Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch.

3: Electric flux density and Gauss’s law

Chapter three: Electric flux and electric flux density

The electric flux, denoted by Ψ(psi), represents a number of lines (streamlines)
extending from a positive charge and terminating at a negative charge.
→
Electric flux density D measured in coulomb per square meter (C/m2 )sometimes
described as lines per square meter, where each line is due to one coulomb, the
→
electric flux density D is a vector field and is a member of the flux density. The
direction of the electric flux density at a point is the direction of the flux lines at that
point, and the magnitude is given by the number of flux lines crossing a surface
normal to the lines divided by the surface area.
Q
 = Q , while D =
area
Q
D r =a = ar (inner sphere)
4 a 2
Q
D r =b = ar (outer sphere)
4 b 2

Gauss’s law
The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface, or
→
 =  D.ds = Qen
→
Where D is the electric flux density, ds is a unit area with a normal direction, Ψ is the
electric flux, and Qen is the charge enclosed by the Gauss’s surface.
→ →
D= E
The total charge enclosed may be several points charge
Qen =  Qn
or line charge Qen =   L dl
or surface charge Qen =   S ds
or volume charge Qen =   v dv
Application of Gauss’s law
→
Gauss’s law may be used to find the electric flux density D or electric field intensity
→
E ,the solution of the equation
→
 D.ds = Qen needs:
University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 17
Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch.3: Electric flux density and Gauss’s law

→
1- D is everywhere is either normal or tangential to the closed surface, so that
→
D.ds becomes either zero or Dds respectively.
→ →
2-On that portion of the closed surface for which D.ds is not zero D must be constant

Example//A uniform line charge  L lying along the z-axis and extending from
−  to  . Find the electric flux density & electric field intensity at p(ρ,Ø,z).

Solution//we choose Gauss’s surface as cylinder with a radius  and height L

→
 D.ds = Qen
→ → → →
 D.ds =  D top dstop +  D bottom dsbottom +  D side dsside
The first two components are zero,
 D ds = Qen
ds =  d dz a 
Qen =  L L
 D . (2L) =  L L
L → 
 D =  D = L a
2  2 
→
→ D L
E= = a
 2 
Example//An infinite plane carries a uniform charge density  S (C/m2). Find the
electric field at a distance Z = Z  above or below the plane.
Solution//

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 18

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch.3: Electric flux density and Gauss’s law

We choose Gauss’s surface as a square pillbox as shown in figure above, the electric
flux will be in z direction only:
→
 D.ds = Qen
Qen =  S * L * L =  S L2
→ → → → → → →
 D .ds =  D1 .ds1 +  D 2 .ds2 +  D 3 .ds3 +  D 4 .ds4 +  D 5 .ds5 +  D 6 .ds6
→ →
Since E and D in z-direction, the integration of the top side and bottom side will
remain, and all other integration will vanish. If the Gauss’s surface centered at the
origin, then
→ →
D = D a z at the top, and ds = dx dy a z

→ →
While at the bottom D = D (−a z ) , and ds = dx dy (−a z )
→ → →
  D .ds =  D .ds +  D .ds = Qen
top bottom
L L L L
2 2 2 2
= L LDZ dx dy + L LDZ dx dy = Qen
− − − −
2 2 2 2

 DZ L + DZ L =  S L2
2 2

S → S
Dz = D= az
2 2
→ S
E= az
2

Example// A 50-cm length of coaxial cable having an inner radius of 1-mm and an
outer radius of 4-mm. The space between conductors is assumed to be filled with air.
The total charge on the inner is 30-nC and -30-nC on the outer. Find the charge
→ →
density on each conductor, and D ,and E fields.

Solution//
Qinner 30 *10 −9
 S inner = = = 9.55c / m 2
2aL 2 * (0.5 *10 )
−3

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 19

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch.3: Electric flux density and Gauss’s law

Qouter − 30 *10 −9
 S outer = = = −2.39c / m 2
2bL 2 * (0.5 * 4 *10 −3 )
→
We use Gauss’s law to find D
→
1)For  <1 Qen = 0  D = 0
2)For 1<  <4, Qen =  S .2 a L
→
 D.ds = Qen , ds =  d dz a 
D (2 L) =  S .2 a L
→  S .a →  .q
D= a  E = S a
  
→
3)  >4 Qen = 0  D = 0

Example//Two concentric spheres of radii a &b (b>a).The inner sphere of uniform

surface charge  Sa , and the outer sphere of uniform surface charge  S b . Derive an
→
expression for E everywhere.

Solution//
→
1) r < a Qen = 0  D = 0
2) a< r <b Qen =  Sa .4a 2
→
D = Dr a r , ds = r 2 sin  d d a 
→ 2

 D .ds = Qen  Dr   r sin  d d = 4a 2 . Sa

2

00

Dr (4 r ) = 4 a . Sa
2 2

→  Sa .a 2  Sa .a 2
→
D= ar  E = ar
r2 r 2
3) r>b Qen =  Sa .4 a 2 +  S b .4 b 2
→  Sa . a 2 +  S b .b 2 →  Sa . a 2 +  S b .b 2
D= ar  E = ar
r2  r2

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 20

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch.3: Electric flux density and Gauss’s law

Example //A circular ring of radius (a) has a uniform surface charge  S . Find the
electric field intensity at a point distant by h from the center of the ring.

Solution//
Use cylindrical coordinates
→ dQ
dE= a
2 R→
4  R
→
R = − a + h az
→
R =  2 + h2

dQ =  S .ds =  S . d d
→  S . d d
dE= 3
(−  a  + h a z )
4  (  2 + h2 ) 2
Because of symmetry the radial component will cancel, and the z-component will
remain only
2 a
 S .h  d d
Ez =   3
4  (  2 + h 2 ) 2
00

Application of Gauss’s law: differential volume element

→ →
If the electric flux density D at the point p in cartesian coordinates is D  , where
→
D  = Dx a x + Dy a y + Dz  a z , we choose the small rectangular box as a Gauss’s
surface as shown in figure below. This box centered at the point p and having sides of
length x, y, z

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 21

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch.3: Electric flux density and Gauss’s law

If we apply Gauss’s law, then

→
 D.ds = Qen
→
 D.ds =  front +  back +  left +  right +  top +  bottom
→
Since the surface element is very small, D is essentially constant over this portion of
the entire closed surface.
→ →
 front = D front .S front = D front .yz a x = Dx front .yz
Where we have only to approximate the value of Dx at this front face. The front face
x
is at distance from p, and hence
2
x
Dx front = Dx + * rate of change of Dx with x
2
x Dx
Dx front = Dx + .
2 x
x Dx
  front =( Dx + . )yz
2 x
→ →
 back = D back .S back = D back .(−yz a x ) = − Dxback .yz
x Dx
Dxback = Dx − .
2 x
x Dx
  back =(− Dx + . )yz
2 x
Dx
 front +  back = x xyz
By the same process we find that
Dy
 right +  left = y xyz
Dz
 top +  bottom = z xyz
→
 D.ds =  front +  back +  left +  right +  top +  bottom
→ Dx Dy Dz
 D.ds = x
xyz +
y
xyz +
z
xyz
→ Dx Dy Dz
 .ds = ( x + y + z )v
D
→
But  D .ds = Qen =   v dv =  v v
vol
Dx Dy Dz
  v v = ( + + )v
x y z
We can calculate the charge enclosed in certain volume from electric flux density.

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 22

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch.3: Electric flux density and Gauss’s law

Example//Find an approximate value for the total charge enclosed in an incremental

volume of 10-9 m3 located at the origin if the electric flux density
→
D = e − x sin y a x − e − x cos y a y + 2 za z C/m2.
Solution//
Dx Dy Dz
= −e − x sin y , = e − x sin y , =2
x y z
Dx Dy Dx
At the origin (0,0,0) = = 0 , while = 2,
x y x
Therefore, the charge enclosed is
2v = 2 *10 −9 = 2nC
Divergence
Dx Dy Dz →
( + + )v =  D .ds =Qen
x y z
Divide the above equation by v
→

(
Dx Dy Dz
+ + )=
 D .ds = Qen
x y z v v
if v → 0
→

(
Dx Dy Dz
+ + ) = Lim
 D .ds
Q
= Lim en (*)
x y z v →0 v v →0 v

Q
But Lim en =  v
v →0 v
The above equation (*) contains too much information to discuss all at once, and we
shall write it as two separate equations.
Dx Dy Dz
( + + ) = v
x y z
→

(
Ax Ay Az
+ + ) = Lim
 A .ds
x y z v →0 v
→

But Lim
 A .ds is the divergence of →A (div →A )
v
v → 0

Dx Dy Dz →

( + + ) = div D
x y z
→
The divergence of the vector flux density D is the outflow of the flux from a small
closed surface per unit volume as the volume shrink to zero.
→ Dx Dy Dz
Notes: div D = ( + + ) in cartesian coordinates.
x y z
→ 1  1 D Dz
div D = . ( D ) + . + in cylindrical coordinates
    z
→ 1  2 1  1 D
div D = 2 (r Dr ) + . (sin  D ) + . in spherical coordinates
r r r sin   r sin  
University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 23
Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch.3: Electric flux density and Gauss’s law

→ →
Example//If D = e − x sin y a x − e − x cos y a y + 2 za z .Find the divergence of D .
Solution//
→ Dx Dy Dz
div D = ( + + )
x y z
Dx
= −e − x sin y ,
x
Dy Dz
= e − x sin y , =2
y z
→
 div D = −e − x sin y + e − x sin y + 2 = 2
Maxwell’s first equation (electrostatic)
→
→
div D = Lim
 D .ds →
, div D = (
Dx Dy Dz
+ + )
v
v →0 x y z
Dx Dy Dz
But ( + + ) = v
x y z
→
 div D =  v
This is the first of the Maxwell’s four equations as they apply to electrostatics and
steady magnetic fields, and it states that the electric flux per unit volume leaving a
vanishingly small volume unit is exactly equal to the volume charge density there.
This equation is called point form of Gauss’s law.

The vector operator  and the divergence theorem

  
 = ax + a y + az
x y z
→   
. D = ( a x + a y + a z ).( Dx a x + D y a y + Dz a z )
x y z
→ → D D y Dz
div D = . D = ( x + + )
x y z
The divergence theorem applies to any vector field for which an appropriate partial
derivative exists.
Starting from Gauss’s law
→
 D.ds = Qen
Qen =   v dv
vol
→
Replacing  v by . D
→ →
 D .ds =  (. D) dv
vol
Divergence theorem which is true for any vector field.

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 24

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch.3: Electric flux density and Gauss’s law

→
Example//Evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the field D = 2 xyax + x 2 a y
and the rectangular parallelepiped formed by the planes x=0, and 1, y=0, and 2, z=0,
and 3.
Solution//
→ →
 D .ds =  (. D) dv
vol
→
Evaluating the surface integral first, we note that D is parallel to the surfaces at z=0,
→
and z=3, so D .ds = 0 for the remaining four surfaces.
→ 32 32 31 31

 D .ds =   Dx=0 (−dy dz a x ) +   Dx=1 (dy dz a x ) +   D y=0 (−dx dz a y ) +   D y=2 (dx dz a y )

00 00 00 00

32 32 31 31
= −   Dx x=0 dydz +   Dx x=1dydz −   Dy y =0 dxdz +   Dy y =2 dxdz
00 00 00 00
Dx x =0 = 0 , Dy y =0 = Dy y =2 which leaves only
→ 32 32 3

 D .ds =   Dx x=1dydz =   2 y dy dz =  4dz = 12

00 00 0
→   
. D = ( a x + a y + a z ).( Dx a x + D y a y + Dz a z )
x y z
→   
. D = ( a x + a y + a z ).(2 xyax + x 2 a y )
x y z
 
= (2 xy) + ( x 2 ) = 2 y
x y
→ 321

 . D dv =    2 y dx dy dz = 12
vol 000
Both sides of divergence theorem are equal

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 25

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006