a
person to do better in general.
The following conclusions can be drawn from the definitions given earlier: –
Motivation is an inner feeling that makes a person excited to do more work.
A person’s feelings or desires motivate him to perform a particular task.
A person has unsatisfying needs that impair his balance.
A person proceeds to fulfill his dissatisfied needs by conditioning his energies.
A person has passive energies that are activated by channeling in actions.
Types of motivation
When a manager wants to take more work from his subordinates, he has to be motivated to
improve his performance. They will either be offered incentives for more work, or they may
be in place of rewards, better reports, recognition, etc., or they may instill fear in them or use
force to achieve the desired task.

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The following are the types of motivation: –
1. Positive motivation: Positive motivation is based on reward. Workers are offered
incentives to achieve desired goals. Incentives may be in the form of higher salaries,
promotions, recognition of work, etc. Employees are offered incentives and seek to improve
their performance voluntarily.
According to Peter Drucker, genuine and positive motivators are responsible for
placement, high levels of performance, sufficient information for self-control, and worker
involvement as a responsible citizen in the plant community. Positive motivation comes from
the support of employees and they feel happy.
2. Negative motivation: Negative or fear is based on motivation or fear. Fear causes
employees to act a certain way. In case, they do not act accordingly, then they can be
punished with demotion or take-off. Fear acts as a pushing mechanism. Employees do not
cooperate voluntarily; instead they want to avoid punishment.
Although employees work to a level where punishment is avoided, this type of
motivation leads to anger and frustration. This type of motivation usually becomes the cause
of industrial unrest. Despite the drawbacks of negative motivation, this method is commonly
used to achieve desired results. There can hardly be any management who has not used
negative motivation at one time or another.
4.6 CONCEPT OF ACHIEVEMENT
Achievement means the performance of the learner in learning environment, it is
called as Academic achievement refers to performance outcomes in intellectual domains
taught at school, college, and university. As an indicator of intellectual education, academic
achievement is the most important prerequisite for individual and societal prosperity.
Ravers(1970: 447) states that achievement is the result of what an individual has
learned from some educational experiences. Additionally, De Cecco & Crawford (1977)
states that achievement is the expectation of finding satisfaction in mastering challenging and
difficult performances. In addition to that, Yelon, Weinstein, & Weener (1977: 301)
expresses achievement as the successfulness of the individual, while another source Smith &
Hudgins (1964: 95) says that achievement is to do one’s best, to be successful, to accomplish
tasks requiring skill and effort and to be recognized by authority. Furthermore, Tinambunan
(1988: 149) defines achievement as the student’s grasp of some body of knowledge or
proficiency in certain skills. Besides, Garrison, Kingston, and McDonald (1955-1964: 331)
affirm the definition of achievement as the progress pupils make toward the goals and
objectives of the curriculum, they then assert further about the definition that achievement
may be the one’s ability or the extent of his/her knowledge in a specific content area.
Based on the opinions above the writer concludes that achievement is the result, the
successfulness, the extent or ability, the progress in learning educational experiences that the
individual indicate in relation with his/her educational learning.

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 Crow and Crow(1969) defined the Academic Achievement as the extent to which a
learner is profiting from instructions in a given area of learning i.e., achievement is reflected
by the extent to which skill and knowledge has been imparted to him.
Academic achievement or academic performance is the extent to which a student,
teacher or institution has attained their short or long-term educational goals. Completion of
educational benchmarks.
Academic achievement is commonly measured through examinations or continuous
assessments but there is no general agreement on how it is best evaluated or which aspects
are most important procedural knowledge such as skills or declarative knowledge such
as facts. Furthermore, there are inconclusive results over which individual factors
successfully predict academic performance, elements such as test anxiety, environment,
motivation, and emotions require consideration when developing models of school
achievement.
4.7 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Meaning of Individual Differences
Dissimilarity is a principle of nature. No two persons are alike. All the individuals
differ from each other in many a respects. Children born of the same parents and even the-
twins are not alike. This differential psychology is linked with the study of individual
differences. Wundt, Cattel, Kraepelin, Jastrow and Ebbing Haus are the exponents of
differential psychology.
This change is seen in physical forms like in height, weight, color, complexion,
strength etc., differences in intelligence, achievement, interest, attitude, aptitude, learning
habits, motor abilities, skill. Each man has an intellectual capacity through which he gains
experience and learning.
Every person has the emotions of love, anger, fear and feelings of pleasure and pain.
Every man has the need of independence, success and the need for acceptance.
Definitions of Individual Differences:
1. Driver James: “Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the
mental or physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual
differences.”
2. Good, C.V.: “The variation or deviations among individual is regarded to a single
characteristic or a number of characteristics, those differences which in their totality
distinguish one individual from another.”
3. Skinner, C.E.:“Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable
aspect of the total personality.”
Types of Individual Differences:
1. Physical differences: Shortness or the tallness of stature, darkness or fairness of
complexion, fatness, thinness, or weakness are various physical individual differences.

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2. Differences in intelligence: There are differences in intelligence level between
different individuals. We can classify the individuals from super-normal (above 120
I.Q.) to idiots (from 0 to 50 I.Q.) on the basis of their intelligence level.
3. Differences in attitudes: Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different people,
objects, institutions and authority.
4. Differences in achievement: It has been found through achievement tests that
individuals differ in their achievement abilities. These differences are very much visible
in reading, writing and in learning mathematics.
These differences in achievement are even visible among the children who are at the
same level of intelligence. These differences are on account of the differences in the
various factors of intelligence and the differences in the various experiences, interests
and educational background.
5. Differences in motor ability: There are differences in motor ability. These differences
are visible at different ages. Some people can perform mechanical tasks easily, while
others, even though they are at the same level, feel much difficulty in performing these
tasks.
6. Differences on account of sex: McNemar and Terman discovered the following
differences between men and women, on the basis of some studies:
(i) Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability.
(ii) Handwriting of women is superior while men excel in mathematics and logic.
(iii)Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch and smell,
etc., while men show greater reaction and conscious of the size- weight illusion.
(iv) Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in physics and
chemistry.
(v) Women are better than men in mirror drawing. Faults of speech etc. in men were
found to be three times of such faults in women.
(vi) Women are more susceptible to suggestion while there are three times as many
colour blind men as there are women.
(vii) Young girls take an interest in stories of love, fairy tales, stories of the school and
home and daydreaming and show various levels in their play. On the other hand
boys take an interest in stories of bravery, science, war, scouting, stories of games
and sports, stories and games of occupation and skill.
7. Racial differences: There are different kinds of racial differences. Differences of
environment is a normal factor in causing these differences. Karl Brigham has
composed a list on the basis of differences in levels of intelligence among people who
have migrated to United States from other countries.
On the basis of these average differences between the races, the mental age of a
particular individual cannot be calculated since this difference is based on environment.
8. Differences due to nationality: Individuals of different nations differ in respect of
physical and mental differences, interests and personality etc. ‘Russians are tall and

57
 stout’; ‘Ceylonese are short and slim’; ‘Germans have no sense of humour’; ‘Yellow
races are cruel and revengeful’; ‘Americans are hearty and frank’; Indians are timid and
peace-loving’ and the like observations enter into our common talk.
9. Differences due to economic status: Differences in children’s interests, tendencies and
character are caused by economic differences.
10. Differences in interests: Factors such as sex, family background level of development,
differences of race and nationality etc., cause differences in interests.
11. Emotional differences: Individuals differ in their emotional reactions to a particular
situation. Some are irritable and aggressive and they get angry very soon. There are
others who are of peaceful nature and do not get angry easily. At a particular thing an
individual may be so much enraged that he may be prepared for the worst crime like
murder, while another person may only laugh at it.
12. Personality differences: There are differences in respect of personality. On the basis of
differences in personality, individuals have been classified into many groups.
Causes of Individual Differences:
There are various causes which are responsible in bringing individual differences.
They are narrated below:
i. Heredity: Some heretical traits bring a change from one individual to another. An
individual’s height, size, shape and color of hair, shape of face, nose, hands and legs so
to say the entire structure of the body is determined by his heretical qualities.
Intellectual differences are also to a great extent influenced by hereditary factor.
ii. Environment: Environment brings individual differences in behavior, activities,
attitude, and style of life characteristics. Personality etc. Environment does not refer
only physical surroundings, but also it refers the different types of people, society, their
culture, customs, traditions, social heritage, ideas and ideals.
iii. Race and Nationality: Race and Nationality is one cause of individual difference.
Indians are very peace loving, Chinese are cruel; Americans are very frank due to race
and nationality.
iv. Sex: Due to sex variation one individual differs from the other. Men are strong in mental
power. On the other hand women on the average show small superiority over men in
memory, language and aesthetic sense. Women excel the men in shouldering social
responsibilities and have a better control over their emotions.
v. Age: Age is another factor which is responsible in bringing individual differences.
Learning ability and adjustment capacity naturally grow with age. When one grows in
age can acquire better control over our emotions and better social responsibilities. When
a child grows, then this maturity and development goes side by side.
vi. Education: Education is one major factor which brings individual differences. There is
a wide gap in the behaviors of educated and uneducated persons. All traits of human

58
 beings like social, emotional and intellectual are controlled and modifies through proper
education.
This education brings a change in our attitude, behaviour, appreciations, Personality. It
is seen that uneducated persons are guided by their instinct and emotions whereas the
educated persons are guided by their reasoning power
Individual difference and its effects on learning
There are three types of individuals which effects on Learning,
1. Socioeconomic Status: Socioeconomic Status The millionaire’s lifestyle differs from
that of the middle income or lower income group.
2. Thinking/Learning Styles: Some of you learn better by seeing something; others by
just listening; and still others by manipulating something.
3. Exceptionalities: Exceptionalities In class there maybe one who has difficulty in
spoken language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.
Differences in learning and thinking style Some learn more easily and are able to
make use of their learning more comfortably than others. For some, one method of learning
or memorization is more suitable, while for others, a different method suits. Parents and
teachers are able to perceive children and their natural tendencies of how they think, act and
learn in different ways and in different situations.
4.8 NEED TO MANAGE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Every student is a unique individual having a completely different personality.
Teachers have to face a huge variety of individual differences in the classroom out of which
the most prominent are gender, intelligence, learning capability, background, culture,
religion, motivation and interest. For effective learning, the teacher is the one who has to
keep all these differences in mind while teaching a class and then work out the methods and
means to address their academic needs. For this, diversified resources can be used to cater for
the students’ individual needs.
Generally, the following three methods are used worldwide to deal with individual
differences among students:
1. Multiple Events of Instruction: In this strategy, the teacher conveys the different content
to each student. All the students are working on a different task at the same time. Slow
learners are guided more as compared to the good ones. This definitely increases the
teacher’s responsibility to an incredible level.
He/She has to handle multiple intelligence simultaneously. But mostly this kind of
medium is not supported by a great number of educationists.
Moreover, the biggest drawback this strategy has is that the students having a low
learning profile can get many benefits from this policy, but the students with a high-level of
skills and abilities find it quite devastating for them. It hardly gives them the boost they are in
need of. It is also called the learner-centered approach.

59
2.Between-Class Ability Group: This method is used to make groups of different students
having the same caliber or standard of learning within one class. There are several groups
working at the same grade or class, but these groups are assigned different tasks or classwork
or even the homework. It also depends solely on the teacher. If the teacher is a well
experienced one, capable to handle a diverse number of groups at the same time, then it can
get easy to attain ultimate goals but otherwise, it can prove to be a disaster.
3. Class Grouping: One major thing about this method is that it does not lie on the teacher’s
authority, but the school administrators. This method refers to making different class groups
pertaining to students’ learning differences. The students are already classified before they
start learning. The whole class is formed based on a typical category of aptitude. They have
to go through a testing procedure first. After judging their aptitude and capabilities they are
given admission to the classes allocated for them.
This makes it quite easy for the teachers to go along with the students or work on
them in a single way because the same kind of work or effort has been done in the class.
4. Differentiate instruction: It’s important to recognize that “fairness” in education doesn’t
mean that all children are taught in the exact same way. Instead it means accounting for the
needs of individual students and adjusting the curriculum accordingly. Differentiation allows
you to provide individualized instruction by changing the pace, level, or style of teaching to
engage student strengths and interests. Students with mental health and learning disorders are
not the only children who benefit from this instructional philosophy—all children in your
classroom can achieve at higher levels when you are conscientious about providing
instruction that fits how they learn best. Differentiating instruction includes, when
appropriate, reducing assignments or extending deadlines to accommodate a child’s abilities.
5. Capitalize on learning styles: Students learn in a number of different ways. Visual
learners learn most effectively from visual information, while auditory learners learn best
from verbal or audio presentations. Tactile-kinesthetic learners do well when touching or
moving in some way as they take in information (experiential learning). While students can
often learn to some degree in all of these different ways, many excel in one area so that
instruction based on a particular style is much more effective than that of another. Deficits in
one or more areas of learning can be particularly common in students with learning
disabilities.
6. Incorporate multiple intelligences the curriculum. Students often have areas of learning
in which they are particularly strong. These learning strengths can be engaged to help
students succeed in the classroom and reach their full potential. The multiple intelligences are
a framework of strengths outlined by Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner. They are
linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual- spatial, musical-rhythmic, bodily-kinesthetic,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Most students have strengths in one or two of
these areas.
7. Capitalize on student interests. One of the best ways to motivate students is to
incorporate their interests into the curriculum. As much as possible, allow students to choose
the topics they’ll report on in a paper or project. Also look to include interests in other

60
smaller ways such as in math word problems. Tying learning to interests is a potentially
powerful way to reinforce core curriculum concepts.
8. Involve students in educational goals. Students perform best when they feel they are
active participants, as opposed to passive subjects, in learning. Try to involve students in
creating goals related to learning activities. Children with mental health and learning
disorders may have a negative attitude toward schoolwork so incentives are required at the
outset. Your goal ultimately should be to have students genuinely engaged in learning so that
rewards become less important.
9. Use computerized instruction. Most students enjoy working with computers, which can
stimulate their interest in schoolwork. A wide assortment of available programs from reading
instruction to voice recognition software makes computerized instruction very relevant in
helping students with special needs. Activities and games that incorporate material from
content themes can reinforce concepts for visual and tactile learners.
10. Group students effectively. Group projects provide great opportunities for you to put
together the talents of students in complementary ways. A child who struggles in one aspect
of a subject may excel in another. Group students so that they can both showcase strengths
and learn from peers. Also give careful consideration to the social dynamics of groups.
Children who have mental health and learning disorders benefit from working with students
who are especially kind, patient, and empathetic.
11. Consider outside placement options. Some children may have needs you simply cannot
meet in the regular classroom. At these times, work with your school’s specialists to ensure
skills are developed in other settings. A child with a communication disorder might require
intensive work with a speech language pathologist. An extremely disruptive student may
need to spend part of the day in a program set up for children with serious emotional
disorders.
4.10 SUMMARY
Learning as Process: the first is that learning is a permanent change in behavior. It does not
include change due to illness, fatigue, maturation and use of intoxicant.The learning is not
directly observable but manifests in the activities of the individual. Learning depends on
practice and experience.
The process of learning is continuous which starts right from the time of birth of an
individual and continues till the death. We all are engaged in the learning endeavors in order
to develop our adaptive capabilities as per the requirements of the changing environment. For
a learning to occur, two things are important: 1. The presence of a stimulus in the
environment and
The innate dispositions like emotional and instinctual dispositions.
A person keeps on learning across all the stages of life, by constructing or
reconstructing experiences under the influence of emotional and instinctual dispositions.
Behaviour modification is the field of psychology concerned with analysing and
modifying human behaviour. Analysing means identifying the functional relationship

61
between environmental events and a particular behaviour to understand the reasons for
behaviour or to determine why a person behaved as he or she did. Modifying means
developing and implementing procedures to help people change their behaviour. It involves
altering environmental events so as to influence behaviour. Behavior modification procedures
are developed by professionals and used to change socially significant behaviors, with the
goal of improving some aspect of a person’s life.
The environmental factors are other factors which mediate the learning process.
Research has shown that the following are the key factors that affect learning: Intelligence,
Personality, Interest, Attitude, attitude, Motivation.
Achievement means the performance of the learner in learning environment, it is
called as Academic achievement refers to performance outcomes in intellectual domains
taught at school, college, and university. As an indicator of intellectual education, academic
achievement is the most important prerequisite for individual and societal prosperity.
No two persons are alike. All the individuals differ from each other in many a
respects. Children born of the same parents and even the-twins are not alike. This differential
psychology is linked with the study of individual differences. Wundt, Cattel, Kraepelin,
Jastrow and Ebbing Haus are the exponents of differential psychology.
For effective learning, the teacher is the one who has to keep all these differences in
mind while teaching a class and then work out the methods and means to address their
academic needs. For this, diversified resources can be used to cater for the students’
individual needs.
4.11 GLOSSARY
Learning: Changing the Behaviour
Intelligence: the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.
Interest: the feeling of wanting to know or learn about something or someone.
Personality: the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual's
distinctive character.
Attitude: a settled way of thinking or feeling about something.
Aptitude: a natural ability to do something.
Motivation: a reason or reasons for acting or behaving in a particular way.
Individual Differences: personal characteristics that distinguish learners from each other in
the teaching and learning processes.
4.12 QUESTIONS FOR SELF STUDY
1. Write the definitions of Learning.
2. Learning is a Process. Explain.
3. Discuss the factors influencing learning
4. How do you teach based on individual differences?

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4.13 REFERENCES
1. Allyn and Bacon. C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R. & Schopler, J. (1986). Introduction
to Psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill References
2. Atkinson, R. C., & Atkinson, R.L. (1975). Introduction to Psychology (6th edition).
New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.
3. Bagga, Q. L. & Singh, A. (1990). Elemrnts of General Psychology. New Delhi: Arya
Book Depot.
4. Baron, R.A.(1999). Essentials of Psychology (2nd edition). USA:
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6. Bolles,R.C. (1993). The Story of Psychology. Portland:Brooks/Cole Pub Co.
7. Ciccarelli, S.K.& Meyer, G.E.(2006). Psychology. Delhi (India): Pearson Education,
Inc.
8. Clark, K. E. & Miller, G. A. (eds.) (1970). Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
9. Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and
Behaviour (11th edition). Delhi (India): Thomson Wadsworth.
10. Coon, D. & Mitterer, J.O.(2008). Psychology: A Journey. (3rd edition) Delhi (India):
Thomson Wadsworth.
11. James, W. (1890). The Principles of Psychology. N.Y.:Holt. Lahey, Benjamin B.
(1998). Psychology: An Introduction. New Delhi; Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited.
12. Nairne, J.S. (2003). Psychology: The Adaptive Mind (3rd edition). USA:Wadsworth.
13. Parameswaran, E.G. & Beena, C. (2002) An Invitation to Psychology. Hyderabad,
(India): Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd..
14. Rathus, S.A. (2008). Psychology: Concepts & Connections. (9th edition). Canada:
Wadsworth.
15. Rush, Harold M.F.(1972).The world of work and the behavioural sciences: A
perspective and an overview. In Fred Luthans (Ed.). Contemporary readings in
organisational behaviour. New York. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
16. Schick, T. & Vaughn, L.(2001). How to think about weird things: Critical thinking for
a new age. New York: McGraw-Hill. Tavris,C. & Warde,C. (1997). Psychology in
Perspective (2nd Ed). New York:

63
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ªÀÄÄPÀÛUÀAUÉÆÃwæ, ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀÄ 570 006 MUKTHAGANGOTRI, MYSURU - 570 006

I Semester - M.A in Education

IDC - 1
FOUNDATIONS
OF
EDUCATION

Department of Studies and Research in Education

BLOCK-2 FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING - II

 KARNATAKA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY
Mukthagangothri, Mysuru - 570006

Department of Studies in Education

I Semester- M.A in Education

IDC - 1 FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

BLOCK-2 FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING - II Page Nos.

UNIT -5 SOCIOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION 1-12

UNIT -6 EDUCATIONAL ISSUES IN INDIAN SOCIETY 13-31

UNIT -7 CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS 32-45

UNIT -8 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC BASES OF EDUCATION 46-60

 Credit Page
Programme Name: M.A in Education Year/Semester: I Sem Block No: 2

Course Name: IDC 1 Foundations of Education Credit: 2 Units No: 5 to 8

Course Design Expert Committee
Vice-Chancellor Dr. Vidyashankar .S
Dean (Academic) Prof. Ashok Kamble
Course Designer/ Course Co-ordinator Dr. N. Lakshmi
BOS Chairman Dr. N. Lakshmi
Department Chairman Dr. N. Lakshmi
Editorial Committee
Chairman BOS Chairman
External Subject Expert Dr. Vijayalakshmi Nayak
Internal Subject Expert Dr. N. Lakshmi
Department Chairman Dr. N. Lakshmi
Course Writer
Concerned Writer Concerned Editor
Dr. Rashmi .J Dr. Vijayalakshmi Nayak
Asst. professor(Guest Faculty) Associate professor,
University of Mysore, Mysuru. Srinivasa University
Mangaluru.

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All reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, or any other means. without
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 Block- 2
FOUNDATIONS OF LEARNING -II

Block Introduction:
In this block consists of Four Units. In Unit-5 Society –Meaning and Defnitions, Human
Society– Meaning and Nature, Characteristics of Indian Society, Characteristics of a community,
Similarities between society and community, Differences between society and community, Education
as a response to the Needs of Society, Need of Sociological approach to Education, School as a
social system.

In Unit-6 Complexity of Indian Society, Caste system leading Indian Constitution, origin of
caste system in India, Indian Constitution and reservation Policies, Provisions and articles related
to Education, Right to Education Act (2009), Education of girl child, Education of Children with
Special Needs, Access and facilities of Education for all, Universalization of Primary Education
(UPE) we learning .

In Unit-7 we learning Culture – Meaning and Significance, Characteristics of Indian Culture,

India as: Multicultural society and Influence of Cultural Background on Learning.

In Unit-8 we study Economic Order, Democracy as a policy system of India, Implications

for Education, Democratization of Indian Education, Nature of Economic order in India, Need for
reducing economic inequality, Concept of Socialistic pattern of society and .Policies and
Programmes.

*****
 UNIT -5 SOCIOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Society –Meaning and Defnitions
5.3 Human Society– Meaning and Nature
5.4 Characteristics of Indian Society
5.5 Society and Community
5.5.1 Characteristics of a community
5.5.2 Similarities between society and community
5.5.3 Differences between society and community
5.6 Education as a response to the Needs of Society
5.7 Need of Sociological approach to Education
5.8 School as a social system
5.8.1 Implication for teachers
5.9 Check Your Progress
5.10 Summary
5.11 Glossary
5.12 Questions for Self-Study
5.13 References

1
5.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to

 Explain the meaning and nature of human society.
 Understand the characteristics of Indian Society.
 Explain the characteristics of a community.
 Differentiate society and community.
 List the needs of society.
 Discuss the need of sociological approach to education.
 Explain school as a social system.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Man is a social being and lives a society which is a network of human relationships.
An individual interacts and learns within the social environment he lives in and tries to
influence the society with his presence. It is a known fact that an individual cannot learn
everything by himself. The society contributes to his learning significantly in every way. He
learns to socialize with his family, friends, neighbours, his relatives in the society. He learns
all the basic things necessary to lead a life in the society through mutual interaction with the
people in the society.
Education and Society are like two sides of the same coin. They always exist together,
depend on each other and compliment one another. Education prepares an individual to
become a productive member of the society. Education acts as an effective means to
transform an individual in the society according to the needs and changes that take place in
the society. Education helps to bring about a strong economic growth, prosperity and political
stability in the society which are considered as major aspects of development.
5.2 SOCIETY- MEANING AND DEFNITIONS
Man is a social animal and hence live together. Society is a group of people with
common territory, interaction, and culture. The term society has been derived from the Latin
word ‘Socius’ which means a companion, association or fellowship.
Centuries ago, Aristotle has stated that man is a social animal and he always lives in
the company of other people. Hence, Society has become an essential condition for human
life to continue.
August Comte viewed society as a social organisation possessing a harmony of
structure and function.
According to Ginsberg, “A society is a collection of individuals united by certain
relations or modes of behaviour.
Giddings defines, “Society is the union itself, the organisation, the sum of formal
relations in which associating individuals are bound together.”

2
 In general, we define society as an aggregation or collection of individuals with a
network of relationships wherein each individual is associated with other through different
ties of relationships like kin, marriage, neighbour, caste, occupation, religion and so on.
5.3 HUMAN SOCIETY – MEANING AND NATURE
A Human Society or a society is a group of people involved with each other through
persistent relations, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory
with a dominant cultural expectation.
In general, a human society is a group of people who share a common lifestyle and
organization.
Nature of Human Society
1. Homogeneity: which means similarity of groups like having similar physical
attributes, beliefs, attitudes, and perspectives.
2. Heterogeneity: Human society also needs heterogeneity, as in humans who think
differently, who are diverse in their strengths, skills, and abilities. Heterogeneity
brings about innovation and forward-thinking. For a society to be successful, it must
be able to change and progress as needed.
3. Reciprocity: Reciprocity is give and take, or exchange, that can come in many forms.
Reciprocity can be economic in nature like exchanging things. Reciprocity can also
be witnessed in division of labour between individuals with different skill sets who, in
exchange for their work, receive some sort of recompense. Reciprocity in modern
human societies may involve, a market exchange, where people exchange money for
goods based on supply and demand with those who have the goods and are seeking to
make some sort of profit.
4. Interdependence: Members depend on one another for smooth functioning of the
society. No individual can perform all functions on his own. This fact of
interdependence is very much visible in the present-day society. Today not only
people in a society but also countries, continents depend upon one another. Likewise,
communities, social groups and nations are also interdependent.
5. Cooperation: In the words of P. Gisbert, “Cooperation is the most elementary
process of social life without which society is impossible. “Without cooperation, no
society can exist. If the members of the society do not work together for the common
purposes, they cannot lead a happy and comfortable life. Cooperation avoids mutual
destructiveness.
6. Conflict: Conflict is a process of struggle through which all things have come into
existence. Conflict is an ever-present phenomenon present in every human society.
Not only cooperation but also conflict in necessary for the formation of society. They
must coexist in a healthy society.
Along with these elements such as usages, procedures, authority, mutual aid, groupings,
controls and liberties also forms the nature of human society.

3
5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY
Indian society is a plural society. It is an amalgamation of various elements. A grand
synthesis of cultures, religions and languages of people belonging to different castes and
communities have upheld its unity and cohesiveness. It is rightly characterized by its unity in
diversity. There is diversity not only in culture, religion, language but also in terms of living,
life styles, occupation, customs and traditions etc.
Some of the characteristics of Indian Society are:
1. Multi-Racial Society: A race is a group of people with a set of distinctive physical
features such as skin type, colour of hair, shape of body, form of hair etc. For example:
Aryan, Dravidian, Aryo-Dravidian etc.
2. Multi-Lingual Society: In India, more than 19500 languages are spoken as mother
tongues. Hence our Indian society is multi-lingual.
3. Multi-Religious Society: India is a land of multiple religions. People here follow
different faiths like Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, Christianity etc.
4. Common Social Heritage: Each society has its own common social and cultural
heritage. It is the accumulated social experience which is preserved and transmitted from
generation to generation in the form of traditions and values.
5. Unity in Diversity: Beneath the diversity in culture, religion, customs, traditions
language spoken, there is still an underlying uniformity of life among people belonging to
different region.
6. Patriarchal Society: Patriarchy refers to the hierarchical power in which men are
considered dominant and women, his subordinate. Some of India’s patriarchal traditions
are: Dowry, devadasi system, considering women as a liability, female infanticide, child
marriage so on.
7. Tribes: A tribe is a group of people who live and work together in a shared geographical
area. A tribe can be a collection of families or of families and individual people living
together. A tribe has a common culture, dialect and religion. They also have a strong
sense of unity. Tribes represent a part in social evolution between bands and nations.
India is one such country where people belonging to different tribes exists and still follow
their culture and traditions.
8. Family and Kinship System: Family is one of the most important social institutions. A
family is a group which has its own rules and procedures at its base and each member
follows it. Family is a primary institution responsible for ‘socialisation’.
Kinship is a structured system of relationships in which individuals are bound to one
another by complex interlocking and ramifying ties. Kinship system is seen as a method
of organizing marriage relations between groups. Through marriage, members are
recruited to kinship groups. Kinship is a system of the way the relations between
individuals in the family and between families are organized. Kinship relations are the
most basic attachment a man has. As a cultural construct kinship primarily shapes people

4
 for their social living. According to Harry Johnson, kinship has six important bases – sex,
generation, closeness, blood relations, division and binding thread. There exist regional
variations of kinship in India.
9. Balance between spiritualism and materialism: India has produced great thinkers like
Swami Vivekananda who has said that human beings are not just physical and material
beings that exist to satisfy their senses but spiritual beings as well. It is this spirituality
that unites humanity across the world at a higher level. But mere spirituality is not
enough. Therefore, he underscores the need for material development also. Many
philosophical thinkers in India has given equal prominence to spiritualism and
materialism and perceives them as complementary and mutually beneficial.
10. Balance between Individualism and collectivism: Individualism stresses individual
goals and the rights of the individual person. An individualist is motivated by personal
rewards and benefits. Individualist persons set personal goals and objectives based on
self. Individualistic workers are very comfortable working with autonomy and not part of
a team.
Collectivism focuses on group goals, what is best for the collective group, and
personal relationships. The collectivist is motivated by group goals. Long-term
relationships are very important. Collectivistic persons easily sacrifice individual benefit
or praise to recognize and honour the team’s success. In fact, being singled out and
honoured as an individual from the rest of the team may be embarrassing to the
collectivistic person.
Harmonising the individual and the collective has been one of the most challenging
problems human societies have had to tackle. India’s ancient perspectives has tried to
balance this conflict by setting well defined objectives to order human life i.e., dharma,
artha, kama and moksha.
11. Co-existence of traditionalism and modernity: Indian society is in transition. That
means we are continually transient and undergoing constant process of change. We
follow traditions and culture prevalent in Indian society along with embracing the new
change.
5.5 SOCIETY AND COMMUNITY
A community is a social unit with commonality such as norms, religion, values,
customs or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical
area. A village, town or neighbourhood is a good example of community.
According to sociologists, “Community is either a small or a large group of people
who live together in such a way that they share the basic conditions of life”.
5.5.1 Characteristics of a Community
I. Community is usually associated with a definite territory.
II. It refers to aggregate of individuals

5
III. People in a community have strong sentiments and hence sense of belongingness is
stronger.
IV. It is created spontaneously over a period of time.
V. Hence it has more endurance than the groups which are created with a purpose
VI. It is usually associated with a specific name.
VII. Community serves wider ends.
5.5.2 Similarities between Society and Community
i. Members of both society and community have a sense of belongingness.
ii. Both serve wider ends.
iii. Community and society are both spontaneous in nature.
iv. Both are created by social groups.
v. Both are associated with coexistence and cooperation.
vi. Interdependence and interpersonal relationships are the attributes of both society and
community.
5.5.3 Differences between Society and Community
i. Society is a thought, idea but community is real and concrete.
ii. Community is usually associated with specific territory (like Indians settled in New
York will be identified as Indian Community of New York) but society can go beyond
territorial boundaries. For example, Indians settled all over the world feel that they are
a part of India (demarcation for boundary is meaningless in society).
iii. Sense of belongingness among group of people is more in case of community than in
society.
5.6 EDUCATION AS A RESPONSE TO THE NEEDS OF SOCIETY
Society is dynamic in nature and changes very frequently. According to the changes
in the society, the needs of the society also changes. Education acts as an effective means to
transform the people in the society according to the needs and changes that take place in the
society. Education helps to bring about a strong economic growth, prosperity and political
stability in the society which are considered as major aspects of development. John Dewey
writes about the importance of schooling to foster the growth of social progress in his books
‘The School and Society (1899) and Democracy and Education (1916). Being a social need
Education performs major functions to the society such as influencing people to adapt to
social change, help in economic development of a society, in smooth transmission of culture
etc.,
John Dewey viewed that being a social need education performs major functions to the
society:

6
 a. Reducing inequality and disparity:
“Education is the great engine of personal development. It is through education that the
daughter of a peasant can become a doctor, that the son of a mine worker can become the
head of the mine, that a child of farmworkers can become the President of a great nation. It is
what we make out of what we have, not what we are given, that separates one person from
another”. Nelson Mandela
Education is a powerful tool that gives knowledge and knowledge is power. Education
plays an important role in the society in reducing inequality and disparity amongst the people.
Quality education can be liberating for individuals and it can act as a leveller and equalizer
within the society. It can diminish the gap among the people by reducing poverty, boosting
equal opportunity for all, bringing society together and help people in exercising their rights.
Education can help tackle(eradicate) gender disparities in wages, poverty and political power
thus reducing inequality in the society.
b. Transmission of culture:
E.B. Tylor, British social anthropologist, defined culture as ‘a complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society’.
Each society has its own cultural heritage which they preserve and transmit to next
generation. The most important role of education is to transmit the tradition, culture, skill and
knowledge to the new members of the society. Thus, culture is the most common link
between society and education. Since inception of the society, each society has some or other
mechanism to educate and train their members through various agencies of society, like
family, community, and other formal institutions and transmit the culture from generations to
generations.
c. Social Change:
“Time and the world do not stand still. Change is the law of life. And those who look only
to the past or the present are certain to miss the future” John F. Kennedy.
Social change has been defined by sociologist Wilbert Moore (1963) as a significant
alteration over time in behaviour patterns and culture, including norms and values. Terms
such as 'progress', 'evolution', 'process' and so forth are often used, when understanding the
concept of social change. Education mediates and maintains the cultural heritage of the
society. It also helps to conserve and ensure that culture lag in society is minimized. This
means that education attempts to adjust the old culture to new conditions in order that
individuals within a society may keep up with technological change.
d. Social mobility:
Social mobility refers to the movement of individual and group position or status in the
social hierarchy of any society. There are two important factors of social mobility- education
and income status. Now, free and compulsory education to all provides opportunity to
enhance one’s educational and income status.

7
 e. Development of new knowledge:
Education is the way to acquire knowledge to achieve success in its life. Through
education we develop new knowledge or addition to the existing knowledge to fulfill our new
necessity. As we know that necessity is the mother of inventions. From simple savage society
till present postmodern society, we can observe the drastic changes due to many inventions
and discoveries.
f. Individual development- Education is very important for an individual’s success in
life.
Education provides pupils teaching skills that prepare them physically, mentally and
socially for the world of work in later life. Higher education helps in maintaining a healthy
society which prepares health care professionals, educated health care consumers and
maintaining healthy population. If there is a deficit of educated people then society will stops
its further progress.
Therefore, we can see the role played by the education process towards society as a
whole. Here, Education system included all forms including formal, informal and non-formal
education. The combination of these forms may vary with time and space. Informal education
process is the oldest form and its existence is as long as society itself. Formal and non-formal
education system plays in the later stages of development. Informal education is
characterized with changed relationship between learner and teacher in informal learning
context, while the goals of informal education are always rooted firmly in value system.
5.7 NEED FOR SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO EDUCATION
Sociology is a scientific study of human- social relationships and interactions. It is
very diverse in nature. The subject matter ranges from interaction of an individual at the
micro level to the system and social structure at the macro level. It is concerned with
concepts such as Society, Culture, Community, Class, Environment, Socialisation,
Accommodation, Assimilation, Cultural lag, status, role and so on.
At society level, sociology explains matters like school, education, poverty,
discrimination, crime, law and many more. It also tells about the problems prevailing in the
society, social and cultural beliefs of people, division of race, social class and social stability
to radical change that takes place in the society.
Sociology and education are interdependent in nature.
 Education serves several functions of the society. This includes socialisation, social
integration, social placement, social and cultural innovation.
 The most important function of education is socialisation. If children need to learn the
norms, values and skills to live in a society, then education is a primary vehicle for
such learning. It is through education that children learn values of harmony and group
belongingness which is the first step towards socialisation.
 For a society to function , people must have common set of beliefs and values.
Development of such beliefs starts from school . Education sow the seeds of equality

8
 and commonality among students therefore developing social integration within the
peer group is very essential. . Sociological Approach studies the role of schools in
socialisation of students.
 Education also involves in establishment of peer relationships, erradicating social
inequality and preparing students for their eventual entry into the larger society as
adults.
Education and sociology are inseperable disciplines focusing on the problems of the society.
 At micro level sociology is involved in cases of education such as school authority,
organisation of learning , ciriculum development , presentation and evaluation
according to the needs of the society.
 Sociological approach helps to understand the effect of various social agencies like
society ,family , school and students.
 It helps to study the role and structure of school, influence of peer group on the
personality of students.
 Sociological approach provides an understanding to the problems such as rascism,
communalism, gender discrimination , etc.
 It suggests ways to develop national integration, international understanding, spirit of
scientific temper, globalisation among students.
 It promotes research studies related to planning, organisation and application of
various theories in education .
Thus, sociological approach to education is both theoretical and practical. It is the
scientific study of how people live in social groups and education they need to live efficiently
in social groups.
5.8 SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM
A social system is a system that involves interaction between people and is bounded by
certain norms of the society. It refers to an orderly assessment and interrelationship where
each person has a definite role to play a social system functions within the framework of a
normative pattern. School is a social system since it has a definite pattern and each involved
in it has a definite role to play.
According to the functionalist, the school as a social system is composed of many parts
each with its own objectives and goals. Each part work together for a smooth operation.
 School system has personnel who contribute towards the school.
 School has a social structure because of interaction between people within the school.
 School is represented and bounded by string social relationships.
 People involved in it has a sense of belongingness.
 School as a social system possesses its own culture and ways of doing things.

9
5.8.1 IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS
Every member of a school system plays his role towards achieveing the school goals.
Teacher manages the classroom, interacts with the students and helps the students to achieve
their personal goals as well as strive towards achieving school goals too.
School prepares students with life skills knowledge and expertise necessary to live in
a society. Teachers play a major role in imparting major life skills to the students. They help
the students in making proper decision, develop critical thinking ability , make them self
aware, develop empathy towards others and to cope up with stress and emotions.
Teachers help students to develop understanding about inter personal and social
conflict and trains them to handle any situation properly.
Teachers make judgements about how best they can help their students to learn and
achieve their goals. Teachers do it competently and thoughtfully with appropriate caution.
Teachers monitor the impact of their decision over time , evaluate the results and
respond as required to the students.
5.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is a society?
2. Define community.
3. Give Two examples of community.
4. Write any 2 characteristics of a community.
5. What is a social system?
6. Is school a social system?
Answers to Check Your Progress
1. The term society has been derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’ which means a
companion, association or fellowship. Society is a group of people with common
territory, interaction, and culture.
2. A community is a social unit with commonality such as norms, religion, values,
customs or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given
geographical area.
3. Village and neighbourhood are two examples of community.
4. a) Community is usually associated with a definite territory.
b) People in a community have strong sentiments and hence sense of belongingness is
stronger.
5. A social system is a system that involves interaction between people and is bounded by
certain norms of the society. It refers to an orderly assessment and interrelationship
where each person has a definite role to play a social system functions within the
framework of a normative pattern.

10
 6. Yes, School is a social system.
5.10 SUMMARY
 A Human Society or a society is a group of people involved with each other through
persistent relations, or a large social group sharing the same geographical or social
territory with a dominant cultural expectation. In general, a human society is a group
of people who share a common lifestyle and organization.
 Nature of Human Society
 Homogeneity
 Heterogeneity
 Reciprocity
 Interdependence
 Cooperation
 Conflict
 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN SOCIETY
 Multi-Racial Society
 Multi-Lingual Society
 Multi-Religious Society
 Common Social Heritage
 Unity in Diversity
 Patriarchal Society
 Tribes
 Family and Kinship System
 Balance between spiritualism and materialism
 Balance between Individualism and collectivism
 Co-existence of traditionalism and modernity
 A community is a social unit with commonality such as norms, religion, values,
customs or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given
geographical area. A village, town or neighbourhood is a good example of
community.
 A social system is a system that involves interaction between people and is bounded
by certain norms of the society. It refers to an orderly assessment and interrelationship
where each person has a definite role to play a social system functions within the
framework of a normative pattern. School is a social system since it has a definite
pattern and each involved in it has a definite role to play.
5.11 GLOSSARY
Homogeneity : the quality or state of being all the same.
Heterogeneity: the quality or state of being diverse in character or content
Conflict: A serious disagreement or argument

11
Patriarchy: A system of society in which the father or eldest male is the head of the family
and descent is reckoned through the male line.
Kinship: Blood relationship.
Disparity: A great difference.
5.12 QUESTIONS FOR SELF- STUDY
1. Explain the nature of Human Society.
2. Discuss the characteristics of Indian Society.
3. Differntiate between society and community.
4. List out the similarities between society and community.
5. Discuss education as a response to the needs of society.
6. Elucidate the need for sociological approach to education.
5.13 REFERENCES
1. Shukla Parihar and K.P Singh (2011) , Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of
Education, R.Lall Book Depot, Meerut.
2. Safaya Shaida and Shukla (2008), Teacher in Emerging Indian Society, Dhanpat Rai
Publishing Company, New Delhi.
3. Bhushan Vidya and Sachdeva (1987),An Introduction to Sociology, Kitals Mahal,
Allahabad.
4. Kingsley Davis (1969), Human Society, The Macmillan Company, New York.
5. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community

*******

12
 UNIT-6 EDUCATIONAL ISSUES IN INDIAN SOCIETY

Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Complexity of Indian Society
6.3 Caste system leading Indian Constitution
6.3.1 origin of caste system in India
6.3.2 Indian Constitution and reservation Policies
6.4 Provisions and articles related to Education
6.5 Right to Education Act (2009)
6.6 Education of disadvantaged Group
6.7 Education of girl child
6.8 Education of Children with Special Needs
6.9 Access and facilities of Education for all
6.9.1 Universalization of Primary Education (UPE)
6.10 Check Your Progress
6.11 Summary
6.12 Glossary
6.13 Questions for Self - Study
6.14 References

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6.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to,
 Explain the complexity of Indian society.
 Explain the origin of caste system in India.
 Discuss about the reservation policies of Indian constitution.
 List the Provisions and Articles related to education
 Analyse the advantages of Right to Education Act
 Justify the need of education for disadvantaged group, girl child and children with
special needs.
 Discuss about Universalization of Primary Education
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Society in India has always been very complex. Diversity of culture, religion,
philosophy and political thought has been the essence of Indian society. Indian society has
traditionally been strongly patriarchal and hierarchal in nature. Our society is multifaceted
and has a complex social system. Multicultural characteristics in the society became more
prominent after the states were divided based on language and culture. People with different
religion, belonging to different social and economic groups and with different cultural
practices live in this society. In addition to this the presence of caste system has made the
society more complex and also status oriented. Indian society is also pluralistic with a
complex social order characterised by many ethnic, linguistic, religious and caste divisions.
Amidst all these complexities of Indian life, widely accepted cultural themes have always
enhanced social harmony and order in the society.
6.2 COMPLEXITY OF INDIAN SOCIETY
Indian society is pluralistic in nature. Pluralism refers to the existence of groups in a society
with distinct ethnic origin, cultural patterns, language, religion etc. Indian culture has always
followed the concept of “Vasudhaiva Kutumbkam” (The world is one family) resulting in a
great cultural heritage. Indian society is very complex in its structure and characteristics. It is
made out of various social institutions like caste, family, marriage, kinship, State,
Government etc.
The themes followed in Indian society that makes it more complex are:
a. Hierarchy: India is a hierarchical society. Whether in any part of India, Hindu or
Muslim, urban or village, people and social groups are ranked according to various
essential qualities. Societal hierarchy is evident in caste groups, amongst individuals,
and in family and kinship groups. Individuals are also ranked according to their wealth
and power.
b. Caste: Caste has become an essential group in the Indian Society with which almost all
Indians are associated. Caste and caste like groups exists in every religion and based on
the caste and its group people are ranked in the society as high or low.

14
 c. Social Interdependence: One of the great themes pervading Indian life is social
interdependence. People are born into groups—families, clans, subcastes, castes, and
religious communities and feel a deep sense of inseparability from these groups. People
are deeply involved with others, and for many, the greatest fear is the possibility of
being left alone, without social support. Even economic activities are implanted with
this social interdependence.
d. Kinship: Kin relationships provide both a method of passing on status and property
from one generation.
e. Religious beliefs and rituals: Religious beliefs, rituals and organizations are integral
part of every society. Religion plays an important role in our understanding of the world
and shaping our everyday life. The way in which we relate to each other is very often
influenced by our religious beliefs.
6.3 CASTE SYSYEM LEADING INDIAN CONSTITUTION
Castes are rigid social groups characterized by hereditary transmission of life style,
occupation and social status. The people of Indian society are not uniform, they are different
on the basis of biological traits, social and economic characteristics. Stratification is the basic
characteristics of Indian society; people are divided into different strata on the basis of caste,
economy, race, etc. Caste and class are the two-stratification system, commonly existing in
Indian society. Caste is the social stratification on the basis of birth.
The caste system in India has its origins in ancient India, and was transformed by
various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the Mughal
Empire and the British Raj.
6.3.1 Origin of Caste System in India
Every society is divided into different categories on the basis of natural, biological
and social characteristics. Stratification is the nature of each and every society. caste system
is a social stratification system based on social characteristics. Conceptualizing caste as a
stratification system has been done by sociologists, Anthropologists, Historians, and
Philosophers etc. Govind Sadashiv Ghurye popularly known as the father of Indian
sociology, M N Srinivas, S C Dube, McKim Marriot, A R Desai, Iravathi Karve etc. are
important Indian Sociologists who have studied the specialty of Indian caste system. Besides
them, Western sociologists, Anthropologists like Herbert Risely, Louis Dumont, etc. have
studied the peculiarity of caste system in India. The literatures picturise that caste system
developed as a division of labour slowly started to control all spheres of life.
Caste system in India has developed through different historical periods.
1. Caste in Ancient age (1500 BC- 1100 AD)
2. Caste in Medieval Age (1100 AD-1757 AD)
3. Caste in Modern Age (1757 AD- Till today)

15
 1. Caste in Ancient Age (1500BC-1100AD)
Ancient age in India was constituted by Vedic and post-Vedic age. Vedic age was the
period of dominance of civilization based on Vedic literature. Vedas were considered to be
the earliest literature. The term Veda is derived from Sanskrit word ‘Vid ‘which means to
know or knowledge. There are four Vedas: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda.
Vedic texts are the treasures of knowledge as it draws the social, economic and political
conditions of Indian society. Rigveda, the first Veda, discusses the socio-economic, cultural
and political conditions of India.
The caste system during this period consisted of two different concepts - varna and
jati. Varna and Jati are the two words used to denote caste. The term jati is derived from
Sanskrit word ‘jana’ which means birth. The term Jati used as a colloquial term to denote the
English term caste. During Vedic period Hindu society was divided into four Varna such as
Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The Varna status was determined by occupation
and not by birth. Brahmins performed religious duties, Kshatriyas were warriors or ruling
class, Vyshyas are the traders and Shudras, the servants. Besides Varna, four Ashramas, like
Brahmacharyam, Grihastham, Vanaprastham and Sanyasam are the peculiarity of Hindu
social system. These Ashramas are passing through the life of an individual from birth to
death. In Brahmacharyam an individual engaged in the learning from guru, Grihastham is the
second stage when individual coming from gurukulam to home to carry out his duties
towards his family and he get married. Vanaprastham is the third stage when man tries to
withdraw from his household and enter into fourth stage Sanyasam. In fourth stage man's life
goes to attainment of Moksha.
The Post-Vedic period extended from the Rig-Vedic period to the beginning of Buddhism
and Jainism. During this period caste system became rigid than Rig-Vedic period. The caste
status was on the basis of birth which meant caste became an ascribed status. Brahmin,
Kshatriya and Vaishya were the dominant community and the Shudras become the
untouchables.
2. Caste in Medieval Age (1100 AD- 1757AD)
The Caste system that originated in Vedic period as a division of labour, was transformed
by various ruling elites in medieval period i.e., early modern and modern India. Islamic
religion came into India in Medieval period. The Indo-Islamic encounter was specifically
motivated by an urge to eliminate caste system from Indian society. Caste was a new
phenomenon to Islam in India. During British period, the British administrators tried to
understand Indians for their administrative purposes. Few supportive administrators tried to
abolish customs like Sati, Child marriage, restriction in acquiring education for females etc
that was prevailing in Indian society then. The caste system was rigid among Hindus.
Religious conversions from Hindu to Islam and Christianity occurred in this period.
3. Caste in Modern Age (The period after 1757 onwards)
Indian society witnessed some major developments in the prevailing caste system during
this period. During the British rule, the traditional form of caste system started taking a
different shape. The British Raj made rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of

16
administration. Between 1860 and 1920, the British formulated caste system into their system
of governance, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to Christians and
people belonging to certain castes. Social unrest during the 1920s led to a change in this
policy. Many changes took place during this period as many British administrators tried to
bring reforms in Indian Society.
Caste system that controlled peoples’ life as an inevitable social institution took a
backstage. Civil courts were introduced at this time and major decisions on marriage, divorce,
crime and punishment etc. was controlled by civil courts. This made a major difference in the
society as the role of caste as a religious institution saw a major setback.
Certain legislations that were introduced by British like the Caste disabilities removal Act
of 1850, The Special Marriage Act of 1872, The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 etc.,
shook the integrity of caste system. Some social reform movements like Brahmasamaja,
Aryasamaja, Ramakrishna Mission and others were launched by Indian social reformers
during British rule, which affected the caste system. These reforms brought slight awareness
in people about their living condition and rights in society. Brahmasamaja, a social reform
movement launched by Ram Mohan Roy in 1828 in Bengal tried to stop evil practices like
sati system, child marriage, abolition of widow remarriage, caste system, untouchability that
prevailed in Hindu religion. Aryasamaja, another social reform movement founded by Swami
Dayananda Saraswati in 1875 at Mumbai acted against casteism and caste system. He tried to
break the barriers of caste which separated man from man by propagating the doctrine of
universal brotherhood. He opposed the rigidity of caste system and the practice of
untouchability. Ramakrishna Mission is a memoir of swami Vivekananda to his guru
Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, which he founded in 1897. Vivekananda condemned caste
inequalities and exploitation of lower caste by higher caste through his organization.
Theosophical society of Madam H P Blavadsky and Colonel Olcott, Satyashodhak Samaj of
Jyothiba Phule and SNDP of Sri Narayana Guru etc. are other social reform movements that
fought against the evil practices of caste system.
Almost all social reform movements supported the religion and religious practices but
opposed the caste system as an exploitative system. The activities of these movements
brought awareness among the people about the evil practices. Spread of English education
and influence of western ideas were the sources which influenced caste system in modern
age. Liberty, fraternity, equality, democracy, rationalism, secularism and humanism are the
western ideas that influenced the western educated Indians. Urbanization and
industrialization are other factors influenced the caste practices. Urbanization is the result of
industrialization, which means the mass migration of people from rural to urban area in
search of job or for the purpose of education. These two factors were the main cause for
emergence of class system in Indian Society. During this period division of labour on the
basis of skill, merit and education started which reduced the severity of caste practices in
certain regions.
6.3.2 Indian Constitution and reservation Policies
Caste and class are predominantly present in our Indian society. Both of them are
Indian social institutions. Class is a modern phenomenon and the status here is fixed by

17
economy than birth as in caste. Presence of class in the society became the root cause for
discrimination among people. The need for policies to check this discrimination among
people in the society aroused. During this time many new reservation policies were
introduced by the government which helped to raise the status of people and bring equality
among them.
Hierarchy in Indian society was formed based on the varnas. Brahmana, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and shudra were the four varnas. Shudras were placed at the bottom of the hierarchy.
They had certain civil and religious constraints to use facilities like public roads, wells,
schools, ponds etc. as they were meant for people who belonged to the mainstream society.
Due to these unequal treatment the lower caste people were not able to pursue their education
and were not able to engage themselves in other occupations other than continuing their
traditional jobs. The social, political and economic status of these people was low and hence
the government adopted certain reservation policies and programs to uplift them into the
mainstream society.
The government adopted the reservation policy as a part of democratic principle. As
per the principle the people should have equal representation in the all sections of the nation.
Based on the principle of democracy, reservation policy is a series of affirmative actions
undertaken through reserving access to seats for equal representation in the education,
government jobs and politics.
Scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and Other Backward classes and in some States
Backward Classes among Muslim, minority groups like Parsi, Sikhs and Jains are the primary
beneficiaries of the reservation policies under the constitution. The main aim of reservation
policy was to create egalitarian society. Constitution of India assures the reservation through
certain rules, which are executed through certain Articles given below:
1. Article 15(4) capacitates the state to create special arrangements for promoting the
interests and welfare of socially and educationally backward classes of the society such
as SC and STs.
2. Article 16(4) states “nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any
provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward class
of citizens which in the opinion of the State is not adequately represented in the services
under State”.
3. The Constitution (103rd Amendment) Act inserts Articles 15(6) and 16(6) in the
Constitution. These provide up to 10% reservation to economically weaker sections
other than backward classes, schedules castes and scheduled tribes in higher educational
institutions and initial recruitment in government posts.
4. Article 46 of the Constitution states that “The State shall promote with special care the
educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in
particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes and shall protect them
from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.”
5. Article 330 provides reservation of seats for STs in the House of the people.

18
 6. Article 332 provides reservation of seats for STs in Legislative Assemblies of the
States.
7. In 1954 the Ministry of education suggested that 20% seats should be reserved for the
SCs and STs in educational institutions with a provision to relax minimum qualifying
makes for admission by 5% wherever required.
8. A significant change began in 1978 when the Mandal Commission was established to
assess the situation of socially and educationally backward classes. In 1980 the
Commission’s report recommended that a reserved quota for OBCs of 27% should
apply in respect of services and public sector bodies operated by the Union
Government.
9. In 1982 it was specified that 15% and 7.5% of vacancies in public sector and
government aided educational institutions should be reserved for SC and ST candidates
respectively.
Some committees and commissions from pre-independence to post-independence were
formed for the implementation of reservation in India.
1. Hunter Commission was appointed in 1882 under the chairmanship of Sir William
Hunter; its main recommendation was to give preference to literate candidates for
government jobs in the later levels, along with expansion of primary schools in
backward districts. Mahatma Jyotirao Phule made a demand of free and compulsory
education for all caste along with proportionate reservation or representation in
government jobs.
2. Kaka Kalelkar Commission was established in 1953 under the chairmanship of Kaka
Kalelkar to assess the situation of the socially and educationally backward classes. The
report was accepted as far as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes were concerned.
The recommendations for OBCs were rejected.
3. Mandal Commission was established in 1979 to assess the situation of the socially and
educationally backward. In 1980 the commission submitted a report and recommended
changes to the existing quotas increasing them from 22% to 49.5%.
4. In 1990 the Mandal Commission recommendations were implemented in government
jobs by the then PM V P Singh.
4. Sachar Committee was appointed in 2005 under the chairmanship of Justice Rajinder
Sachar for the preparation of the report on the socio-economic and educational status of
the Muslim community of India. The Committee submitted its report in the 2006. The
main purpose of reservation policy was to ensure social and economic justice, thereby
realizing the goal of the empowerment of the backward communities.
6.4 PROVISIONS AND ARTICLES RELATED TO EDUCATION
There are some changes regarding the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution. During
1976 our constitution was amended in many of its fundamental provisions. Under the

19
Constitution of India, the Central Government has been specifically vested with several
educational responsibilities.
Some of the major constitutional provisions on education in India are as follows:
1. Free and Compulsory Education
The Constitution makes the following provisions under Article 45 of the Directive
Principles of State Policy that, “The state shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten
years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory Education for all
children until they complete the age of fourteen years.”
The expression ‘State’ which occurs in this Article is defined in Article 12 to include “The
Government and Parliament of India and the Government and the Legislature of each of the
States and all local or other authorities within the territory of India or under the control of the
Government of India.” It is clearly directed in Article 45 of the Constitution that the provision
of Universal, Free and Compulsory Education becomes the joint responsibility of the Centre
and the States.
2. Education of Minorities
Article 30 of the Indian Constitution relates to certain cultural and educational rights
to establish and administer educational institutions.
It lays down:
(i) All minorities whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to establish
and administer educational institutions of their choice.
(ii) The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against any
educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority,
whether based on religion or language.
3. Education for Weaker Sections
Article 15, 17, 46 safeguard the educational interests of the weaker sections of the
Indian Community, that is, socially and educationally backward classes of citizens and
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Article 15 states, “Nothing in this article or in clause
(2) of Article 29 shall prevent the state from making any special provision for the
advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the
scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.”
Under Article 46 of the Constitution, the federal government is responsible for the
economic and educational development of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
It states. “The state shall promote with special care the educational and economic
interests of the weaker sections of the people and in particular, of the Scheduled castes and
Scheduled Tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.”
It is one of the Directive Principles of State Policy.

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 4. Secular Education
Article 25 (1) of the Constitution guarantees all the citizens the right to have freedom
of conscience and the right to profess, practice and propagate religion.
Article 28 (1) states, “No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational
institution if wholly maintained out of state fund.”
Article 28 (2) states, “Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to an educational institution
which is administered by the State but has been established under any endowment or Trust
which requires that religious instruction shall be imparted to such institution.”
Article 28 (3) states, “No person attending any educational institution by the state or
receiving aid out of state funds, shall be required to take part in any religious instruction that
may be imported in such institutions or to attend any religious worship that may be conducted
in such institution or in any premises attached thereto unless such person or, if such person a
minor, his guardian has given his consent thereto.”
Article 30 states, “The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institution
maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds, on grounds only of religion, race,
caste, language or any of them.”
5. Equality of Opportunity in Educational Institutions
Article 29(1) states “No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational
institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds, on grounds only of
religion, race, caste, language or any of them.”
The Fundamental Rights of the Indian Constitution has also adopted the fourfold ideal
of justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. Our Constitution laid down that in the eyes of
law, everyone should have an equal status, to no one the justice be denied, everyone should
have liberty of thought, expression.
The fundamental right of equality clearly signifies that in the eyes of law no
distinction can be made on the basis of any position, caste, class or creed. Side by side the
right of equality of opportunities to all is also provided. The equality of opportunity is
meaningless, unless there are equal opportunities for one’s education.
The well-known Kothari Commission, 1964-66 recommended that Central
Government should undertake the responsibility in education for the equalization of
educational opportunities with special reference to the reduction of inter-state differences and
the advancement of the weaker section of the community.
6. Instruction in Mother -Tongue
Article 26 (1) states, “Any section of the citizens, residing in the territory of India or
any part thereof, having a distinct language, script or culture of its own, shall have the right to
converse the same.”
Article 350 A directs, “It shall he endeavour of every state and every local authority
to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of
education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups.”

21
 Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 recommended that the mother tongue
or the regional language should generally be the medium of instruction throughout secondary
school stage subject to the provision that for linguistic minorities, special facilities should be
made available. Kothari Commission, 1964-66 has also said that at college and university
stage, mother-tongue should be the medium.
7. Women’s Education
The Constitution makes the following provisions under different articles:
Article 15(1) provides that the State shall not discriminate any citizen on groups only
of sex.
Article 15 (3) reads:” Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any
special provision for women and children.”
National Policy on Education was concerned about the status and education of
women in the country. It envisages that education would be used as a strategy for achieving a
basic change in the status of women. It opined that the national system of education must
play a positive role in this direction.
The Policy states, “Education will be used as an agent of basic change in the status of
women. In order to neutralize the accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a well-
conceived edge in favour of women.”
6.5 RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT (2009)
The Right to Education Act (RTE) is an important legislation landmark in the
education system of India. With its enactment, the right to education has become a
fundamental right of the citizens.
The Act is completely titled “the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
Education Act”. It was passed by the Parliament in August 2009. When the Act came into
force in 2010, India became one among 135 countries where education is a fundamental right
of every child.
 The 86th Constitutional Amendment (2002) inserted Article 21A in the Indian
Constitution which states:
 “The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of 6 to
14 years in such manner as the State, may by law determine.”
 As per this, the right to education was made a fundamental right and removed from
the list of Directive Principles of State Policy.
 The RTE is the consequential legislation envisaged under the 86th Amendment.
 The article incorporates the word “free” in its title. What it means is that no child
(other than those admitted by his/her parents in a school not supported by the
government) is liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may
prevent him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.
 This Act makes it obligatory on the part of the government to ensure admission,
attendance and completion of elementary education by all children falling in the age
bracket six to fourteen years.

22
  Essentially, this Act ensures free elementary education to all children in the
economically weaker sections of society.
RTE Provisions
The Act provides for:
 The right of free and compulsory education to children until they complete their
elementary education in a school in the neighbourhood.
 The Act makes it clear that ‘compulsory education’ implies that it is an obligation on
the part of the government to ensure the admission, attendance and completion of
elementary education of children between the ages of six and fourteen. The word
‘free’ indicates that no charge is payable by the child which may prevent him/her
from completing such education.
 The Act provides for the admission of a non-admitted child to a class of his/her
appropriate age.
 It mentions the duties of the respective governments, the local authorities and parents
in ensuring the education of a child. It also specifies the sharing of the financial
burden between the central and the state governments.
 It specifies standards and norms for Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTR), infrastructure and
buildings, working days of the school and for the teachers.
 It also says there should be no urban-rural imbalance in teacher postings. The Act also
provides for the prohibition of the employment of teachers for non-educational work,
other than census, elections and disaster relief work.
 The Act provides that the teachers appointed should be appropriately trained and
qualified.
 The Act prohibits:
 Mental harassment and physical punishment.
 Screening procedures for the admission of children.
 Capitation fees.
 Private tuition by the teachers.
 Running schools with no recognition.
 The Act envisages that the curriculum should be developed in coherence with the
values enshrined in the Indian Constitution, and that which would take care of the all-
round development of the child. The curriculum should build on the knowledge of the
child, on his/her potentiality and talents, help make the child free of trauma, fear and
anxiety via a system that is both child-centric and child-friendly.
Significance of RTE
With the passing of the Right to Education Act, India has moved to a rights-based
approach towards implementing education for all. This Act casts a legal obligation on the
state and central governments to execute the fundamental rights of a child (as per Article 21
A of the Constitution).
 The Act lays down specific standards for the student-teacher ratio, which is a very
important concept in providing quality education.

23
  It also talks about providing separate toilet facilities for girls and boys, having
adequate standards for classroom conditions, drinking water facilities, etc.
 The stress on avoiding the urban-rural imbalance in teachers’ posting is important as
there is a big gap in the quality and numbers regarding education in the villages
compared to the urban areas in the country.
 The Act provides for zero tolerance against the harassment and discrimination of
children. The prohibition of screening procedures for admission ensures that there
would be no discrimination of children on the basis of caste, religion, gender, etc.
 The Act also mandates that no kid is detained until class 8. It introduced the
Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) system in 2009 to have grade-
appropriate learning outcomes in schools.
 The Act also provides for the formation of a School Management Committee (SMC)
in every school in order to promote participatory democracy and governance in all
elementary schools. These committees have the authority to monitor the school’s
functioning and prepare developmental plans for it.
 The Act is justiciable and has a Grievance Redressal mechanism that permits people
to take action when the provisions of the Act are not complied with.
 The RTE Act mandates for all private schools to reserve 25 per cent of their
seats for children from socially disadvantaged and economically backward
sections. This move is intended to boost social inclusion and pave the way for a more
just and equal country.
 This provision is included in Section 12(1)(c) of the RTE Act. All schools
(private, unaided, aided or special category) must reserve 25% of their seats at the
entry-level for students from the Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) and
disadvantaged groups.
 This provision is a far-reaching move and perhaps the most important step in so
far as inclusive education is concerned.
 This provision seeks to achieve social integration.
 The loss incurred by the schools as a result of this would be reimbursed by the
central government.
6.6 EDUCATION OF DISADVANTAGED GROUP
Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs),
Girls, Children with Special Needs (CWSN) and Minorities are considered disadvantaged
sections or backward classes. The Socially and Educationally Backward Classes (SEBC)
have only now been taken up at the national level for attention in education. Many provisions
have been provided by the government for the education of disadvantaged group. The
following are the provisions provided by the government:
The National Commitments
The National Policy of Education 1986, as revised in 1992, had indicated three thrust
areas in elementary education:

24
 (i) Universal access enrolment;
(ii) Universal retention of children up to 14 years of age; and
(iii) A substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable all children to
achieve essential levels of learning.
These objectives were addressed during the Tenth Plan period mainly through the
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) which is the flagship programme of Government of India
being implemented in partnership with States and UTs. The Mid Day Meal and Teacher
Education Schemes have also contributed towards progress in the above objectives.
Right to Education
Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) is the top priority programme of the
government of India. Since Independence, India have been making efforts through
constitutional directives and amendments, committees, commissions, National Policies and
Programmes to make elementary education of good quality available to all.
Education as a Fundamental Right
In 2002 the Union Government brought out the constitution (86th Amendment) Act-
2002 with the avowed aim of making education a Fundamental Right for children in the age
group of 6-14 years.
1. After Article-21 of the Constitution, Article-21-A was inserted which states: “ The
State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to
fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine”.
2. Article 45 of the constitution, was substituted as follows: “The State shall endeavour
to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the
age of six years.”
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
As per the 2001 census, the population of SCs and STs taken together amount to
24.61 % of the country’s total population (SC 16.2% and ST 8.43%). A host of Articles
(Articles 46 ,332, 335, and 338 to 342) and the entire fifth and sixth Schedules of the
constitution deal with promotion of education and economic interests of these sections and to
protect them from all forms of social exploitation. Government at the national and State
Levels have been implementing, from time to time, a number of programmes so as to
promote education among them. The major one’s include:
 Provision of Post matric scholarship to students
 Provision of free school uniform and textbooks.
 Provision of free reading writing materials
 Establishment of residential Schools
 Relaxation in the minimum qualifying marks for admission for SC/ST candidates.
 Career Orientation to students to ensure that the graduates have knowledge, skills and
attitudes for employment in the industrial sector in general and self-employment in
particular

25
  Financial assistance for Remedial Coaching; It provides financial assistance to the
existing coaching centres to prepare SC/ST candidates for the National Eligibility
Test (NET) conducted by UGC/CSIR.
 Remedial Coaching scheme at UG/PG level.
6.7 EDUCATION OF GIRL CHILD
India holds a strong determination in educating all children, especially the girl child.
By declaring education as a fundamental right, India ensures constitutional provisions for
providing free and compulsory education to all the children between 6 to 14 years of age.
Even after declaring education as a fundamental right, there are numerous hurdles that
prohibit a girl child from actually getting education. The biggest hurdle is the prejudices that
families have about girls—like girls are slow learners, they are not rational; they are to be
confined inside the domestic household and many more. Only a handful of people have
actually realized the importance of educating a girl. Though not a direct cause, the infamous
dowry system is also another barrier in girl child education. Families often think of a girl as a
burden and often want to save the money for their dowry rather than spending it on her
education.
A girl is no less than a boy; they are more diligent, hardworking and consistent in
their effort towards anything. A girl should be educated in order to ensure a better life for
herself. If she is empowered, she would be in a condition to add on the income of the family,
and raising the living condition of her family.
The government of India has initiated various programs and policies to ensure that a
girl does not miss out any opportunity of getting education. After independence, the
government had set up a National Committee on Women’s Education in 1958, and it
recommended that female education should be at par with male education. In the year 1964,
the Education Commission was set up, which largely talked about focusing on educating the
girl child. The government came up with ‘New Education Policy’ in the year 1968, which
focused on the overall education at both rural and urban areas.
National Education Policy(NEP)-2020 has introduced “Gender Inclusion Fund for
targeting the development of girl child. The Government of India will constitute a “Gender
Inclusion Fund” to provide quality and equitable education for all girls. The fund will focus
on ensuring 100% enrolment of girls in schooling and a record participation rate in higher
education, decreasing gender gaps at all levels, practice gender equity and inclusion in
society and improve the leadership capacity of girls.
6.8 EDUCATION OF CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
All the children with special needs must be enrolled in primary schools. After the
assessment of their disabilities by a team of a doctor, a psychologist, and a special educator in
schools, the child should be placed in appropriate educational settings. Children with mild
and moderate disabilities of any kind may be integrated in normal schools, severe in special
schools/ remedial schools, drop outs who have problems in availing benefits of normal
schools can join open schools. All the children with learning disabilities alone are first

26
managed in the normal schools. Open and special schools also offer vocational courses also
for children with disabilities.
Formal Schools
The Ministry of Human Resource Development (Department of Secondary and
Higher Education) has been implementing a scheme of ‘Integrated Education for the Disabled
Children’ (IEDC) in formal schools since 1982. The main objective of the scheme is to
provide educational opportunities for the disabled children in normal schools so as to
facilitate their retention in the school system. The disabled children who are placed in special
schools should be considered for integration into common schools once they acquire the
communication and daily living skills at a functional level.
The following types of children with disabilities must be integrated in the normal school
system- formal as well as in non- formal schools.
 Children with locomotor handicaps (O.H.)
 Mildly and moderately hearing impaired
 Partially sighted children
 Mentally handicapped educable group (IQ 50-70)
 Children with multiple handicaps (blind and orthopaedic, hearing impaired and
Orthopaedic, educable mentally retarded and orthopaedic, visual impaired and mild
hearing impaired)
A three- member assessment team comprising of a doctor, a psychologist and a
special educator is formed and their assessment report recommends whether a child can be
enrolled directly into a normal school or should receive preparation in a special school/ or a
special preparatory class in Early Childhood Education Centre (ECCE) specially equipped for
this purpose. Under the IEDC scheme, resources and itinerant teachers are provided. Children
are also given certain incentives like book allowance, equipment allowance, transport-
allowance etc.
Special Schools
This is a programme of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. Children
with severe multiple disabilities who have difficulty in coping with regular schools are
referred to such special schools. Most of these special schools are located in urban areas and
run by voluntary organizations. A majority of them are residential schools and boarding-
lodging and other services are provided free of cost. 40% disability of any such particular
types is a benchmark for identification and certification for admission in these special
schools.
National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)
The National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) formerly known as National Open
School (NOS) was established as an Autonomous Registered Society in 1989 with the
mission to provide education through an open learning system at the school stage as an
alternative to the formal system.

27
 It offers courses like the foundation course, notionally equivalent to class VIII level,
secondary education and higher secondary courses and vocational courses. The NIOS also
provides the programme of Open Basic Education for Universal Elementary Education
(UEE), which includes programme for the disabled children. It offers Open Basic Education
courses through the following:
Open Basic Education (OBE)
This project is for out of school children in the age group 6-14 and also for adult
learners.
The OBE Programme is offered at three levels:
 OBE level A: equivalent to class I-III
 OBE level B: equivalent to class IV-V
 OBE level C: equivalent to class VI-VIII
Special Accredited Institutions for Education of the Disadvantaged (SAIED)
To cater to the needs of the people with physical or mental disabilities the NIOS has
accredited institutions for education of the disadvantaged. Academic courses like open basic
education (OBE), secondary and senior secondary courses and vocational courses are offered
either independently or in combination with an academic subject through SAIED.
6.9 ACCESS AND FACILITIES OF EDUCATION FOR ALL
Access to education is the right of every child, including children with disabilities.
Every child should be given equal opportunity in education, regardless of the social class,
race, gender, sexuality, ethnic background or physical and mental disabilities. Proper
facilities have to be provided to the disadvantaged group of students so that they can enter
into the mainstream education. Government of India has taken several steps and initiatives
towards providing educations for all. Many constitutional provisions have been constituted to
give access and facilities for children towards education.
6.9.1 Universalization of Primary Education (UPE)
Education, at least up to the elementary level, is considered essential for every
individual in a democratic country. Primary education provides the necessary foundation for
strengthening human resources because the quality and efficacy of human resources assume
special significance for our personal, social and national development. The entire foundation
of our national development is based on the availability and quality of primary education. It
was with this objective that the framers of our constitution pledged to provide free and
compulsory primary education to each and every child. After becoming independent, India,
as a democratic welfare state, announced Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE)
and equal opportunity for all as its basic principles.
Primary education is essential to each individual as it provides skills to access
opportunities in life which are crucial for viability in a society being increasingly influenced
by the information revolution. Primary education (as Mahatma Gandhi favoured Basic
Education) is a fundamental need of all individuals and is essential for their existence or

28
survival with dignity. It is the right to such education that the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights refers to Primary education (classes I-V) should be universal, that is, available
free for all children within the age group of 6 - 11 years. Though not directly, it says that
education is the birth right of every child and opportunities for this education are to be
provided by the state through formal and non-formal means of education. UEE signifies that
education is free and available to all irrespective of where one resides, one’s gender and
caste. Primary education is also a crucial indicator of human development. It is primarily
through UEE that our nation is seeking to realise the goals of Education for All.
Universal Provision
It means that school facilities should be provided to all children between the age
group of 6-11 to achieve UPE and 6-14 for achieving UEE throughout the country. The
school should be easily accessible i.e., it should preferably be within a walking distance of a
child.
Universal Enrolment
Provision of adequate schools of children in all areas is not the only input for solution
to the problem. Since independence, there has been a substantial increase in enrolment at the
elementary stage of education. While the gross enrolment ratio (GER) at the primary stage in
the country as a whole and in most of the states are near about 100 per cent, there are quite a
few states where the ratio is considerably lower. Gender disparities are conspicuous in regard
to enrolment and retention. Though the rate of growth of enrolment of girls has been higher
than that of boys, disparities still persist.
Universalisation of Retention
Universalisation of retention means that once a child joins a primary school(s), s/he
should remain there till the completion of primary schooling. If the child leaves the school in
between, the idea of universalisation stands defeated. Mere enrolment of children is not
enough. They should attend the school regularly and complete their primary/ elementary
schooling. These children need to be retained and enabled to complete the full cycle of
primary education.
Universalisation of Achievement
India has achieved a great deal so far as providing a primary school for most
settlements is concerned. In some states, the primary education system has higher intake
capacity than children enrolled at the primary level. The quality of education system is best
judged by the learning achievement of the students. With significant gains in enrolment in
primary classes, the challenges lies in improving the quality of primary education for higher
retention and better performance of students. To increase the level of learner attainment our
country took Initiative in 1991 and laid down minimum levels of learning (MLLs) to be
achieved at the primary stage. The first phase of this programme was implemented through
various agencies. Curriculum revision, rewriting of text-books to make them competency-
based, enhancing their pedagogical value, training of teachers in class room processes are the
major activities undertaken in this regard. The state government have introduced MLLs fin
most of their primary schools including schools run by local bodies and private groups. The

29
District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) has adopted MLLs as a major strategy for
improvement of quality of primary education. Non- formal education programme is also
adopting MLLs wherever appropriate. Hence, our country looks forward to attaining
universalisation of achievement or attainment by all children who enrol themselves for
primary education.
6.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What does Article 45 states?
2. Mention the Articles that safeguards the interest of weaker section.
3. When was Right to Education Act constituted?
4. what is Universalization of Retention?
5. Mention the section of groups that are considered as disadvantaged section.
Answers to Check Your Progress
1. Article 45 of the Directive Principles of State Policy that, “The state shall endeavour to
provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for
free and compulsory Education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen
years.”
2. Article 15, 17 and 46.
3. Right to education Act constituted in 2009
4. Universalisation of retention means that once a child joins a primary school, he should
remain there till the completion of primary schooling.
5. Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs),
Girls, Children with Special Needs (CWSN) and Minorities are considered
disadvantaged sections or backward classes.
6.11 SUMMARY

 Indian culture has always followed the concept of “Vasudhaiva Kutumbkam” (The
world is one family) resulting in a great cultural heritage. Indian society is very
complex in its structure and characteristics. it is made out of various social institutions
like caste, family, marriage, kinship, State, Government etc.
 The themes followed in Indian society that makes it more complex are:
a. Hierarchy
b. Caste
c. Social Interdependence
d. Kinship
e. Religious beliefs and rituals
 Castes are rigid social groups characterized by hereditary transmission of life style,
occupation and social status. The people of Indian society are not uniform, they are
different on the basis of biological traits, social and economic characteristics.

30
 Stratification is the basic characteristics of Indian society; people are divided into
different strata on the basis of caste, economy, race, etc. Caste and class are the two-
stratification system, commonly existing in Indian society. Caste is the social
stratification on the basis of birth.
 The Constitution makes the following provisions under Article 45 of the Directive
Principles of State Policy that, “The state shall endeavour to provide within a period of
ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory
Education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.”
 The Right to Education Act (RTE) is an important legislation landmark in the education
system of India. With its enactment, the right to education has become a fundamental
right of the citizens. The Act is completely titled “the Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education Act”. It was passed by the Parliament in August 2009. When
the Act came into force in 2010, India became one among 135 countries where
education is a fundamental right of every child.
6.12 GLOSSARY
Hierarchy: a system in which members of an organization or society are ranked according to
relative status or authority.
Kinship: blood relationship.
6.13 QUESTIONS FOR SELF- STUDY
1. Write about the complexity of Indian society.
2. Discuss about the origin of caste system in India.
3. Explain Right to Education Act (RTE).
4. Write a note on the provisions given to disadvantaged group by the government.
5. Discuss how a child with special needs can be educated.
6. Bring out the importance of education of a girl child.
6.14 REFERENCES
1. Shukla Parihar and K. P Singh (2011), Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of
Education, R. Lall Book Depot, Meerut.
2. Deepa Awasthi (2016), Girl Education in India: Understanding the Status and Gender
Issues (Vol. 1st), Kalpaz Publications
3. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/
4. https://vikaspedia.in/
5. http://sdeuoc.ac.in/
6. https://www.academia.edu/
7. https://censusindia.gov.in/
8. https://www.iwcwtministry.org/

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 UNIT -7 CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS

Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Meaning and Significance
7.2 Culture – Meaning and Significance
7.3 Characteristics of Indian Culture
7.4 India as:
7.4.1 Multicultural society
7.4.2 Multilingual Society
7.4.3 Multi Religious Society
7.5 Influence of Cultural Background on Learning
7.6 Check Your Progress
7.7 Summary
7.8 Glossary
7.9 Questions for Self - Study
7.10 References

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7.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to
 Explain the meaning and significance of cultural and historical foundations.
 Understand the characteristics of Indian Culture.
 Explain the characteristics of a community.
 Discuss the factors that makes India a
a) Multicultural society
b) Multilingual Society
c) Multi Religious Society
 Explain the influence of cultural background on Learning
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Indian culture is considered as one of the ancient cultures. Many races and religion
have been influenced by Indian culture from time immemorable. Amalgamation of many of
these have formed a distinct culture and has left its own imprint and evolved as a distinctive
Indian Culture. Culture generally refers to the way people live in that place. Hence culture of
a country differs from region to region. Indian culture is often considered as a blend of
languages spoken, traditions followed, food, art and architecture, customs, dance and music
and many more which are followed distinctly in different regions. Many elements of India’s
diverse cultural segments have had a profound impact across the world. Culture varies from
place to place and country to country. Cultural development is based on the historical process
operating in a local, regional or national context. For example, we differ in our ways of
greeting others, our clothing, food habits, social and religious customs and practices from the
West. In other words, the people of any country are characterised by their distinctive cultural
traditions. We have learnt many things from our ancestors. As time goes, we continue to add
new thoughts, new ideas to those already existent and sometimes we give up some which we
don’t consider useful anymore. Cultural heritage includes all those aspects or values of
culture transmitted to human beings from their ancestors from generation to generation.
7.2 CULTURE -MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE
The word ‘Culture’ is derived from the Latin term ‘cult or cultus’ meaning tilling, cultivating,
refining and worship. The food we eat, the clothes we wear, the language we speak are all
aspects of culture. In very simple terms, it can be said that culture is the embodiment of the
way in which we think and act. Culture also says about the things that we have inherited from
our society. Art, music, literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion, and science
can be seen as aspects of culture. However, culture also includes the customs, traditions,
festivals, ways of living and one’s outlook on various issues of life. Culture is the expression
of our nature in our modes of living and thinking. It can be seen in our literature, in religious
practices, in recreation and enjoyment. Culture has two distinctive components, namely,
material and non-material. Material culture consists of objects that are related to the material
aspect of our life such as our dress, food and household goods. Non-material culture refers to
ideas, ideals, thoughts and belief. Understanding culture is helpful in the study of history
because many historical events arise within specific cultural contexts and knowing these
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cultural contexts can greatly help us to better understand and appreciate the significance of
these events.
History forms the basis of culture. History and culture are interconnected and are
strongly intertwined. The customs, values, and views supported by past generations have a
lasting impact on how we view our place in the world. Nowadays there are many cultural
historians who study beliefs and ideas, much as intellectual historians do. Traditions represent
a critical piece of our culture, and traditions are brought to us by history. There’s a saying:
“Cultural history brings to life a past time and place.” The history of a people is the story they
tell about what they have been through and the telling of that story will be profoundly
influenced by the culture. History is the story of the past, not the past itself. History arises out
of the culture and is a key tool for sustaining and developing the culture.
Culture isn’t just about art and music, it is about society, the way people lived - their
customs, beliefs, traditions, heritage, habits, and values. Understanding culture is helpful in
the study of history because many historical events arise within specific cultural contexts and
knowing these cultural contexts can greatly help us to better understand and appreciate the
significance of these events.
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN CULTURE
Culture is acquired and learned. Certain behaviours are acquired through heredity.
Individuals inherit certain behaviours and qualities from their parents, family and sometimes
learn few from the influence of neighbourhood also. Hence it is apparent that culture of an
individual is influenced by the physical and social environment in which they live.
General characteristics of culture:
1. Culture is dynamic: Culture is not permanent. It changes according to the
modifications brought in the society. Culture is always flooded with new thoughts that
change the old thoughts.
2. Culture is cumulative: culture is passed from one generation to another generation.
New thoughts, new visions of the current generations and experiences of the older
generation together are carried on to the next generation.
3. Culture changes: sometimes few traditions are lost and sometimes new cultural traits
are added. There are possibilities of cultural changes within the particular culture.
4. Culture is diverse: it is a system that has several mutually interdependent parts
although these parts are separate, they are interdependent with one another forming
culture as a whole.
5. Culture is shared by group of people: few thoughts or actions or beliefs are practiced
by group of people in the society. Hence culture is shared.
6. Culture has behaviour patterns: culture influences an individual to behave
appropriately in any situation. it shows specific behaviour patterns.

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Characteristics of Indian culture
Indian culture which is one of the oldest and traditional in the world shows an
inclination towards spirituality, moral and ethical values, understanding, corporation and
cultivates the attitude of simplicity and generosity. Some of its characteristics are:
1. Coexistence: Indian culture respects god’s creation and considers non-living elements
as divine. Indian culture promotes the culture of co-existence.
2. Harmony: Indian philosophy and culture acts as a foundation to the moral and social
order in the society. Harmony prevails when both inner and external orders are
balanced.
3. Tolerance: An important characteristic of Indian culture is tolerance. Tolerance
towards other religion, cast, communities, etc are the basis of Indian culture.
4. Stability: The practice of Indian culture exists even today as they had been initially.
Many cultures have influenced, many rulers have invaded, but still Indian culture is
intact.
5. Racial Diversity:In the words of the prominent historian V.A. Smith: “India is an
ethnological museum.” Even the ancient Greek historian Herodotus remarked: “Of all
the nations that we know of India has the largest population.” In the 21st century also
India is the second most populous country of the world. This population is composed
of so many races and it represents primarily all the ethnographical dimensions of
mankind. Many races like Aryans, Dravidians, Arabs, Turks, Mughals, Afghans,
Anglo-Indians, and tribes like Nagas, Kurals etc have merged with the Indian
population to form a greater human race.
6. Continuity: Most of the traditions and culture we follow even today have been
practiced by people from generations to generation. A special characteristic of Indian
culture is its continuous flow. Since, Indian culture is based on values, its
development is continuous.
7. Stability: Even today the stability of Indian culture is unique within itself. Many
invasions occurred, many rulers changed, many laws were passed but the traditional
institutions, religion, epics, literature, philosophy, traditions, etc. are alive. Indian
culture has always favoured change within continuity. It is in favour of gradual
change or reform. It does not favour abrupt or instant change.
8. Adaptability: Adaptability has a great contribution in making Indian culture
immortal. Adaptability is the process of changing according to time, place and period.
It’s an essential element of longevity of any culture. Indian culture has a unique
property of adjustment, because of which, it is maintained till today. Indian family,
caste, religion, and institutions have changed themselves with time. Due to
adaptability and co-ordination of Indian culture, it’s continuity, utility and activity is
still present.
9. Receptivity: Receptivity is an important characteristic of Indian culture. Indian
culture has always accepted the good of the invading cultures. Indian culture is like an

35
 ocean, in which many rivers come and meet. Indian culture has always adjusted with
other cultures its ability to maintain unity amongst the diversities of all is the best.
Vasudaiva Kutumbakam is the soul of Indian culture.
10. Spirituality: Spirituality is the soul of Indian culture. Here the existence of soul is
accepted. Therefore, the aim of man is not physical comforts but is self-realisation.
11. Religious Dominance: Religion has a central place in Indian culture. Vedas,
Upanishads, Purana, Mahabharata, Gita, Agama, Tipitaka, Quran and Bible affect the
people of Indian culture. These books have developed optimism, theism, sacrifice,
penance, restraints, good conduct, truthfulness, compassion, authenticity, friendliness,
forgiveness, etc.
12. Emphasis on Duty: Indian culture emphasises dharma or moral duty. It is believed
that performance of one’s duty is more important than asserting one’s right. It also
emphasises the complementariness between one’s own duty and other’s rights.
13. Caste System: Another characteristic of Indian culture is social stratification. In every
region of India, there are about 200 castes. The social structure is made of thousands
of those castes and sub-castes, which decide the social status of a person based on
birth.
14. Unity in Diversity: An important characteristic of Indian culture is Unity in
Diversity. There is much diversity in Indian culture like in geography, in caste, in
creed, in language, in religion, in politics, etc. Dr. R.K. Mukerjee writes, “India is a
museum of different types, communities, customs, traditions, religions, cultures,
beliefs, languages, castes and social system.” But even after having so much of
external diversity, none can deny the internal unity of Indian culture. Thus, in Indian
culture there is Unity in Diversity.
15. The Ideal Family: The family is the defining feature of Indian culture. Every person
may not live in a joint household but the ideal of joint family is still favoured.
7.4 INDIA AS A MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY
7.4.1 A Multicultural Society
Multiculturalism describes the way a given society deals with cultural diversity.
Based on the underlying assumption that members from different cultures can coexist
peacefully, multiculturalism expresses the view that society is enriched by preserving,
respecting, and even encouraging cultural diversity. Multiculturalism is the way in which a
society deals with cultural diversity, both at the national and at the community
level. Sociologically, multiculturalism assumes that society benefits from increased diversity
through the harmonious coexistence of different cultures.
Multicultural societies are characterized by people of different races, ethnicities, and
nationalities living together in the same community. In multicultural communities, people
retain, pass down, celebrate, and share their unique cultural ways of life, languages, art,
traditions, and behaviours. The characteristics of multiculturalism often spread into the

36
community’s public schools, where curricula are crafted to introduce young people to the
qualities and benefits of cultural diversity.
The Indian caste system describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the
Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous
hereditary groups, often termed as jatis or castes. Religiously, Hindus form the majority,
followed by Muslims, Christians, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Jew and Parsi populations. India's
state boundaries are largely drawn based on linguistic groups. Thus, most states differ from
one another in language, culture, cuisine, clothing, literary style, architecture, music, and
festivities.
Benefits of living in a multicultural society:
a) More Lifestyle Options
One of the major benefits of living in a multicultural society is that the cultural exchange of
ideas, values, and habits can help people increase their quality of life. In a diverse culture like
India, many options can be figured out when it comes to deciding the way to live.
b) Increased Awareness of Cultural Identity
Cultural awareness increases when people live in a diverse society. People living in
multicultural communities feel the need to define their identity. They also feel the need to
understand the differences and similarities between themselves and others with different
backgrounds. Thus, they are prouder of their heritage than those living in a homogeneous
society. They also feel generous about celebrating their traditions with others and sharing
cuisine, music, dance, art, and so on. As a result, the whole society becomes more interesting.
c) Tolerance and Open-Mindedness
A third major benefit of living in a multicultural society is that being surrounded in
everyday life by people with different backgrounds and cultural identities encourages
tolerance and open-mindedness. In a country with so many immigrants and minorities, and
where such a large percentage of the population has mixed heritage, acceptance, tolerance,
and open-mindedness are the core values that make the nation thrive. If people feel accepted
and valued, they have an intrinsic motivation to contribute to the society that embraces them
and affords them the quality of life they seek.
d) Creativity and Innovation
Living in a multicultural society means living with people who have different habits,
ideas, and lifestyles. This condition is ideal for creativity and innovation. In a multicultural
society, people are always exposed to new ways of doing things and fresh ways of looking at
things. A mix of perspectives, talents, skills, and ideas fosters innovation and makes space for
outside-the-box mindsets.
Along with the being in a multicultural society, Multiculturalism accords positive
value to the group/cultural identity. It recognizes the dignity and importance of individual
identity, which allows individuals to maintain their cultural distinctness. It sees individual not
simply as an autonomous entity but also locate him within the community. It emphasises the

37
importance of collective identity in an individual life. It acknowledges the value of cultural
community in the life of an individual which is an essential feature of self-esteem.
Multicultural public policies are intended to achieve or help us to build a new relationship, a
sort of democratic citizenship in place of prevailing ethnic hierarchies. The multiculturalism
is about creating new relationships of citizenship in place of hierarchies. Therefore,
multicultural policies stress on the change in hierarchical citizenship to accommodate
interests of the minority communities.
Disadvantages of living in a multicultural society:
Apart from the many important advantages of multiculturalism, there are still some issues
related to living in a multicultural society.
 one problem of multiculturalism is that it can lead to tensions between people with
different cultural backgrounds.
 It makes it difficult for the people who moves from one place to another as it takes
plenty of time until they adjust to the new conditions.
 Language barrier as a big problem of multiculturalism, especially if people with
different ethnical backgrounds do not speak the language of the country they migrated
to, chances are that those people will suffer from serious levels of social isolation.
 People are also still skeptical about the concept of multiculturalism. Many people are
proud of their own culture, and they may not be willing to accept other cultural
attitudes besides their own.
 Many people also fear ethnic plurality since they think that they will lose their cultural
identity sooner or later due to this concept.
 One real danger of multiculturalism is that it can be misused for the spread of radical
religious ideas. In fact, in many countries all over the world, gurus and other spiritual
or political leaders try to use multiculturalism for their purposes to spread radical
ideas among the public. Many people fear to lose their cultural identity sooner or later
due to this concept.
 Multiculturalism may often lead to too much migration where there are possibilities of
the local race becoming extinct in the near future.
 Multiculturalism can also increase the level of frustration of certain people. Many
people may feel lost since they do not have the skills that are needed to succeed in the
current state of the world.
 Another downside of multiculturalism is that the social tensions in society may
increase as well. If people get the impression that minorities are supported while most
of the public is neglected in terms of welfare and social benefits, chances of people
becoming quite frustrated over time may increase significantly.

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 Thus, multiculturalism has its own benefits and disadvantages. It stands for
heterogeneity instead of homogeneity, diversity as opposed to unity. Multiculturalism
recognises and respects rich diversity and encourages the contribution of each group present
in the society. It is an inclusive process in which all cultures are valued with dignity and
respect. No group is allowed to be dominated in a way that excludes other cultural
distinctness or identity. In this sense, individuals are considered as a part of collectivities and
multiculturalism supports these collectivities. Multiculturalism can be understood as a self-
conscious affirmation of the equality of different groups in the public sphere, a feature that
differentiates it from cultural pluralism. In short, multiculturalism pleads for and maintains
the existence of cultural heterogeneity. The very premise of this idea is based on equal
democratic interactions among all these groups. In addition, individual identity is not
undermined, rather enhanced in the cultural ambience of community and collectivities.
7.4.2 Multilingual society
Language is not merely a tool of communication but a means through which culture is
transmitted and spread for generations together. Indian society has been a birthplace to many
languages. India is a land of diverse languages since it is a multicultural country.
Multilingualism can also be regarded as the co-existence of several languages within a
society (Lyons,1981). These languages can be official or unofficial, native, or foreign and
national or international. India is so vast and is divided into many States, languages, and
religions and hence its culture is also much diversified. Since time immemorial, India has
been a multilingual country. Through more than four millennia of known history, the
linguistic families which co-existed together have continuously interacted with each other
and achieved a pan Indian character which is unique. Number of Indian
States were reorganized according to their linguistic lines and language has always played a
part in determining a State’s political identity. Multilingualism in India has played a key role
in the country's contemporary politics. State boundaries were drawn along the lines of
language groups, even though regions remain linguistically diverse, because languages in
India is an important way of defining one's identity.
Multilingualism suggests a lot of autonomy to an individual and is a benefit in terms
of acceptance into a different language or culture. Generally, if an immigrant can articulate
the language of the natives, that person will be easily accepted as a member of the native
community. This acceptance offers a sense of security to the individual and hence becomes
very important for the wellbeing of the person. The world itself has now entered a phase of
globalization where the phenomenon of bilingualism / multilingualism has become an
additional value. Globalization has improved the value of multilingualism. Heterogeneity is
the best term to explain Indian multilingualism.
Multilingualism in India is a product of its history and a reflection of its diverse
cultures. India is said to be a socio-linguistic giant and the nerve system of this giant is
multilingualism. Language families present in India are an outcome of different races which
came to India many years back. An individual’s language is groomed by many social
variations. So, the relationship of language with the diversities present in Indian societies
makes the linguistic scenario completely unique. It talks about language variation based on

39
caste, tribe, races, region, script etc. So, this diversity and heterogeneity makes the people of
India multilingual. Various policies have been framed for the enhancement and maintenance
of diversity and multilingualism. It is natural for human being to learn or to use several
languages at the same time. Infact, in many speech communities it is a common practice to
use mixed codes in several domains of activity. Multilingualism rather than monolingualism
is the norm.
Few reasons for multilingualism can be:
a) Migration or labour mobility.
b) Cultural contact
c) Annexation and colonialism
d) Commercial
e) Scientific
f) Technological
g) Territorial conquest, etc
Multilingualism has various advantages:
a) Accessibility to knowledge of other cultures.
b) Communication between different linguistic and cultural groups become easier
c) Increases job opportunities
d) High cognitive development of a child
e) A broader world view, etc.
Multilingualism also brings with it the opportunity to read and understand the
literature of different languages which is a great asset as it offers a variety of perspectives and
the key to a huge repository of knowledge. A multilingual literate enjoys a greater privilege
than one who can only speak different languages. In fact, in a world of disappearing
geographical boundaries, it is hard to find people in positions of power who are not
multilingual. Multilingualism offers a political edge and is hence a great advantage.
Indian multilingualism is unique. Sometimes it is need based, sometimes it is forced
and at times it is natural. Pattanayak (1990:41-42) gave some special features of Indian
multilingualism. They are as follows:
 Multilingualism is sustained in India by social institutions.
 Linguistic features transcend genetic boundaries.
 Multilingualism is the result of nationalism.
 Change in linguistic codes or their mixing in communication does not create
problems of identity, conflict and crisis.
 It is possible to become multilingual without being multicultural.

40
  Language boundaries because of regular contact are fuzzy.
 Indian multilingualism is bifocal, existing both at mass and elite levels.
 The functional relation between languages is not linear but hierarchical.
Hence, multilingualism is in the blood of native Indians as they are exposed to different
languages by birth. Peter Auer and Li Wei has said that ‘most of the human language
users in the world speak more than one language, i.e., they are at least bilingual. In
quantitative terms, monolingualism is the exception and multilingualism the norm.’ India
too may not be an exception.
7.4.3 Multi Religious Society
India is a cradle of world religions. Its ancestors have preached and practiced almost
all major religions of the world giving rise to worldly beliefs, practices, rites, rituals,
ceremonies and institutions. The co-existence of all the religions and variety of faiths has
been a shining example of religious pluralism and tolerance. The principle of secularism
despite several conflicts and riots has been upheld by our citizens time and again. Indian
Constitution has rightly reflected the idea of multi religions. It states that “every citizen has a
right to freely practice, preach, profess and propagate any religion or faith”. Secular state has
been defined as a “state in which all religions and citizens irrespective of their faith would be
treated impartially”. Unlike its neighbouring nations India does not uphold any one religion
as the state religion. Apart from the major religions there are several tribal religions
coexisting in Indian society.
India is a multi-religious country. Every religion is given equal respect. The
constitution of India grants religious rights to all citizens. Religious leaders have right to
manage religious practices relevant to their own religion. Few of the religious communities in
India are:
Hinduism- Hinduism is one of the most ancient religions of India. Although followed by
majority of population, its origin is not owed to any prophet or founder. Major Hindu
scriptures include Vedas, and the holy book is Bhagwadgita, Ramayana, Puranas etc. Idol
worship, theory of Purushartha, theory of Karma, doctrine of rebirth are some of the major
principles of Hinduism. They believe in trinity of Brahma (creator), Vishnu(sustained) and
Maheshwara or Shiva (destroyer). The theory of Purushartha includes four principle of
Dharma (Duty), Artha (material gain), Kama (physical pleasure) and Moksha (Salvation).
Hindus are further divided in to two sects i.e., shivas‟ and vaishism and four castes i.e.,
Brahmin, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
Islam: Originated in Arabia in around 7th century A.D. The term Islam in Arabic means
surrender to God. Prophet Mohammad is the founder of this religion. It is a religion meaning
believes only in one God and that is Allah. Quran is the holy book of Islam. The religion is
based on five pillars, they are Allah (believe in only one God), Ramzan (fast in the auspicious
month), Hajj (Pilgrimage at least once in a lifetime), Namaz (praying five times a day) and
Zakkat (Charity). The major two sects of Islam are Shiyahs and Sunnis.

41
Christianity: Bible is the holy book of Christianity. They are further divided into Roman
Catholics and Protestants. The major principles of the religion are described in the Ten
Commandments. Bible includes the values of humanity, charity, mercy, repentance etc.
Sikhism: Guru Nanak is the founder of Sikhism. Guru Granth Sahib is the holy book of Sikhs
which includes all the hymns and the songs composed by all the ten Gurus of Sikhism. Sikhs
believe in Satnaam, God as the Almighty. A Sect in Sikhs who follow Khalsa Panth are
known as Singh meaning lion or the protector of religion. They are expected to follow the 5
K‟s. i.e., Kesh, Kara, Kanga, Kachha and Kirpaan.
Jainism: Jainism is a religion based on ethical conduct alone. The twenty-fourth tirthankara
was Vardhaman Mahavira who is said to be the founder of Jainism. It is further divided into
two sects, Shwetambara and Digambara. Jainism believes in Karma but do not believe in
Caste inequalities. Ahimsa (Non-violence), non-stealing, truth, non-possessiveness are some
of the values preached by Jainism. Majority of the followers of this religion are found in
India.
Buddhism: Buddhism is termed as a universal religion. Though found in India, its followers
are found all over, further divided into Hinayanas and Mahayanas. They believe in eight-fold
path as the solution to sorrow in life.
Few benefits of living in a multireligious society:
People living in a multireligious society possesses certain qualities like:
 Greater tolerance and understanding of the beliefs of others.
 Varied and rich cultural life from experiencing the religions and traditions of others.
 Better understanding of different viewpoint.
 New ways of living and enjoying life.
But it not always beneficial. Living in a multireligious society has its own drawbacks
too. Some of them are:
 It is not always easy to be open and understand other people's views.
 There have been examples of religious persecution and hatred.
 Religious tension will always prevail.
 Beliefs and values of some groups may be ignored, and this may cause conflicts in
among the groups.
Religion is taken far more seriously in India than it often is in the West. People following
different religions coexist peacefully but live and worship in separate social circles in India.
7.5 INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL BACKGROUND ON LEARNING
Culture is basically the customs, beliefs and the way of living shared by a particular
society/community/country. It refers to the values and norms shared by a specific group of
people. Culture influences how we see the world, how we see the community that we live in,
and how we communicate with each other. Being a part of a culture influences our learning,

42
remembering, talking and behaving. Therefore, cultural background determines to a great
extent the way learning takes place.
Learning happens based on the values, norms, beliefs and practices that are the
foundation of any culture.
 Culture teaches values, beliefs and traditions.
 It influences the social interaction with parents, siblings, peers and teachers.
 It influences their language and communication.
The cultural environment in which an individual grows and develops has a great
impact on learning. Their beliefs, principles, and theories play an important role on the
opportunities for success. Culture encapsulates various aspects. There are several cultural
factors, which have direct implications on learning. Within every learning environment there
is a prevailing culture that influences all the other components.
Culture is a critical component of any learning environment. It is important to be
aware of the influence of culture within any learning context, and to try and shape that culture
as much as possible towards supporting the kind of learning environment that is believed to
be most effective. However, changing a pre-existing, dominant culture is very difficult. New
technologies enable new learning environments to be developed, and thus provide an
opportunity to develop the kind of culture within that learning environment that will best
serve learners.
According to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, culture affects children's cognitive
development in a variety of ways. (Ormrod, 2014).
1. Culture affects the cognitive development by shaping children’s view of the world
and the way we interact with it.
2. Adults in a society pass along to children’s cognitive tools that not only teach children
specific ways of interpreting experience but that can help children tackle the various
tasks and problems they’re apt to face” (Ormrod, 2014, p.)
3. Culture shapes our cognitive processes and therefore determines how we interact with
the world and the thought processes we use; it also influences our self-concept.
It is a general thinking that learning must processes within learners. However, the
culture in which a person learns sets the agenda for learning in several ways. Culture
determines what is learnt and influences how and when it is learnt. What and how a person
learns is influenced in large measure by the culture in which the learning occurs and the
social interaction processes in which the learner engages.
7.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. List the general characteristics of Culture.
2. What is Adaptability?
3. What is a multilingual society?

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Answers to Check Your Progress
1. The general characteristics of Culture are:
 Culture is dynamic
 Culture is cumulative
 Culture changes
 Culture is diverse
 Culture is shared by group of people
 Culture has behavioural pattern
2. Adaptability is the process of changing according to time, place and period.
3. Multilingualism can also be regarded as the co-existence of several languages within a
society.
7.7 SUMMARY
 Indian culture is often considered as a blend of languages spoken, traditions followed,
food, art and architecture, customs, dance and music and many more which are
followed distinctly in different regions.
 Culture also says about the things that we have inherited from our society. Art, music,
literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion, and science can be seen as
aspects of culture.
 History forms the basis of culture. History and culture are interconnected and are
strongly intertwined. The customs, values, and views supported by past generations
have a lasting impact on how we view our place in the world.
 The word ‘Culture’ is derived from the Latin term ‘cult or cultus’ meaning tilling,
cultivating, refining and worship. The food we eat, the clothes we wear, the language
we speak are all aspects of culture.
 It is a general thinking that learning must processes within learners. However, the
culture in which a person learns sets the agenda for learning in several ways. Culture
determines what is learnt and influences how and when it is learnt.
7.8 GLOSSARY
Equality- the state of everyone having equal rights regardless of gender/race/class
Racism- the belief that some races are superior to others
Racial harmony-different races/colours living together happily
Multi-faith society- many different religions living together in one society
Religious pluralism -accepting all religions as having an equal right to coexist
Religious freedom- the right to practise your religion and change your religion
Prejudice- believing some people are inferior or superior without even knowing them

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Discrimination-putting prejudice into practice and treating people less favourably because of
their race/gender/colour/class
7.9 Questions for Self -Study
1. Discuss out the meaning and significance of Historical and Cultural Foundations.
2. Discuss the characteristics of Indian Culture.
2. India is a multicultural society. Discuss.
3. Explain the special features of multilingualism.
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Multireligious society.
5. Discuss the influence of cultural background on learning.
7.10 REFERENCES
1. Shukla Parihar and K.P Singh (2011), Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of
Education, R.Lall Book Depot, Meerut.
2. Safaya Shaida and Shukla (2008), Teacher in Emerging Indian Society, Dhanpat Rai
Publishing Company, New Delhi.
3. Bhushan Vidya and Sachdeva (1987), An Introduction to Sociology, Kitals Mahal,
Allahabad.
4. Kingsley Davis (1969), Human Society, The Macmillan Company, New York.
5. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community

*******

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 UNIT -8 POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC BASES OF EDUCATION

Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Economic Order
8.3 Democracy as a policy system of India
8.3.1 Implications for Education
8.4 Democratization of Indian Education
8.5 Nature of Economic order in India
8.6 Unequal distribution of Economic Resources
8.7 Need for reducing economic inequality
8.8 Concept of Socialistic pattern of society
8.9 Policies and Programmes
8.10 Check Your Progress
8.11 Summary
8.12 Glossary
8.13 Questions for Self – Study
8.14 Refernces

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8.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to
 Explain the meaning of Politics and Economics.
 Understand the concept Economic Order.
 Explain democracy as a policy system and its implications for Education.
 Explain the need for Democratization of Indian Education.
 Discuss the Nature of Economic order in India.
 Give reasons for Unequal distribution of Economic Resources.
 Discuss the Need for reducing economic inequality
 Explain the concept of Socialistic pattern of society.
 Lists Policies and Programmes of Socialistic pattern of society.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Politics and Economics
Politics is the way that people living in groups make decisions. Politics is about
making agreements between people so that they can live together in groups such as tribes,
cities, or countries. Politics, in its broadest sense, is the activity through which people make,
preserve and amend the general rules under which they live.
Economics seeks to explain what drives human behaviour, decisions and reactions
when faced with difficulties or successes. Economics is a discipline which combines politics,
sociology, psychology and history.
Economics and Politics cannot be seen in isolation. Economics is concerned with
studying and influencing the economy. Politics is the theory and practice of influencing
people through the exercise of power. Many economic issues are seen through the eyes of
political beliefs and on the other hand, economists may prefer promoting greater equality in
society and be more willing to encourage government intervention to pursue that end.
8.2 ECONOMIC ORDER
Economic order widely known as Socioeconomic status is often measured as a combination
of education, income, and occupation. It is commonly conceptualized as the social standing
or class of an individual or group.
Economic order is broken into three levels
 high,
 middle, and
 low to describe the three places a family or an individual may fall into.
When placing a family or individual into one of these categories, variables like
income, education, and occupation are considered. Through these variables Economic order
of a person can be assessed. Other important factors in this includes wealth and health.

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The economic order consists of:
 The first order, Upper class or high class Includes the wealthy persons with
substantial property and investments.
 The second order, Middle class Includes:
o upper middle class - the professionals, managers, and small business owners
o lower middle class – professionals, managers, and small business owners as well
as technical workers, technicians, sales personnel, and clerical workers.
 Third order, the working class includes:
o upper working class - skilled craft workers
o lower working class - unskilled manual workers
The factors that have direct influence on economic order are:
1. Poverty. Children from poor families are less likely to meet the basic pre-requisites
for learning and are often ill-prepared to attend school. Children who live in low-
resourced communities are more likely to be malnourished, to have absent parents,
and to be exposed to violence and stress. Their schools may receive less funding.
These factors often lead to poor outcomes (Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007;
Shonkoff and Garner, 2012). School attendance may be affected by the need to work
to contribute to family finances and by difficulties with paying school fees and other
costs.
2. Parental education and literacy. The home environment plays a critical role in
children’s development and early learning (Save the Children, 2018). Research has
showed that children of parents with high socioeconomic status demonstrated higher
reading literacy than children of parents with low socioeconomic status (Xin Ma,
2008). Inequities in parents’ level of education can significantly affect children’s
ability to benefit from formal schooling. Parents who have not attended school, or
who are illiterate, may avoid engaging in homework activities with their children or
interacting with teachers and other service providers. They may be unable to provide
access to books and other literacy materials.
3. Location of residence. Our country has regionally unequal conditions of economic
development, funding and social services as well as significant rural-urban divides.
Schools in low-resourced areas including rural areas and informal urban settlements
often receive less funding than schools in high-resourced areas. This results in
reduced access to early childhood centres, high-quality schools, and well-trained
teachers. This, in turn, results in lower literacy rates, poor academic performance, and
higher drop-out rates, ultimately contributing to the cycle of poverty (Hindle, 2007).
4. Gender: Usually girls have less access to schools than boys and are more likely to
drop out early. Reasons for this may include distance, safety, adequate facilities, etc.
as well as expectations regarding participation in household chores, child marriage
practices, etc., and limited opportunities for girls’ employment after school.
Sometimes boys may drop out of school or underperform because of pressures to earn
money or because school is deemed. In school, teaching practices or instructional

48
 materials may contain gender stereotyping and students may face school-related
gender-based violence that severely impedes learning.
5. Ethnicity, religion, and culture. Children who face direct and indirect discrimination
based on their ethnicity, religion, or culture may suffer from negative psychological
and physical effects from an early age. This may cause them to underperform or
struggle to learn.
6. Language. International surveys regularly show that speaking a language in the home
other than the language of instruction at school amounts to a handicap (Duru-Bellat,
2004), which leads to a greater risk of grade repetition and drop out (Pinnock, 2009).
7. Conflicts, crises, disasters, and displacement. The experience of conflicts, crises,
and disasters can leave children physically and emotionally traumatized. Migrant and
refugee or displaced children may not have the formal residence papers allowing them
to attend school or may face hostility and prejudice in school. Due to damage and/or
insecurity, children may not have access to school buildings, learning materials, or
qualified teachers.
Hence, the Economic Order of the family affects the child’s attitudes toward
schoolwork. Along with this the child coming from a lower-class background will have less
exposure to the influence of mass media. In most cases, the educational attainment of the
child matches the socioeconomic attainment of his family. Education, especially when earned
inside the school (small community/society), is beneficial to the society. Society, which is the
“bigger school”, can help in the development of the education of the people.
Schools, as an institute of mass education, functions as an integral part of the process
of status allocation in four ways:
(1) By providing a context in which the individual can demonstrate his abilities.
(2) by channelling individuals into parts that lead in the direction of different
occupations or class occupations.
(3) by providing the skills needed to fulfil the requirements of various positions.
(4) by transferring to the individual, the differential prestige of the school itself.
8.3 DEMOCRACY AS A POLICY SYSTEM OF INDIA
India has the largest democracy in the world. Abraham Lincoln, the former President
of the United States of America said, “Democracy is a government of the people, for the
people, and by the people.” The term ‘democracy’ comes from the Greek word demokratia
which means “rule of the people”. It was coined from two words: demos that means “people”
and Kratos which refers to “power”.
Democracy is defined as a form of government in which the supreme power is vested
in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of representation
usually involving periodic free elections. That is, in a democracy the power rests with the
people. In its comprehensive form, democracy means (i) a form of government, (ii) a type of

49
state, (iii) a pattern of social system, (iv) a design of economic order, and (v) a way of life
and culture.
Therefore, when we say that India is a democracy, we mean not only that its political
institutions and processes are democratic but also that the Indian society and every Indian
citizen is democratic, reflecting basic democratic values of equality, liberty, fraternity,
secularism and justice in the social environment and individual behaviour.
Policy is a deliberate system of guidelines to guide decisions and achieve rational
outcomes. Policies are generally adopted by a governance body within an organization.
Indian government, ever since becoming democratic has been introducing many policies in
all the sectors including education to bring about equality among the citizens. Policies are
important because policy choices and decisions made by those in power affect nearly every
aspect of daily life, including education, healthcare and national security. Government
policies contain the reasons about the things that are to be done in a certain way and the
reason for doing in that direction.
India has also been developing and transforming economically and socially. In this
aspect education system of a country plays an important role.
 Education develops the qualities of brotherhood, appreciation of other’s point of view
etc. qualities essential for the successful functioning of democracy.
 Education develops dignity of labour and a sense of personal worth.
 Education broadens the mental horizon of the individual.
 Education develops values of equality and fair mindedness important elements of
democratic outlook.
 Education helps to evaluate the policies and programmes of political parties.
 Education helps to evaluate the merits and demerits of candidates contesting elections.
 Education helps to prevent exploitation.

Implications for Education

The university education Commission has explained the relationship of Democracy
and education as a unique adventure of life. Prof. Dewey in his book “Democracy and
Education” has explained very clearly the relationship between education and democracy as,
“A society which makes provisions for participation in its good of all its members on equal
terms and which secures flexible adjustment of its institutions through the interaction of the
different forms of associated life”. Such a society must have a type of education which gives
individuals a personal interest in social changes without introducing disorder. Hence
implementing policy system is very important. Many policies to eradicate illiteracy, poverty,
gender discrimination have been implemented from the beginning and policy changes have
been made according to the changes in the society by the government. Many such policies
have also been implemented in education sector also.

50
 A National Literacy Mission was set up in 1988 as a follow up of the National Policy
on Education 1986 to plan and implement programmes for the removal of illiteracy under the
platform, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.
From the 1970s, several programmes have been implemented for alleviation of
poverty in India. These programmes fall into two broad categories: (i) There are programmes
to lift beneficiaries above poverty line by providing them with productive assets or skills or
both, so that they can employ themselves usefully and earn greater income. (ii) Programmes
are also being implemented to provide temporary wage employment for the poor and the
landless.
Similarly, the 73rd and 74th Amendments of Indian Constitution in 1993 are the
milestones in the process of political empowerment of women. These Amendments have
reserved one-third of the seats in the Panchayati Raj Institutions, Municipalities and
Municipal Corporations. Another significant development has been the adoption of the
National Policy for Empowerment of Women in 2001, the overarching goal of which is to
“bring about the advancement, development and empowerment of women.”
Democratic education can take countless forms, each shaped by the adults and young
people in a community or educational setting.
Here are a few ways in which democratic education is practiced by teachers, young
people, schools, programs, and communities:
 Teachers creatively engaging students. They may work within more conventional
school settings, but still provide students with a chance to have choice in their
learning. These teachers go beyond the conventional curriculum to build a more
relevant and engaging experience that connects to the lives of young people.
 Schools implementing democratic education on a day-to-day basis. They may employ
practices like self-directing learning, shared decision-making, individualized project-
based work, and student-chosen internships in the community.
 Decision-making through student councils and student-teacher- administrator
committees.
 Cities and school districts undertaking broad educational reform efforts to personalize
learning, break out of the conventional structures and curriculum, and build an
“education city”.
Apart from this the policy systems of democratic India has implemented cooperative
learning, uniformity among students irrespective of their caste, creed, colour and culture, free
and compulsory education to all which has a great impact on education system in India and
through which developing a sense of equality among people can be achieved.
8.4 DEMOCRATIZATION OF INDIAN EDUCATION
Democratization of Education is one where students' have the right to choose and
control their educational paths. Choice and control are important concepts of democratic
education. The implementation of choice and control guide students to make their own

51
educational plans and goals. Choice, the ability to have autonomy in the direction of one's
own educational path, and control, the ability to decide how to approach major educational
needs. These are the two main principles of democratic education.
The most important benefit of democratic education is student ownership of their
education. When students own their choices, they are more engaged in making those choices
work to their own benefit and good. When a choice is pushed on a person without consent,
the person doesn't have a sense of ownership, and thus, does not always feel compelled to
work to make the situation a success.
However, when an individual has chosen a path, he doesn't want to fail because he
owns the choice, and thus, will own the failure as well. Ownership leads to engagement,
which leads to success in education, and that is the goal of every educational approach.
Other, more objective, benefits are:
 Higher attendance
 Greater participation in educational activities
 Higher student achievement
 Increased intrinsic motivation
Democratization of Education teaches students the value of being a true participant in
one's own environment and making sure one's own voice is heard. This prepares students for
a future in a democratic state. By teaching students that their voices are important can make a
difference.
The democratization of education mainly includes aspects like
 offering free choice of education options
 easy access to any level of education
 a smooth transition in the movement from one level of education to the next
 creative freedom to teacher and student
 easy grant of patents and copyrights

Thus, once equitability in opportunities, ideas of liberty and self-expression are made
available to the teachers, students and administrators. Greater cohesiveness and equality
between them will be achieved. Through democratization of education, caste-based and
income inequality can be eliminated which will provide universal access to high-quality
education.
Education is badly necessary for making the citizens alert and capable of discharging
their duties and responsibilities efficiently and effectively. The Kothari Commission (1964-
66) suggested many measures for democratic education and National Policy on Education,
1968 and 1986 provided methods and strategies for introducing democracy in education at
various levels. National Education Policy, 2020 also has put forth many strategies for
implementing democratic education in India. The most significant fact about the NPE, 1986

52
is the strong commitment and political will of the Government of India for its
implementation. Unlike preceding National Policies and Education Commissions, in this case
well-developed strategies and carefully planned procedures were adopted for implementing
the provisions of the NPE. As per programmes of action, 1986, a National System of
Education was developed and adopted throughout the country. The National curriculum was
framed and implemented with emphasis on common core values like India's heritage,
freedom struggle, democracy, socialism, secularism etc.
Planning procedures were recast and reoriented to suit and facilitate democratization
of education at different stages. Naik (1968) said that Institutional Planning is a unique
answer to four problems, namely (i) giving freedom to teachers, (ii) making teaching
effective, (iii) involving every teacher in the formulation and implementation of planning and
(iv) effective work by monitoring resources. Modern Education, particularly higher
education, is confronted with three major challenges. They are excellence, equity and
efficiency of the system. The major concerns are (i) maintenance of quality, (ii) equalization
of educational opportunity and (iii) improvement of efficiency and effectiveness in the
system of higher education. These elements are rational for effective and efficient
management, improving the quality of higher education for removing disparities existing at
various levels, and for providing social justice to the deprived and disadvantaged for those
who are at the lower levels or lowest rungs of the social ladder. It is necessary for the success
of democracy not only in structure but also in spirit.
Democratisation of the education system needs to be promoted at various levels, not
only in theory, but also in practice. Democracy also had its impact on higher education
structurally as well as functionally. The NPE (1986, p.15) provided for establishment of a
national apex body covering higher education in general, agricultural, medical, technical,
legal and other professional fields in the interest of greater coordination and consistency in
policy, sharing of facilities and developing interdisciplinary research. The POA 1986 (p.46)
also delineated the functions to be performed by this body. The major functions would be to
advise the Central government on policy, coordinate activities of other bodies, encourage
inter disciplinary and interfaces among different agencies and fields to allocate resources and
establish as well as manage common infrastructures and institutions. It is emphasized that
involvement of the local community in the management of educational institutions at various
levels would ensure democracy from the elementary to the higher education stage. The
National Policies have emphasized common citizenship and democratic values in education.
The National System of Education and Uniform Pattern of Education throughout the Country
were provided for promoting and sustaining democracy through education. The multi-culture
of India was encouraged for promoting democratic values in education. Democratization of
education at all levels has been fostered both quantitatively and qualitatively and for those
infrastructural facilities are developed and desirable structural changes have been brought
about in different stages of education. It is felt extremely desirable to take immediate steps
for realizing democracy through Education in our country on a pragmatic stand.

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8.5 NATURE OF ECONOMIC ORDER IN INDIA
The Indian Economic Order is based on simplicity, decentralization, self-sufficiency,
cooperation, equality, non-violence, human values, self-sufficient village units, and
nationalisation of basic industries, Swadeshi and the theory of trusteeship. Since 1991, India
is following market-oriented free economic system.
Decentralisation and cooperative organization:
Indian Economy follows decentralization policy to correct the evils of centralised
industries. Small-scale decentralisation and small-scale cooperative organization are
necessary to provide equal opportunity and to eradicate the concentration of economic power
in a few hands. Through this everybody has an equal opportunity for capability expansion
and enjoyment of full freedom.
Capitalist mode of production:
Indian economy still has the capitalist mode of production that leads to glaring
inequalities of income and leaves little share for other less efficient units of production.
Relevance of Trusteeship:
The concept of trusteeship still appears in the Indian economic system. Unlike the
capitalist system this trusteeship does not permit an owner to misuse his wealth. He is the
owner of only that portion of the income, which is necessary for his existence, it being fixed
by the state.
Swadeshi or make in India:
Swadeshi thinking is necessary to protect the interest of mass people. we must revive
the spirit of Swadeshi and encourage the use of Indian goods, Indian resources and modernise
indigenous technology. Make in India is essential for evolving a self-reliant economy.
In Indian economic order, there are two stages of achievement of the final goal of
human development. The first stage is attainment of political independence and second, the
economic self-sufficiency (the basic needs). This aims at reducing inequality in society.
Indian concept of development is very broad, encompassing not only economic development
but also social and human development. Economic growth without human welfare of all is
not a development at all and is based on the provision of basic needs for all the people in the
country.
8.6 UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF ECONOMIC RESOURCES
“The world holds enough to satisfy everyone's need, but not everyone's greed “
Mahatma Gandhi once observed. In these few words he identified the main cause of most of
the world's social and economic problems and pointed to their obvious solution.
Economic inequality is the unequal distribution of income and opportunity between
different groups in society. It is a concern in almost all countries around the world and often
people are trapped in poverty with little chance to climb up the social ladder. India is a
country with numerous castes, religions, languages, beliefs, cultures, status, etc. The people

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of India are different from each other in several aspects such as economic, social, cultural,
religious, etc. The major reason for the disparity amongst the people arises because of the
distinction in economic status between them. It is usually observed that in India people with a
different language, religion, or caste can live in a society together if their economic status is
equal. India being a welfare state should focus on equitable growth in the economy but in
reality, it is observed that there has always been inequality in the distribution of wealth and
income. This inequality in the distribution in turn leads to social and economic distress as
well.
There is widespread concern that economic growth has not been fairly shared, and
that the economic crisis has only widened the gap between rich and poor.
Poverty is fundamentally linked to the issue of how resources are distributed and
redistributed in a country. Countries with high levels of inequality are also likely to have high
levels of poverty and those with lower levels of inequality are likely to have lower levels of
poverty.
Some key factors are seen as making a person more “at risk” of being in poverty are:
 unemployment or having a poor quality (i.e. low paid or precarious) job as this limits
access to a decent income and cuts people off from social networks.
 low levels of education and skills because this limits people’s ability to access decent
jobs to develop themselves and participate fully in society;
 the size and type of family i.e. large families and lone parent families tend to be at
greater risk of poverty because they have higher costs, lower incomes and more
difficulty in gaining well paid employment.
 gender – women are generally at higher risk of poverty than men as they are less
likely to be in paid employment, tend to have lower pensions, are more involved in
unpaid caring responsibilities and when they are in work, are frequently paid less even
for the same job.
 disability or ill-health because this limits ability to access employment and also leads
to increased day to day costs.
 living in a remote or very disadvantaged community where access to services is
worse.
All these factors create additional barriers and difficulties, but should be seen within
the overall structural context of how a particular country chooses to distribute wealth and
tackle inequality.
8.7 NEED FOR REDUCING ECONOMIC INEQUALITY
Inequality is a major obstacle to sustainable economic growth. It is a characteristic
that can be defined at the individual level. Inequality is a relational concept that refers to
differences between individuals or groups.

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Reducing economic inequalities within and among countries is necessary to ensure that no
one is left behind. Inequality is a major obstacle for sustainable economic growth. Inequality
emerged as a central issue for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) because of the
growing body of evidence that inequalities in income and wealth cause economic instability,
a range of health and social problems and create a roadblock to the adoption of pro-
environment strategies and behaviour.
Reasons why we need equality:
1. Health: Life expectancy is shorter and mortality rates are higher in more unequal
societies. This applies to both the poor and also to the rich in these societies. Rates
of infant mortality, mental illness and obesity are also two to four times higher. In
more unequal developing and developed countries, HIV infection prevalence rates are
higher.
2. Social relationships: Levels of social cohesion, including trust and social capital are
lower in more unequal societies. Indicators of women’s status and equality also tend
to be worse. More unequal societies have more property crime and violence,
especially homicides.
3. Human capital development: Literacy scores are lower among young people and
more young people drop out of education, employment and training and more teenage
girls become mothers. Social mobility is restricted by inequality. Equality of
opportunity increases by greater equality of outcomes. More equal countries tend to
have higher rates of innovation, probably because of greater social mobility.
4. Economic progress and stability: Income inequality also leads to poverty. The
International Monetary Fund states that reducing inequality and bolstering longer-
term economic growth may be “two sides of the same coin“. In rich and poor
countries, inequality is strongly correlated with shorter spells of economic expansion
and less growth over time. Inequality is associated with more frequent and more
severe boom-and-bust cycles that make economies more volatile and vulnerable to
crisis.
5. Sustainable economies: Equal societies promote the common good – they recycle
more, spend more on foreign aid.
8.8 CONCEPT OF SOCIALISTIC PATTERN OF SOCIETY
“Socialist pattern of society”, according to the planning Commission, means, “that the
basic criterion must not be private profit but social gain and that the pattern of development
and the structure of socio-economic relations should be so planned that they result not only in
appreciable increases in national income and employment but also in greater equality in
incomes and wealth”. Socialist ideals include production for use, rather than for profit; an
equitable distribution of wealth and material resources among all people; no competitive
buying and selling in the market and free access to goods and services.

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 The Basis—The society is not based on any dogma or doctrine. Society is used in a
definite and clear way to point the direction in which the country should travel because it is
not a socialist but a socialistic pattern of society.
The objective—The main objectives of the socialistic pattern of society were three:
 social ownership or control of the principal means of production,
 progressive speeding up of production, and
 finally equitable distribution of national wealth.
While attaching equal importance to all the three objectives, emphasis was laid on
increased production which must see equitable distribution.
Schemes of Distribution of Wealth
The objectives of socialistic pattern of society was that the standard of living must be
raised, full employment must be progressively achieved, large industries should be initiated
and operated and an overall control over the resources of the country should be obtained for
social purposes
The Economic Policy—To achieve the objectives, the Government of India adopted a
definite economic policy, contained in the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948. The principal
basis of this Resolution was mixed economy. According to this Resolution, industries were
classified into three sectors, public, national and private. In the public sector, post and
telegraphs, railways and defence industries, were included which had the monopoly of the
State. In the national sector industries like coal, iron and steel, mines, aircraft, ship building,
telephones and wireless apparatus were included. All other industries were in the private
sector. Thus, a vast field was completely open to private enterprise. Agriculture which was
the largest of Indian industries remained essentially in the private sector.
In a mixed economy, there was a need for a shift in emphasis from time to time.
Hence the basis of the Government of India's industrial policy changed to mixed economy. In
other words, the Government took over complete control over all economic activities. The
economic policy of the Government of India thus became pragmatic in nature.
Steps towards Socialism— Specific measures were taken to usher in a socialistic
society. These measures, were of two kinds: long term measures and short-term measures.
The long-term measures were an increase in national income, stable levels of employment,
provision of certain minimum standards of service to all in the matter of education, health and
housing and also economic and social justice.
Economic Measures— The major economic measures taken for the establishment of a
socialistic pattern of society was enactment of the Estate Duty Act. This Act aimed at
imposing an estate duty on property passing or deemed to pass on the death of a person.
Estate duty was chargeable on all property beyond a certain limit passing on the death of a
person which he was entitled to dispose of. The social justification of this measure is that it is
one of the positive steps that should be taken in the direction of reducing the existing
inequalities in the distribution of wealth and thus arriving at a more acceptable social order.

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8.9 POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES
Policies and Programs
In the resolution of 15th March 1950 set up by Planning Commission cited that
“The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting, as
effectively as it may, a social order in which justice. social, economic and political, shall
inform all the institutions of national life.” (Article 58).
“The State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing—
a. that the citizens, men and women, equally, have the right to an adequate means of
livelihood;
b. that the ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so
distributed as best to subserve the common good;
c. that the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of
wealth and means of production to the common detriment.” (Article 39).
In the context of planning Policies that were formed were:
 Article 41 stated that “The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and
development, make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education
and to public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement,
and in other cases of undeserved want”.
 Article 45 stated that “The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten
years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education
for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.”
In December 1954, Parliament adopted a resolution which contained the following clauses:
1. The objective of economic policy should be a Socialistic Pattern of Society; and
2. Towards this end the tempo of economic activity in general and industrial
development in particular should be Stepped up to the maximum possible extent.”
The term 'Socialistic Pattern of Society” was commented in the Second Five Year
Plan document and a long-term strategy for economic advance was formulated based on that
concept. In the words of the Second Five Year Plan, as quoted in the Third Five Year Plan
document:
“The task before an underdeveloped country is not merely to get better results within
the existing framework of economic and social institutions, but to mould and refashion these
that they contribute effectively to the realisation of wider and deeper social values.
The Fourth Plan has to provide the next step forward in attaining accepted aims and
objectives of Indian planning. It announced to extend the base of social services and bring
about significant improvement in living standards of the people.

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Panchayati Raj and Planning
The establishment of socio-economic democracy through institutional changes has
been associated chiefly with the setting up of Panchayati Raj institutions and cooperatives.
The Panchayati Raj institutions are' agencies of Government and administration at the local
level. To the extent that they arc- vested with powers which enable them to participate in the
formulation of district plans and make them responsible for implementing local programmes
and schemes so that they can play a vital part in planning development. With the shift of
emphasis to district and local planning the importance of Panchayati Raj institutions and
cooperatives increased.
8.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is Economic Order?
2. What is democratization of Indian Education?
3. What is Socialistic Pattern of Society?
Answers to Check Your Progress
1. Economic order widely known as Socioeconomic status is often measured as a
combination of education, income, and occupation. It is commonly conceptualized as
the social standing or class of an individual or group.
2. Democratization of Education is one where students' have the right to choose and
control their educational paths.
3. Socialist pattern of society”, means, “that the basic criterion must not be private profit
but social gain and that the pattern of development and the structure of socio-
economic relations should be so planned that they result not only in appreciable
increases in national income and employment but also in greater equality in incomes
and wealth”.
8.11 SUMMARY
 Politics is about making agreements between people so that they can live together in
groups such as tribes, cities, or countries.
 Economics seeks to explain what drives human behaviour, decisions and reactions
when faced with difficulties or successes. Economics is a discipline which combines
politics, sociology, psychology and history.
 Economic order is broken into three levels:
high, middle, and low to describe the three places a family or an individual may fall
into.
 Democracy is defined as a form of government in which the supreme power is vested
in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of
representation usually involving periodic free elections.
 Democratization of Education is one where students' have the right to choose and
control their educational paths. Choice and control are important concepts
of democratic education. The implementation of choice and control guide students to

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 make their own educational plans and goals. Choice, the ability to have autonomy in
the direction of one's own educational path, and control, the ability to decide how to
approach major educational needs. These are the two main principles of democratic
education.
 Economic inequality is the unequal distribution of income and opportunity between
different groups in society. It is a concern in almost all countries around the world and
often people are trapped in poverty with little chance to climb up the social ladder.
8.12 GLOSSARY

Inequality: Inequality is a major obstacle to sustainable economic growth. It is a

characteristic that can be defined at the individual level.
Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism describes the way a given society deals with cultural
diversity. Based on the underlying assumption that members from different cultures can
coexist peacefully, multiculturalism expresses the view that society is enriched by preserving,
respecting, and even encouraging cultural diversity.

8.13 QUESTIONS FOR SELF- STUDY

1. Bring out the meaning and nature of Politics and Economics.

2. Explain the factors that influences Economic order.
3. Discuss the implications of democracy as a policy system for education.
4. Explain Democratization of Indian Education.
5. Discuss the key factors for unequal distribution of Economic inequality.
8.14 REFERENCES
1. Shukla Parihar and K.P Singh (2011), Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of
Education, R.Lall Book Depot, Meerut.
2. Safaya Shaida and Shukla (2008), Teacher in Emerging Indian Society, Dhanpat Rai
Publishing Company, New Delhi.
3. Bhushan Vidya and Sachdeva (1987), An Introduction to Sociology, Kitals Mahal,
Allahabad.
4. Kingsley Davis (1969), Human Society, The Macmillan Company, New York.
5. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community

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