water
Article
Microfacies and Reservoir Connectivity of Shore Sandbar,
Southern Indus Basin, Pakistan
Yuwen Dong 1 , Iftikhar Satti 2, *
Citation: Dong, Y.; Satti, I.; Chen, X.
Microfacies and Reservoir
Connectivity of Shore Sandbar,
Southern Indus Basin, Pakistan.
Water 2022, 14, 1614. https://
doi.org/10.3390/w14101614
Academic Editors: Aijun Wang and
Benwei Shi
Received: 7 March 2022
Accepted: 16 May 2022
Published: 18 May 2022
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4.0/).
Water 2022, 14, 1614. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14101614
and Xu Chen 3,4
1 Key Laboratory of Petroleum Geochemistry and Environment of Hubei Province, Yangtze University,
Wuhan 430100, China; dyuwen2005@163.com
2 Osaimi Engineering Office, Al-Khobar 31952, Saudi Arabia
3 School of Geoscience, Yangtze University, Wuhan 430100, China; chenxu2004@126.com
4 Key Laboratory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources, China University of Geosciences, Ministry of
Education, Wuhan 430074, China
* Correspondence: iasatti@gmail.com
Abstract: Shore sand bar reservoirs have attracted much attention as one of the target intervals with
the greatest potential for petroleum exploration and development in marine sedimentary basins.
Nevertheless, due to lack of effective research methods, it is difficult to analyze the rapid lateral
change and heterogeneity in a sand bar reservoir, which has a major impact on the efficient petroleum
development that seriously restricts the rolling evaluation and efficient development of sand-bar
reservoirs. In this study, based on integrated analysis of cores, thin sections, logging, 3D seismic
data, production test and dynamic data, through a combination analysis of drilling and seismic
interpretation data—the petromineral composition, microfacies and reservoir connectivity of the
shore sand bar in the southern Indus basin are investigated, which is used for the fine description of
the sandbar reservoir. The results show that the shore sand bar is located in a relatively high-energy
shore sedimentary environment, which is conducive to forming a favorable lithologic reservoir. Four
sedimentary microfacies types are identified, including center bar, bar edge, inter bar and local
mudstone interbeds. The sandbar microfacies are changed rapidly, and different microfacies types
overlap each other, especially the inter bar and local mudstone interbeds that overlap and intersect in
the center bar and bar edge, which significantly reduces the internal reservoir connectivity as well
as intensifying the heterogeneity of the sandbar reservoir. The sandbar reservoir is not connected
transversely, the physical properties are changing rapidly, and the sandbar reservoir is cut into several
relatively independent oil reservoirs.
Keywords: shore sand bar; microfacies; reservoir connectivity; southern Indus basin
1. Introduction
Shore sand bars are widely distributed in the open coastal sedimentary, which suffer
multiple actions of the ocean all year round. The sandbar complexes are roughly parallel or
oblique to the coastline with the characteristics of narrow strips, long extension distance
and large distribution scale in the plane [1–5]. It is generally believed that the shore
sandbar is a favorable exploration target for lithologic reservoirs in the marine sedimentary
basin because of its characteristics of “good transverse connectivity, high porosity and
high permeability” and its close proximity to shelf mudstone [6–9]. However, with the
development of oil and gas evaluation, it is found that there is a strong heterogeneity in a
sandbar reservoir, which is manifested as the quick change of reservoir physical property,
poor transverse connectivity and even the contradiction of oil–water relationships, which
restricts the efficient evaluation and development process of oil and gas fields. In fact,
the sedimentary characteristics and sand body distribution of shore sandbars are mainly
affected by a series of geological factors such as coastal zone landform, water energy, sea
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/water
Water 2022, 14, 1614 2 of 17

level changes, provenance conditions and so on; the argillaceous components are widely
developed in sandbar sedimentary, which leads to the complex reservoir connectivity [10–12].
In recent years, a series of breakthroughs have been made in detailed research of sand-
bar reservoirs. According to the sedimentary hydrodynamic condition and topographic
variation of the coastal zone, the internal architecture and the spatial distribution of sandbar
sedimentary are discussed in the aspect of geological genesis, which solves the problems of
plane distribution and the development scale of effective reservoirs to a certain extent [13–17].
Besides, based on the numerical simulation method, the heterogeneity characteristics of
a sandbar reservoir and its control on the distribution of the remaining oil are analyzed,
and it is predicted that there are many stable argillaceous compartments in the interior of
sandbars [15–17]. It is not difficult to find that a certain understanding has been obtained in
sandbar reservoir architecture, internal-sand body distribution and geological genesis [18–22].
However, the research work on shore sandbar research is relatively insufficient, such as
how to reveal a reservoir’s physical properties changes. Moreover, it is still controversial on
the internal differences of shore sandbars. Therefore, it is necessary to apply high-resolution
seismic data and oil field development dynamic data to sandbar sedimentary research,
which can provide a useful reference for fine sandbar reservoir prediction.

2. Geological Setting
The Indus basin is located in the south of Pakistan and the total area is about 36 × 104 km2.
It is a Mesozoic–Cenozoic sedimentary basin formed on the Paleozoic granite basement,
and the sedimentary thickness ranges from 2 to 7 km. The tectonic evolution of the basin
has mainly experienced five stages, including a rift stage in the Jurassic, passive continental
margin stage in the early Cretaceous, diagonal extension stage in the late Cretaceous,
thermal subsidence stage in the Paleogene and foreland stage since the Neogene [23–26].
From west to east, the tectonic units of the basin are a fold orogenic belt in the west part,
foredeep belt in the middle part and uplift basin in the east part; furthermore, the Sulaiman
and Kirthar fold belts are located in the western part. The Sulaiman and Kirthar foredeep
belts are located in the middle part. The Sulaiman slope and Punjab platform are located
in the northeast part. Tal slope and Sindh platform are located in the southeast part. The
northeast part and southeast part are separated by the Mary–Kirthar High (Figure 1). From
bottom to top, the sedimentary strata are delta sand-mudstone and carbonate platform in
Jurassic; marine delta, littoral and neritic clastic rock in Cretaceous, with a small amount of
volcanic rock interbeds at the top of Cretaceous [27,28]; and continental fluvial delta and
lacustrine deposits since Paleogene (Figure 2).
The degree of petroleum exploration in the basin is generally low and petroleum
discoveries are concentrated in the Tal slope in the southern part of the basin with a small
number in the Mary–Kirthar High and offshore area [27–30]. At present, several petroleum
fields have been discovered in the Tal slope structural belt; the oil reservoir types are
mainly structural reservoirs with a small number of lithologic, stratigraphic or compound
reservoirs [24–26]. The main target strata are in the lower Cretaceous, including four sets
of sandstone groups, including A sand, B sand, C sand and D sand, which are the major
reservoirs for petroleum exploration. The major source rocks are limestone in the Jurassic
and shelf and prodelta shale in the Cretaceous. The major cap rocks are thick mud in the
late Cretaceous [31,32] (Figure 2).
The Tal slope in the Indus basin is an important oil- and gas-producing base in South
Asia at present. Because the various faults are well developed in the study area since the
1990s, the faulted reservoirs are the main exploration target, and a great deal of research
on structural traps and oil accumulation in this area has been carried out by different
scholars [23–26]. However, there are only a few studies on reservoir sand bodies. It is found
that thick marine shore deposits are developed in the lower Cretaceous in the Tal slope
area, which is the most favorable reservoir sand body [26–28]. However, in the process
of evaluation and development of sandbar reservoirs, due to unclear understanding of
sandbar reservoir distribution regulation, a series of problems restrict the reservoir predic-
Water 2022, 14, 1614 3 of 17

tion accuracy and development deployment, including the poor transverse connectivity of
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW sandbarreservoirs, the rapid changes of sandbar microfacies and the contradiction 3ofofthe
19
oil–water relationship.

(a) (b)

(c)

(d)
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Location
Locationand
andgeology
geologyofofthe
the Indus
Indus basin:
basin: (a)
(a)map
mapshowing
showingthe
the Indus
Indus Basin
Basin in
in southern
southern
Pakistan, (b) tectonic setting of the Indus Basin and location of the study area, (c) Sandbar sedimen-
Pakistan, (b) tectonic setting of the Indus Basin and location of the study area, (c) Sandbar sedimentary
tary facies and well location map of B member sandbar, (d) regional stratigraphic framework from
facies and well location map of B member sandbar, (d) regional stratigraphic framework from
northwest to southeast, and the section location is shown in (b) ((d) is modified by Qian, 2018 [26]).
northwest to southeast, and the section location is shown in (b,d) is modified by Qian, 2018 [26]).

The degree of petroleum exploration in the basin is generally low and petroleum dis-
coveries are concentrated in the Tal slope in the southern part of the basin with a small
number in the Mary–Kirthar High and offshore area [27–30]. At present, several petro-
leum fields have been discovered in the Tal slope structural belt; the oil reservoir types
Water 2022, 14, 1614 4 of 17

In recent years, newly 3D high-resolution seismic data and well data (i.e., wireline
logs, core data, detailed test data and production data) in the Tal slope area are available to
present a detailed case study of microfacies analysis and reservoir connectivity of shore
sandbars. The primary objectives of this study are: (1) to analyze the petromineral com-
position and sedimentary facies marker of shore sandbars; (2) to identify the sedimentary
microfacies types of shore sandbars and (3) to evaluate reservoir connectivity and build
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of a
19
sedimentary model of shore sandbars.

Figure2.2.General
Figure Generalstratigraphy,
stratigraphy,lithology
lithologyand
andtectonic
tectonicevolution
evolutionofofthe
thestudy
studyarea.
area

3. Materials and Methods

This study is based on core data, thin-section observations, well logging data, high-
resolution 3D seismic data and production test data. In the study area, there are only seven
wells drilled into the sandbar reservoir, and about 40 m long cores are recovered. Fifty-
three samples are systematically selected to cover all the sandbar reservoir petrography
and cut into thin sections for microscopic petrographic studies. The lithology, grain size,
Water 2022, 14, 1614 5 of 17

3. Materials and Methods

This study is based on core data, thin-section observations, well logging data, high-
resolution 3D seismic data and production test data. In the study area, there are only
seven wells drilled into the sandbar reservoir, and about 40 m long cores are recovered.
Fifty-three samples are systematically selected to cover all the sandbar reservoir petrogra-
phy and cut into thin sections for microscopic petrographic studies. The lithology, grain
size, petromineral composition and sedimentary structures are interpreted through detailed
core observations and thin-section descriptions, yielding precise identification and division
of microfacies facies.
Wireline log data used in this study include gamma ray (GR), spontaneous potential
logs (SP), deep and shallow lateral resistivity (LLD, LLS), sonic travel time (AC) and
density (Den), and environmental and depth corrections are applied simultaneously for
the logging data. The logging motifs include the extent–difference logging curve, shape,
smoothness, top-bottom contact relation, thickness change of single sand body and curve
combination mode.
The Tal slope area is entirely covered by 3D seismic data (about 150 km2 ). This
area is characterized by an effective frequency band between 5 and 70 Hz and a peak
frequency of 35 Hz. The vertical seismic resolution is 10–20 m and the two-way travel time
is between 1.5 and 2.5 s in the interval containing the total A sand group in the Tal slope
area. Seismic facies analysis parameters generally include internal reflection structure,
geometric external shape, continuity and frequency. Thus, the different types of microfacies
facies are identified from interpretation of the core calibrated logging motifs and the well
calibrated seismic facies.
Besides, the production test and dynamic data are also collected for reservoir con-
nectivity research such as the porosity and permeability data, the capillary pressure data,
the crude oil daily output data, the production–pressure curve and so on. Through a
combination analysis of drilling and seismic inversion data, the reservoir connectivity and
sand body distribution regulation are further accurately revealed.

4. Results
4.1. Petromineral Composition
The lithology of the shore sandbar is mainly fine, siltstone and argillaceous siltstone
with a small amount of medium sandstone, and the particle size is from 0.08 mm to 1.44 mm.
The content of quartz particles is high (about 90~96%), while the content of feldspar and
debris is low, at about 1~3% and 3~7%, respectively. The analysis of the cast thin section
shows that the sand particles are moderately well sorted, the psephicity is subangular to
subround, the contact mode between grains is mainly point and linear, the primary pores
are developed and the content of clay impurity is low. These depositional phenomena
reflects that the sediments are located in the littoral to neritic environment with strong
water energy, and the sediments are screened and transformed by marine action resulting
in relatively pure sand and high maturity [27,28] (Figure 3).
In addition, a certain number of marine biological fragments, mainly mollusks and
bivalves, can be seen under the microscope. Bioclasts are dissolved after leaching, and
mold holes are formed (Figure 3d,g). Authigenic minerals are various, such as dolomite,
calcite, kaolinite and quartz authigenic margin, iron silicate minerals and some phosphate
minerals such as (oolitic) glauconite have also been found (Figure 3c,h). A small amount
of pyrite particles can be seen in some wells presenting a scattered distribution feature
(Figure 3b,c). (Oolitic) glauconite is usually formed in a littoral to neritic environment with
alkalinity, reductive situation and slow deposition and is a typical facies mineral of littoral
to neritic sedimentary environments [1–3].
Water 2022, 14,
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17

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Casting thin-sectionimages
Casting thin-section imagesofofsandstone
sandstone samples
samples from
from thethe southern
southern Indus
Indus basin.
basin. (a) me-
(a) medium-
dium-fine grained sandstone, high quartz content, well sorted, subround, particle point-line contact,
fine grained sandstone, high quartz content, well sorted, subround, particle point-line contact,
development of primary pores; (b) fine grained sandstone, high quartz content, moderately sorted,
development of primary pores; (b) fine grained sandstone, high quartz content, moderately sorted,
development of primary pores and pyrite particles; (c) fine grained sandstone, high quartz content,
development of
development of primary
primarypores,
pores pyrite
and pyrite particles;
particles (c) fine grained
and glauconite; sandstone,fine
(d) argillaceous high quartz content,
sandstone, mod-
development
erately sorted,ofsubangular,
primary pores, pyrite particles
development and glauconite;
of kaolinite and mold (d) argillaceous
holes; finemoderately
(e) siltstone, sandstone,
moderately
sorted, well sorted, development
subangular, development of kaolinite
of primary pores; (f) fineand moldsandstone,
grained holes; (e) siltstone, moderately
high quartz content,
moderately
sorted, well sorted,
sorted, subangular,
development development of primary
of primary pores; (f) finepores; (g) fine
grained grainedhigh
sandstone, sandstone, moder-
quartz content,
ately sorted,sorted,
moderately subangular, development
subangular, of fewofbiological
development debris(g)
primary pores; and mold
fine holes;
grained (h) argillaceous
sandstone, silt-
moderately
stone, poorly sorted, subangular, development of glauconite and biological debris.
sorted, subangular, development of few biological debris and mold holes; (h) argillaceous siltstone,
poorly sorted, subangular, development of glauconite and biological debris.
4.2. Core Sedimentary Structure
4.2. Core
In theSedimentary
medium-fine Structure
sandstone, massive bedding, parallel bedding and low-angle
In the medium-fine
cross-bedding sandstone,and
are well developed, massive
somebedding, parallel bedding
thin interbeddings and low-angle
containing biological
cross-bedding
shell are well developed,
are also developed and some
(Figure 4a–c), whichthin interbeddings
reflects containing
the high-energy biologicalenvi-
sedimentary shell
are also developed (Figure 4a–c), which reflects the high-energy sedimentary
ronment. Storm cross-bedding is composed of a series of wide and slow wavy layers, and environment.
Storm
the topcross-bedding is composed
surface is hummocky, of a series
revealing the of wide and
existence of slow
stormwavyflow layers,
below and the top
the normal
surface is hummocky, revealing the existence of storm flow below the
wave base surface, and the lithologic composition at the bottom of the core is coarse with normal wave base
surface, and the lithologic composition at the bottom of the core is
mud-gravel or coarse-grained sandstone interbedded with biological shell fragments. Thecoarse with mud-gravel
or coarse-grained
grain size becomessandstone
fine upward interbedded
and graduallywith biological
changes toshell fragments.
lenticular The grain
sandstone size
or mud-
becomes fine upward and gradually
stone with biological shell locally (Figure 4d). changes to lenticular sandstone or mudstone with
biological shell locally sand
The fine-siltstone (Figure 4d). developed with wavy laminae, wavy cross-bedding
is mainly
The fine-siltstone sand is mainly
and thin argillaceous intercalation locally. developed
In thinwith wavy laminae,
interbedded wavy
sections, cross-bedding
typical sedimen-
and thin argillaceous intercalation locally. In thin interbedded
tary structures such as flattened bedding and horizontal bedding occur, which sections, typical sedimentary
reflect the
structures
effect such asturbulence
of frequent flattened bedding
of water andflow horizontal
in the littoralbedding occur,
to neritic which reflect
environment the
[26,27]
effect of frequent turbulence of water flow in the littoral to neritic
(Figure 4e–h). The fine-grained sediments such as silty mudstone and mudstone are often environment [26,27]
(Figure
in 4e–h). The fine-grained
the hydrodynamic environmentsediments such reduction
of (weak) as silty mudstone and which
deposition mudstone are often
is very condu-in
the hydrodynamic environment of (weak) reduction deposition which
cive to the growth and activity of marine organisms. Therefore, molluscs and shells are is very conducive to
Water 2022, 14, 1614 7 of 17
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19

the growth and activity of marine organisms. Therefore, molluscs and shells are abundant
in the fine-grained
abundant sediments.
in the fine-grained In addition,
sediments. the original
In addition, sedimentary
the original structures
sedimentary are often
structures are
transformed or destroyed by biological activities, such as vertical biological caves, or the
often transformed or destroyed by biological activities, such as vertical biological caves, or
sediments are characterized
the sediments by mass
are characterized andand
by mass partial lamellar
partial deformation
lamellar (Figure
deformation 4i–k).
(Figure 4i–k).

Figure4.4.Depositional
Figure Depositionalstructures
structures of of sandbar
sandbar reservoir
reservoir samples
samples fromfrom the southern
the southern IndusIndus
basin.basin. (a)
(a) Fine
Fine sandstone, cross-bedding (center bar); (b) Medium sandstone, parallel
sandstone, cross-bedding (center bar); (b) Medium sandstone, parallel bedding, interbedded with bedding, interbedded
with thin shell fragments (center bar); (c) Medium sandstone, massive bedding (center bar); (d) Fine
thin shell fragments (center bar); (c) Medium sandstone, massive bedding (center bar); (d) Fine
sandstone, massive bedding (containing mud and gravel) at the bottom and storm cross bedding at
sandstone, massive bedding (containing mud and gravel) at the bottom and storm cross bedding
the top; (e) Siltstone, wavy cross-bedding (bar edge); (f) Siltstone, lenticular bedding (bar edge); (g)
atArgillaceous
the top; (e) Siltstone,
siltstone, wavy cross-bedding
flattened bedding (bar (bar edge);
edge); (h)(f) Siltstone, lenticular
Argillaceous siltstone,bedding (barbedding
horizontal edge);
(g) Argillaceous siltstone, flattened bedding (bar edge); (h) Argillaceous siltstone, horizontal
(bar edge); (i) argillaceous siltstone, vertical cave (bar edge); (j) silty mudstone, biodisturbance phe- bedding
(bar edge); mass
nomenon: (i) argillaceous
and partial siltstone, vertical cave
laminar deformation (barbar);
(inter edge);
(k) (j) silty
silty mudstone,
mudstone, biodisturbance
highly calcified and
rich in biological
phenomenon: mass shells
and (inter
partialbar); (l) dark
laminar black and(inter
deformation massivebar);mudstone (mudstone).
(k) silty mudstone, highly calcified
and rich in biological shells (inter bar); (l) dark black and massive mudstone (mudstone).
4.3. Logging Motifs Characteristic
The logging motifs characteristic of sandbar is diverse. In the medium-fine sand-
stone, the logging motifs are medium-high extent, smooth or microtoothed box shape and
the abrupt contact relationship mostly appears both at the top and bottom part which
Water 2022, 14, 1614 8 of 17

4.3. Logging Motifs Characteristic

Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW The logging motifs characteristic of sandbar is diverse. In the medium-fine sandstone, 9 of 19
the logging motifs are medium-high extent, smooth or microtoothed box shape and the
abrupt contact relationship mostly appears both at the top and bottom part which reflects
the characteristics
reflects of strongofhydrodynamic
the characteristics conditions
strong hydrodynamic and pure
conditions andsandstone.
pure sandstone.In theInfine-
the
siltstone section, the logging motifs are mainly of medium-high extent, toothed
fine-siltstone section, the logging motifs are mainly of medium-high extent, toothed funnelfun-or
small bell shape and the sedimentary cycles are mostly of the reverse cycle of
nel or small bell shape and the sedimentary cycles are mostly of the reverse cycle of coarsecoarse at
the bottom and fine at the top. In the thin sand-mud interbedded section, finger
at the bottom and fine at the top. In the thin sand-mud interbedded section, finger shape shape
orordentate
dentatefunnel
funnelshape
shapeisiscommon,
common,reflecting
reflectingthe
theweak
weak hydrodynamic
hydrodynamic conditions.
conditions. In In the
the
fine-grained mudstone deposition, the logging motifs are low-extent and flat, reflecting
fine-grained mudstone deposition, the logging motifs are low-extent and flat, reflecting the
reduced hydrodynamic environment (Figure
the reduced hydrodynamic environment (Figure 5). 5).

Figure 5. Logging motifs characteristic, reservoir physical property, sedimentary cycle and micro-
Figure 5. Logging motifs characteristic, reservoir physical property, sedimentary cycle and micro-
facies composition of B member sandbar reservoir (for the stratigraphic position of B member see
facies composition of B member sandbar reservoir (for the stratigraphic position of B member see
Figure 2).
Figure 2).
4.4.Seismic
4.4. SeismicFacies
FaciesCharacteristic
Characteristic
AAprogradation
progradationsequence
sequencewas wasdeveloped
developedinin AA sand
sand from
from south
south toto north
north [23,24].
[23,24]. Tak-
Taking
ing the seismic section along the provenance direction as an example, the
the seismic section along the provenance direction as an example, the oblique progradation oblique progra-
dation reflection
seismic seismic reflection is developed
is developed with adevelopment
with a small small development scale,
scale, and theand thewindow
time time win-of
dow of seismic wave group is less than 0.5 s, equivalent to one or two seismic
seismic wave group is less than 0.5 s, equivalent to one or two seismic events. The dip angle events. The
ofdip
theangle of the progradation
progradation is low andisthe low and the progradation
different different progradation
reflectionsreflections are roughly
are roughly parallel
parallel and partially overlapped. This characteristic reflects the
and partially overlapped. This characteristic reflects the sedimentary environment sedimentary environ-
with
ment with shallow water and a gentle slope, and the sandbar is vertically
shallow water and a gentle slope, and the sandbar is vertically superimposed or prograded superimposed
or prograded
from SE to NWfromin theSEseaward
to NW in the seaward
direction (Figuredirection
6). (Figure 6).
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(a) (b)
Figure 6. The oblique
Figure progradation
6. The seismic reflection
oblique progradation seismiccharacteristics of a sandbar
reflection characteristics ofalong the prove-
a sandbar along the prove-
nance direction (a), sandbar sedimentary facies and seismic section location map of B member
nance direction (a), sandbar sedimentary facies and seismic section location map of B member sandbar
sandbar (b). T2: the top of B sand, T2b: the bottom of B sand. Onlap, toplap and downlap are the
(b). T2: the top of B sand, T2b: the bottom of B sand. Onlap, toplap and downlap are the basic used
basic used terms for sequence stratigraphy. Through these terms, the seismic phase analysis is car-
ried out. terms for sequence stratigraphy. Through these terms, the seismic phase analysis is carried out.
5. Discussion
5. Discussion
5.1. Microfacies Analysis
5.1. Microfacies Analysis
The paleo-geomorphology in the study area was located in the abroad and gentle slope
The paleo-geomorphology
area in the early Cretaceous. in theDuring
study theareaevolution
was locatedof theinbasin,
the abroad and gentle
the southeast part continued
slope areatoinrise
theandearly Cretaceous.
uplift During the evolution
with a well-developed of the basin,
water system the southeast
and sufficient part supply;
provenance
continuedwhile
to rise theand uplift with
northwest part acontinued
well-developed
to subside water system
steadily, theand sufficient
coastline prove-
was broadened and a
nance supply;
largewhile
area ofthe northwest
shallow waterpart continuedenvironment
sedimentary to subside steadily,
was formed the coastline wasstudy area
[26,27]. The
broadenedwas and a large
located area
in the of shallow
coastal water
facies belt withsedimentary environment
strong hydrodynamic action was formed
such as wave, coastal
[26,27]. The study area was located in the coastal facies belt with strong
current and tide, forming a series of long strip sandbar complex deposits, which were hydrodynamic
action such as wave,parallel
distributed coastaltocurrent and line.
the coastal tide,Drilling
forming a seriesthe
revealed ofmain
longlitholgy
strip sandbar
was interbedded
complex deposits,
with (light) which were distributed
gray sandstones and darkparallel
mudstone.to theAccording
coastal line. Drilling
to the revealed
sedimentary facies marks
the main andlitholgy wasanalysis
drilling interbedded
results,with
four (light)
types ofgray sandstones
microfacies in theand
shoredark mudstone.
sandbar were identified
Accordingincluding the center bar,
to the sedimentary the marks
facies bar edge,andthe interbar
drilling and theresults,
analysis local mudstone
four typesinterbeds.
of
microfacies in the shore sandbar were identified including the center bar, the bar edge,
5.1.1.
the interbar andCenter Barmudstone interbeds.
the local
The center bar is in the core part of the sandbar. Drilling data reveal that the thickness
5.1.1. Center
of aBarsingle sandbody ranges from 3 to 6 m and the cumulative thickness is up to 15 m. The
verticalbar
The center rhythm is mostly
is in the positive
core part of therhythm
sandbar. forming
Drillingthedata
dominant
revealreservoir (Figure 7a). The
that the thick-
ness of a single sandbody ranges from 3 to 6 m and the cumulative thickness is up to as
lithologic composition shows that the content of quartz particles is as high 15 94%, and
m. The vertical rhythm is mostly positive rhythm forming the dominant reservoir (Figuresandstone.
the lithology is mainly fine-medium sandstone and occasionally coarse-grained
The sand composition
7a). The lithologic particles are shows
moderately wellcontent
that the sorted,of thequartz
psephicity is subangular
particles is as high to
as subround
withlithology
94%, and the relatively high maturity
is mainly fine-medium(Figure 3a–d). The
sandstone primary pores
and occasionally are developed in the
coarse-grained
sandstone. The sand particles are moderately well sorted, the psephicity is subangularthe
center bar, while the secondary pores and later mold holes further improve to reservoir
physical properties (Figure 3g). Parallel bedding (partially containing biological shell
subround with relatively high maturity (Figure 3a–d). The primary pores are developed
intercalation), low-angle cross-bedding and massive bedding are common. Besides, the
in the center bar, while the secondary pores and later mold holes further improve the
shell fragments, plant stem fossils or argillaceous belts are occasionally found in core
reservoir physical properties (Figure 3g). Parallel bedding (partially containing biological
observation, which reflect the characteristics of high-speed flow and strong hydrodynamic
shell intercalation), low-angle cross-bedding and massive bedding are common. Besides,
conditions (Figure 4a–d).
the shell fragments, plant stem fossils or argillaceous belts are occasionally found in core
The core porosity ranges from 12 to 30% with an average of 19.2%, and the permeability
observation, which reflect the characteristics of high-speed flow and strong hydrody-
ranges from 50 to 800 mD, up to 1680 mD. Through the analysis of the capillary pressure
namic conditions (Figure 4a–d).
curve, it is found that the primary pores are well developed in the center bar (W1 well
The core porosity ranges from 12 to 30% with an average of 19.2%, and the permea-
was drilled into the center bar reservoir), the pore throat structure is good, the deflection is
bility ranges from 50 to 800 mD, up to 1680 mD. Through the analysis of the capillary
coarse and the discharge pressure is low. The comparison of oil well production dynamic
pressure curve, it is found that the primary pores are well developed in the center bar
data also reveals that the well drilled into the center bar had sustained stable production
(W1 well was
and drilled into the center
high cumulative bar reservoir),
production confirming the pore
that throat
reservoirstructure is good,isthe
performance good in the
deflectioncenter
is coarse and the
bar (Figure 8). discharge pressure is low. The comparison of oil well pro-
duction dynamic data also reveals that the well drilled into the center bar had sustained
 Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19

Water 2022, 14, 1614 10 of 17

dynamic data also reveals that the well drilled into the center bar had sustained stable
production and high cumulative production confirming that reservoir performance is
good in the center bar (Figure 8).
The
Theloglogcurves
curvesarearemostly
mostlybellbellor
orbox
boxininmedium
mediumand andhigh
highextent,
extent,and
andthe
thecurve’s
curve’s
shape is micro-toothed or smooth. GR value is extremely low (compared with
shape is micro-toothed or smooth. GR value is extremely low (compared with the mud- the mudstone
baseline), generally
stone baseline), less than
generally less20than
API,20which reflectsreflects
API, which the characteristics of pureofand
the characteristics clean
pure and
sand (Figures 5 and 7b). The seismic reflection of the center bar is the characteristics
clean sand (Figures 5 and 7b). The seismic reflection of the center bar is the characteristics of
low frequency and strong amplitude, which is easy to identify and track
of low frequency and strong amplitude, which is easy to identify and track in seismicin seismic profile
(Figure
profile 7c).
(Figure 7c).

Figure7.7.Core
Figure Corelithology
lithologycolumn
column(a),
(a), logging
logging motifs
motifs (b)(b)
andand seismic
seismic reflection
reflection of center
of center bar bar microfa-
microfacies,
cies, W1 well
W1 well (c). (c).

5.1.2. Bar Edge

The bar edge is developed at the edge or flank of the center bar. The lithology is sand
and mud interbeds. The thickness of single sand is less than 2 m, and the vertical rhythm is
inverse rhythm (Figure 9a). Compared with the center bar, the sandstone particle is finer
and mainly consisted of fine sandstone or (argillaceous) siltstone; the sandstone maturity is
medium, containing a small amount of biological fragments or organic matter. The pore
types include primary pores and secondary pores due to the increased argillaceous content;
the pores are often partially filled with calcalous cements, argillaceous materials or a small
amount of pyrite (Figure 3e,f). The sedimentary structures are well developed, such as
small wavy bedding, flattened bedding and lenticular bedding indicating the turbulent
sedimentary environment (Figure 4e–i). The core porosity ranges from 5% to 15%, with an
average of 8.3%, and the permeability ranges from 10 to 100 mD. The pore throat structure
is medium, the deflection is relatively thin and the discharge pressure is medium. The
distance of the two wells is about 1500 m, but the reservoir is disconnected (Figure 1c). The
reservoir properties and productivity of well W2 (drilled into the bar edge reservoir) are
significantly lower than that of the adjacent well W1 (drilled into the center bar reservoir)
(Figure 8).
Water 2022,
Water 2022, 14,
14,1614
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17
12 of 19

Figure8.8. Production
Figure Production dynamic
dynamic test
test analysis
analysis in
in the
theBBmember
membersandbar
sandbaroiloilwell. (a) (a)
well. Cross map
Cross between
map
between core porosity and permeability, (b) capillary pressure curve, (c) crude oil–daily output curve, (d)
core porosity and permeability, (b) capillary pressure curve, (c) crude oil–daily output curve,
production–pressure curve, the wells’ location is seen in Figure 1c.
(d) production–pressure curve, the wells’ location is seen in Figure 1c.

5.1.2.
TheBar
logEdge
curves are mostly micro-toothed funnels or finger-shaped with moderate GR
valuesThe
ranging from is
bar edge 18developed
to 45 API (Figures 5 andor9b).
at the edge Theofseismic
flank reflection
the center is characterized
bar. The lithology is sand
by moderate amplitude, medium high frequency and sub parallel combination
and mud interbeds. The thickness of single sand is less than 2 m, and the vertical (Figure 9c).
rhythm
is inverse rhythm (Figure 9a). Compared with the center bar, the sandstone particle is finer
5.1.3. Interbar
and mainly consisted of fine sandstone or (argillaceous) siltstone; the sandstone maturity
The interbar is between the sandbars of different periods. The lithology is thick mud
is medium, containing a small amount of biological fragments or organic matter. The pore
with thin sand interbeds. The thickness of single sand is about 1 m, and generally less
types include primary pores and secondary pores due to the increased argillaceous con-
than 2 m (Figure 10a). The main types of bedding are wavy bedding, lenticular bedding
tent;
and the poresbedding.
horizontal are oftenBesides,
partially filledbiodisturbance
strong with calcalousphenomenon
cements, argillaceous
is observed,materials
such as or a
biological caves and a large number of argillaceous belts (Figure 4i–k). The pore type is such
small amount of pyrite (Figure 3e,f). The sedimentary structures are well developed,
as small wavy
micropore, bedding,
the pore throat flattened
structure isbedding
poor, andand lenticular
the deflectionbedding indicating
is fine. Porosity the turbulent
is generally
sedimentary environment (Figure 4e–i). The core porosity ranges
less than 6%, and permeability is less than 10 mD. The W3 well (drilled into the interbar)from 5% to 15%, with
an average of 8.3%, and the permeability ranges from 10 to 100 mD.
reveals the interbar reservoir has the characteristics of high-mud content, tight lithologyThe pore throat struc-
turelow-petroleum
and is medium, the deflection
production. Atispresent,
relatively thinwell
the W3 andhasthebeen
discharge
shut in pressure
(Figure 8).is medium.
TheThe log curves
distance of theare
twofunnels
wells isorabout
finger-shaped
1500 m, butwiththemedium
reservoir and low extent, and
is disconnected GR 1c).
(Figure
value is high at greater than 45 API (Figures 5 and 10b). The seismic reflection
The reservoir properties and productivity of well W2 (drilled into the bar edge reservoir) amplitude is are
weak, and the seismic event is disconnected (Figure 10c).
significantly lower than that of the adjacent well W1 (drilled into the center bar reservoir) (Fig-
ure 8).
The log curves are mostly micro-toothed funnels or finger-shaped with moderate GR
values ranging from 18 to 45 API (Figures 5 and 9b). The seismic reflection is characterized
by moderate amplitude, medium high frequency and sub parallel combination (Figure 9c).
Water 2022, 14, 1614 12 of 17
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

Figure 9. The core lithology column (a), logging motifs (b), and seismic reflection of the B member
Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEWFigure 9. The core lithology
column (a), logging motifs (b), and seismic reflection of the
14 of 19B member
sandbar edge microfacies (c).
sandbar edge microfacies (c).
5.1.3. Interbar
The interbar is between the sandbars of different periods. The lithology is thick mud
with thin sand interbeds. The thickness of single sand is about 1 m, and generally less than
2 m (Figure 10a). The main types of bedding are wavy bedding, lenticular bedding and
horizontal bedding. Besides, strong biodisturbance phenomenon is observed, such as bi-
ological caves and a large number of argillaceous belts (Figure 4i–k). The pore type is mi-
cropore, the pore throat structure is poor, and the deflection is fine. Porosity is generally
less than 6%, and permeability is less than 10 mD. The W3 well (drilled into the interbar)
reveals the interbar reservoir has the characteristics of high-mud content, tight lithology
and low-petroleum production. At present, the W3 well has been shut in (Figure 8).
The log curves are funnels or finger-shaped with medium and low extent, and GR
value is high at greater than 45 API (Figures 5 and 10b). The seismic reflection amplitude
is weak, and the seismic event is disconnected (Figure 10c).

Figure 10. Core lithology column (a), logging motifs (b), and seismic reflection of interbar microfa-
Figure 10. Core lithology column (a), logging motifs (b), and seismic reflection of interbar microfacies (c).
cies (c).

5.1.4. Local Mudstone Interbeds

Due to the frequent changes of sea level, the mudstone in the neritic facies is often
associated with the shore sandbar, and the local mudstone interbeds overlap and intersect
with the sandbar, forming the frequent sand and mud interbeds (Figure 10a). The lithol-
Water 2022, 14, 1614 13 of 17

5.1.4. Local Mudstone Interbeds

Due to the frequent changes of sea level, the mudstone in the neritic facies is often
associated with the shore sandbar, and the local mudstone interbeds overlap and inter-
sect with the sandbar, forming the frequent sand and mud interbeds (Figure 10a). The
lithology is mainly black and dark gray mudstone with thin layers of argillaceous siltstone
locally. The sedimentary structure of the core is dominated by massive bedding and is
well developed with a few small parallel beddings and lenticular laminations (Figure 4l).
The logging curves are high extent, flat, linear and the GR value is greater than 70 API.
This kind of mudstone interbed is not theeffective reservoir because of its low porosity
and permeability.

5.2. Reservoir Connectivity Analysis

5.2.1. Profile Connectivity Analysis
Under the constraints of drilling data, with the advantage of high transverse resolution
of 3D seismic data, the details of sandbar microfacies change can be better identified. The
transverse variation of sandbar reservoir can be predicted on the seismic and inversion
sections (Figure 11a,b). The top seismic horizon of the sandbar reservoir is T2 and the
bottom is T2a; the W1 and W4 wells are drilled into the center bar reservoir, and the
seismic facies is the reflection characteristic of “low frequency and strong amplitude”, and
the value of the P-wave impedance is medium and high (red and yellow warm color).
The W2 and W5 wells are drilled into the bar edge reservoir; the seismic facies are the
reflection characteristic of moderate amplitude, medium-high frequency and subparallel
combination, and the value of the P-wave impedance is medium (green color). However,
the W3 well is encountered in the interbar reservoir and the seismic reflection characteristics
change suddenly. The seismic event is interrupted, amplitude energy becomes weak and
the value of the P-wave impedance is low (cold blue color). It is easy to see from the
seismic and inversion profile that although these wells are drilled into the sandbar facies
belt, the different sandbar microfacies are superimposed inside the sand bar resulting in
the different seismic response.
From the corresponding inter-well sedimentary facies profile (Figure 11c), the sandbar
microfacies were changed quickly resulting in rapid changes in physical properties and
poor transverse connectivity of the sandbar reservoir. In addition, neritic facies mudstone
is often associated with shore sandbar, which intensifies the heterogeneity of the sandbar
reservoir. Due to the existence of low permeability or non-permeability mud interbeds,
the complete structure-lithologic reservoirs are separated into different blocks. The actual
development data also reveal that the integrated sandbar is divided into multiple reservoir
systems and the oil–water interface is not uniform.

5.2.2. Plane Connectivity Analysis

The energy attenuation attribute (EAA) of the study area can better reveal the changes
of sand bar reservoirs in the plane distribution. The inside area of the black dotted line in
Figure 12a shows a flat sheet distribution in the plane, which is generally parallel to the
direction of the coastline and is interpreted as a favorable reservoir facies zone of the sand
bar. It can also be divided into three zones inside. The red and yellow warm color areas are
dotted and banded. The lithology encountered by drilling is sand-rich deposition and the
thickness of single sand is large (more than 3 m), this is the center bar microfacies deposition.
The green area is distributed around the red and yellow warm colors and it is strip or sheet
distribution. The lithology is sand and mud interbeds, the thickness of single sand is small
(less than 2 m), this is the bar edge microfacies deposition. In addition, the blue color area
is the interbar microfacies; the lithology is mainly mudstone interbedded with thin sand
and the sedimentary environment is in the relatively low-energy area (Figure 12b).
 and poor transverse connectivity of the sandbar reservoir. In addition, neritic facies mud-
stone is often associated with shore sandbar, which intensifies the heterogeneity of the
sandbar reservoir. Due to the existence of low permeability or non-permeability mud in-
terbeds, the complete structure-lithologic reservoirs are separated into different blocks.
The actual development data also reveal that the integrated sandbar is divided into mul-
Water 2022, 14, 1614 14 of 17
tiple reservoir systems and the oil–water interface is not uniform.

Water 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19

the sand bar. It can also be divided into three zones inside. The red and yellow warm color
areas are dotted and banded. The lithology encountered by drilling is sand-rich deposi-
tion and the thickness of single sand is large (more than 3 m), this is the center bar micro-
facies deposition. The green area is distributed around the red and yellow warm colors
and it is strip or sheet distribution. The lithology is sand and mud interbeds, the thickness
of single sand is small (less than 2 m), this is the bar edge microfacies deposition. In addi-
Figure 11. Profile sandbar
11. Profile connectivity
sandbar analysis map map
fromfrom
W1 toW1
W5 well. (a) Seismic interpretation
Figure
tion,
profile,
the blue color areaconnectivity
is the (c) analysis
interbar microfacies; thetolithology
W5 well. (a) Seismic
is interpretation
mainly mudstone in-
profile, (b) reservoir inversion profile, (c) the inter-well sedimentary facies interpretationprofile.
(b) reservoir inversion profile, the inter-well sedimentary facies interpretation profile. The
terbedded
The section with thin sand and the sedimentary environment is in the relatively low-energy
section location
location is
is shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 12.
12.
area (Figure 12b).
5.2.2. Plane Connectivity Analysis
The energy attenuation attribute (EAA) of the study area can better reveal the
changes of sand bar reservoirs in the plane distribution. The inside area of the black dotted
line in Figure 12a shows a flat sheet distribution in the plane, which is generally parallel
to the direction of the coastline and is interpreted as a favorable reservoir facies zone of

Figure12.
Figure 12.Sandbar
Sandbarsedimentary
sedimentarymicrofacies
microfaciesanalysis
analysismap.
map.(a)
(a)Energy
Energyattenuation
attenuationattribute
attribute(EAA)
(EAA)
map, (b) sedimentary microfacies distribution map.
map, (b) sedimentary microfacies distribution map.

5.3. Sedimentary Characteristics

The sandbar is located in the coastal sedimentary environment and the transgression
action is strong. Due to the influence of the coastline migration, sediment provenance,
wave energy transfer and other factors [33–35], the shore sandbars are oscillated and mi-
Water 2022, 14, 1614 15 of 17

5.3. Sedimentary Characteristics

The sandbar is located in the coastal sedimentary environment and the transgression
action is strong. Due to the influence of the coastline migration, sediment provenance,
wave energy transfer and other factors [33–35], the shore sandbars are oscillated and
migrated back and forth in space, resulting in complex morphology, development scale
and superposition characteristics of sand bars. The lithology is not uniform in the interior
of shore sandbars [36,37] and different microfacies types of sandbodies are overlapped and
cut into each other in space, leading to a rapid lateral lithology change and strong reservoir
heterogeneity in the interior of sand bars.
The center bar is in the core part of the sandbar. It has a dotted and banded distribution
in the interior of the sandbar, and they are not connected to the other which constitutes the
dominant reservoir. The bar edge is developed at the edge or flank of the center bar. It is
sheet distributed in the plane. The lithology is thin sand and mud interbeds. Interbar is
developed in the relatively low energy area of the shore sandbar, the lithology is mainly
argillaceous siltstone, and the scope area is small. Due to the rapid change of microfacies in
the sandbar, the partial fine grain deposits in the interbar are distributed in the sandbar,
which reduces the internal reservoir connectivity.

6. Conclusions
Based on the integrated investigation on the microfacies types and reservoir connec-
tivity of the shore sandbar in the southern Indus basin, the conclusions are as follows.
(1) The shore sandbar is located in the high-energy coastal sedimentary environment,
which is conducive to form a favorable lithologic reservoir. The sedimentary micro-
facies types are center bar, bar edge, inter bar and local mudstone interbeds. The
changes of reservoir physical properties are controlled by sedimentary microfacies.
The reservoir properties of the center bar microfacies are the best and the bar edge is
better than the interbar, which is poor.
(2) It is found that the sandbar reservoir changes rapidly, and different microfacies types
overlap each other, which reduces the internal reservoir connectivity and intensifies
the heterogeneity of the sandbar reservoir, which significantly increases the difficulty
of reservoir development. Therefore, combined with well and seismic data research,
the characteristics of sedimentary microfacies and the connectivity of sand bodies are
studied for detailed reservoir research. Based on the research of the characteristics and
models of sedimentary microfacies, the sandbar reservoir distribution characteristics
and transverse change are well predicted, which is beneficial to the evaluation and
development of oil reservoirs.
(3) As a matter of fact, with the development of oil and gas fields, sandbar reservoir dis-
tribution characteristics and transverse change are the key factors for the exploitation
of the remaining reservoir potential. The effective and accurate prediction depends
on the accuracy of data, such as the drilling density of the study area, the quality of
the seismic data, etc. In addition, the drilling and seismic data are often inconsistent,
which reduces the accuracy of prediction results. In the future, sand bar reservoir pre-
diction research should always start from drilling data and reduce the multi-solution
of seismic data, and the prediction results should conform to the geological regulation.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, I.S.; methodology, Y.D.; software, Y.D.; validation, X.C.
and I.S.; formal analysis, Y.D. and X.C.; investigation, Y.D.; resources, I.S.; data curation, I.S. and
Y.D.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.D., I.S. and X.C.; writing—review and editing, Y.D. and
I.S.; visualization, X.C.; supervision, X.C.; project administration, Y.D.; funding acquisition, X.C. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province, grant
number “2020CFB372”; Open Foundation of Key Laboratory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources,
China University of Geosciences, Ministry of Education, grant number “TPR-2021-05”.
Water 2022, 14, 1614 16 of 17

Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The dataset is presented directly in the present study. Additional data
(unpublished) are available upon request from the corresponding author (I.S.).
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the anonymous reviewers who helped us in improv-
ing the quality of our paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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