MODULE1: Communication Process, Principles and Ethics

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

You interconnect every day, and if you are like most people, you take the process of
communication for granted. However, to communicate more accurately, you need to internalize
how the communication process works. Communication is both an art and a science.

It often encompasses acts of speaking and listening, reading and writing, but it also goes
beyond these and incorporates the transmission of non-verbal language, sign language, codes
transmitted electronically (e.g., Morse code), and physically (touch; hormones; muscles,
tendons, nerves), and messages communicated through music and by other means. The act of
communicating verbally obliges to convey how we feel and how we think to others. It is also the
basis of how we communicate with others, using language as its channel.

Effective communication may involve the transfer of morals, principles ad judgments from
one person to another. To transfer a spoken message, it is obvious that speakers and listeners
are involved, with technique used for speedy dissemination of information. Speakers utilize
verbal and body language to convey messages, looking towards listeners. Listeners reply by
looking towards speakers, with words and movements and attention to timing and turn taking.

The Communication Process

The communication process is relatively simple and is divided into three basis
components: a sender, a channel and a receiver. The sender will initiate the communication
process by developing an idea into a message. This is also known as encoding. The sender will
then convey the message through a channel or medium, or scheme of delivery; think of things
like email, telephone conversations, direct messages, personal discussion or even a text
message. The message then is interchanges through the channel to the receiver, who finalizes
the communication process by interpreting and assigning meaning to the message, which is also
known as decoding.
 Since most communication exchanges involve a continued discourse between senders
and receivers, feedback is supplemented to the communication process. Feedback is a critical
component in the communication process because it ensures that the message is properly
established and interpreted by the other party concerned.

Nowadays, communication process starts to get complicated. There are many reasons why
a message flops to create a collective comprehension or meaning, one of which is noise. Noise
is defined as any interference/hindrance that causes a disturbance between the sender and
receiver in the communication process.

Noise can be categorized as follows:

1. Psychological noise- refers to things that are going on in your head as you engage in
the communication process. It can be any personal opinions, typecasts or standpoints
that get in the way of you accepting what the sender is saying.
2. Physical noise- pertains to the physical sounds that make it difficult to hear someone's
message such as the uncontrolled sounds of an air-conditioning unit, sounds of the
moving vehicles, etc.
3. Physiological noise- refers to things like hunger, fatigue, headache, stress or really
anything that prevents you from giving your full attention to someone sharing his thoughts. 4.
Semantic noise- occurs when the communicator finds a hard time to sympathetically
understand the words, language, dialects, vernaculars and or even grammatical structure of
a message.
5. Factual noise- form of interference caused by efforts to recall small details and in the
process, missing and omitting the main points of the information shared during the
discussion.

COMMUNICATION MODELS

1. Transmission Model
2. Interaction Model
3. Transaction Model
Transmission Model
Describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally
transmits a message to a receiver (Ellis & McClintock, 1990). This model focuses on the sender
and the message within a communication encounter. Although the receiver is included in the
model, this role is viewed as more of a target or end point rather than part of an ongoing
process. In this case, one presumes that the receiver either successfully receives and
understands the message or does not. As such, this model is not representative of effective
communication for how messages are received.
Because this model is sender- and message-focused, responsibility is put on the sender to help
ensure the message is successfully conveyed. This model emphasizes clarity and effectiveness,
but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to effectively sending communication. Noise is
anything that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a communication
encounter. Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may interfere with a message being
accurately received and decoded. The Transmission Model of communication accounts for
environmental and semantic noise.

Interaction Model

Describes communication as a process in which participants alternate positions as

sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending messages and receiving feedback
within physical and psychological contexts (Schramm, 1997). Rather than illustrating
communication as a linear, one-way process, this model incorporates feedback, which makes
communication a more interactive, two-way process.
Feedback includes messages sent in response to other messages. The inclusion of a
feedback loop allows a more complex understanding of the roles of participants in a
communication encounter. Rather than having one sender, one message, and one receiver, this
model has two sender-receivers who exchange messages. Each participant alternates roles as
sender and receiver in order to keep a communication encounter going. You alternate between
the roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious thought. The
Interaction Model of communication is more interaction-focused. The model acknowledges
that communication is nuanced and complex.

Transactional Model
This model differs from the Transmission and Interaction Models in important ways,
including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver, and the
role of context (Barnlund, 1970).
The Transaction Model of communication describes communication as a process in
which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural contexts.
 In this model, people don’t just communicate to exchange messages; they communicate to:
Create relationships, form intercultural alliances, Shape self-concept, engage with others in
dialogue to create communities. In short, you don’t communicate about your realities;
communication helps to construct your realities.

Communication Functions
1. The socio-psychological tradition- communication as interpersonal interaction and
influence
2. The cybernetic tradition- Communication as a system of information processing
3. The rhetorical tradition- comm as artful public address
4. The semiotic Tradition- comm as the process of sharing meaning through signs
5. The socio-cultural tradition- comm as the creation and enactment of social reality
6. The critical tradition- comm as a reflective challenge of unjust discourse

Principles of Communication

Communicating helps people from various cultures to feel better about themselves and
about their world. Even a simple greeting they receive from people around them gives them
immeasurable pleasure and makes them feel like they are part of the mobile and ever
challenging world. Communication stimulates social interconnection and closeness.
Communication is a two way process of openhandedly giving and receiving pieces of information
through a number of channels. Whether a person speaks offhandedly to another person,
conducting lecture to a conference or meeting, writing an article or preparing an official report,
the following basic principles are deemed necessary to consider:

1. Know your target audience.

2. Know the purpose of your engagement in communication;
3. Know your topic very well;
4. Anticipate objections from your listeners.
5. Present your viewpoints to your listeners well;
6. Achieve credibility with your audience;
7. Follow through on what you say;
8. Communicate a little at a time;
9. Present pieces of information in various ways;
 10. Develop a real and useful ways to get feedback from the receivers;
11. Utilize varied or multiple communication techniques.

Ethical standards of Communication

Communication ethics refers to an idea that the person's or group’s behavior is governed
by their principles and norms which in turn affects communication. At the onset, communication
ethics pertains to the moral good present in any form of social communication. This embraces
interpersonal communication; mass media mediated communication, and digital communication
and the like. Communication ethics concerns not only the individual, but is of great concern to
business, corporations and professional entities. A business with unethical communication
practices is not as effective as one with ethical communication practices. According to Laserna
(2012), to purposely comprehend the communication ethics, the following principles of ethical
communication should be stressed:

1. Advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty and reason as essential to the integrity of

communication;
2. Endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of decency to
achieving the informed and responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society;
3. Strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating and responding
to their messages;
4. Promote access to communication resources and opportunities as needed to fulfill human
potentials and contribute to the well-being of families, communities and society;
5. Promote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that respect the
unique needs and characteristics of individual communicator;
6. Condemn communication that degrades individuals and humanity through distortion,
intimidation, coercion and violence an through expression of intolerance and hatred;
7. Being committed to the courageous expression of personal conviction in pursuit of fairness
and justice;
8. Advocate sharing information, opinions and feelings when facing significant choices while
also respecting privacy and confidentiality; and
9. Accept responsibility for short- and long-term consequences for our own communication
and expect the same of others.
Guidelines for Effective Communication

For the speaker to communicate well with his listeners, the following guidelines in
communication should be thought of:
● Identity and explain the principles of communication
● Internalize the real essence of the ethical standards of communication.
● Know the various ways of becoming an effective communicator.
● Follow the basic guidelines for effective communicating.

Depending on what is being considered, communication as a term takes on different

contexts resulting in people having different views on communication types. Since
communication is generally defined as exchange of thoughts, ideas, concepts and views
between or among two or more people, various contexts come into play. Context is the
circumstance or environment in which communication takes place. Such circumstances may
include the physical or actual setting, the value positions of a speaker /listener, and the
relevance or appropriateness of a message conveyed. It focuses on certain communication
processes and even groupings of people that constitute a communication situation. We have
two types of Communication: the verbal and non verbal.

MODULE 2: COMMUNICATION and GLOBALIZATION

TYPES OF GLOBALIZATION
1. Financial Globalization
2. Economic Globalization
3. Technological Globalization
4. Political Globalization
5. Cultural Globalization
6. Sociological Globalization
7. Ecological Globalization
8. Geographical Globalization
STRATEGIES TO BECOME EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATOR

⦿ Review communication principles.

⦿ Analyze the message receiver
⦿ Be open to accepting other’s culture.
⦿ Learn about cultures and apply what is learned.
⦿ Consider language needs

ETHICS ACROSS CULTURES (KALE, 1997)

● Ethical communicators address people of other cultures with the same
respect that they would like to receive themselves. Intercultural
communicators should not demean or belittle the cultural identity of others
through verbal or non-verbal communication.

● Ethical communicators seek to describe the world as they perceive it as

accurately as possible. What is perceived to be the truth may vary from
one culture to another, truth is socially constructed. This principle means
that ethical communicators do not deliberately mislead or deceive.

● Ethical communicators encourage people of other cultures to express

themselves in their uniqueness. This principle respects the right of people
to expression regardless of how popular or unpopular their ideas may be.

● Ethical communicators strive for identification with people of other cultures.

Intercultural communicators should emphasize the commonalities of
cultural beliefs and values rather than their differences.

COMMUNICATION APPROACH TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

● Personality Strength
The main personal traits that affect the intercultural communication
are self-concept, self-disclosure, self-monitoring, and social relaxation.

● Communication Skills
Individuals must be competent in verbal and non-verbal behaviors.
Intercultural communication skills require message skills, behavioral
flexibility, interaction management, and social skills.
 ● Psychological Adjustment
Effective Communicators must be able to acclimate to new
environments. They must be able to handle the feelings of “culture shock”
such as frustration, stress, and alienation in ambiguous situations caused
by new environments.

● Cultural Awareness
To be competent in intercultural communication, individuals
must understand the social customs and the social system of the
host culture. Understanding how people think and behave is
essential for effective communication with them.

BARRIERS TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

● Anxiety
When you are anxious because of not knowing what you are
expected to do, it is only natural to focus on that feeling and not be totally
present in the communication transaction

● Assuming Similarity instead of Differences

Each culture is different and unique to some degree. Boucher
(2004), as stated by Jandt (2010), has shown how cultures differ as to
whom it is appropriate to display emotions. If you assume the display of
emotions is similar to your culture, you might see people of different
cultures in certain circumstances as lacking emotions inappropriately.

● Ethnocentrism
It is negatively judging aspects of another culture by the
standards of one’s own culture.

● Stereotyping
The term “stereotype” is the broader term commonly used to
refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based
on any observable or believed group membership.

● Prejudice
Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike or hatred of a particular
group, race, religion, or sexual orientation (Rothenerg, 1992). Persons in
the group are viewed not in terms of their individual merit but according to
the superficial characteristics that make them part of the group.
 ● Motivation
The desire to communicate successfully with strangers is an
important start. For example, people high in willingness to communicate
with people from other cultures report a greater number of friends from
different backgrounds than those who are less willing to reach out.
Having the proper motivation is important in all communication, but
particularly so in intercultural interactions because they can be quiet
challenging.

● Tolerance for Ambiguity

Communicating with people from different backgrounds can be
confusing. A tolerance for ambiguity makes it possible to accept, and
even embrace, the often equivocal and sometimes downright
incomprehensible messages that characterize intercultural
communication.

● Open-mindedness
Principled communicators are not likely to compromise deeply
held beliefs about what is right. At the same time, competence requires
an attitude that recognized that people who behave differently are most
likely following rules that have governed their whole lives.

● Knowledge and Skill

Communication Theorist Charles Berger outlines three
strategies for moving forward to a more mindful, competent style of
intercultural communication: PASSIVE OBSERVATION, ACTIVE
STRATEGIES, and SELF-DISCLOSURE.

MODULE 3: INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written Language

Intercultural Communication VS. Intracultural Communication

Jandt (1998) introduced intercultural and intracultural communication. Intercultural

Communication refers to interaction with people from diverse cultures. On the other hand,
Intracultural Communication is the interaction between or among members of the same racial or
ethnic group or co-culture.
Forms of Intercultural Communication

● Interracial Communication
○ It refers to the interaction of people belonging to different races.
● Interethnic Communication
○ It is the interaction among people of different ethnic origins.
● International Communication
○ It is the interaction between representatives from different nations.

Improving Intercultural Competence

The following guidelines may help you enhance your ability to communicate effectively across
cultures (Gamble & Gamble, 2008).

1. Recognize the validity and differences of communication styles among

people.

2. Learn to eliminate personal biases and prejudices.

3. Strive to acquire communication skills necessary in a multicultural world.

Varieties of Language

Lin (2016) presents the following nature of language variation as prescribed by most
linguists based on the ideas of Mahboob (2014).

1. Language varies when communicating with people within (local) and outs (global) our
community.

2. Language varies in speaking and in writing.

3. Language varies in everyday and specialized discourses

Characteristics of Spoken Language

The situation in which the spoken variety of language is used and in which it develops
presupposes the presence of an interlocutor.

● The spoken language is mostly maintained in the form of a dialogue

● The spoken language utilizes the human voice and all kinds of gestures which give additional
information.
● The spoken language is spontaneous but momentary. It vanishes after having fulfilled its
purpose, which is to communicate the thought, no matter how trivial or important.
● The spoken language cannot be detached from the user of it.
 ● The spoken language widely uses intensifying words. These are interjections and words with
strong emotive meanings, such as oaths, swear-words, and adjectives which have lost their
primary meaning.
● The spoken language is characterized by the insertion into the utterance of words without any
meaning, which are called “fill-ups” or empty words such as “well”, “and all”, “so to say”,
“whatever”, etc.

Varieties of Spoken Language

Language varies when communicating with people within (local) and outside (global) our
community. There are five types of spoken language.
Spoken Language Examples

1. Interactional - It is used for having social

function. This makes use of informal type
of speech which aims to develop
relationships between interlocutors.

2. Referential - It is providing the listener

some information referring to objects or
abstract concepts. The speaker assumes
that the listener has knowledge on the
matter at hand. In return, the listener has
to know the context before they can
understand the references.

3. Expressive - It is showing the speaker’s

judgments or feelings about a person,
event, or situation.

4. Transactional - It is used for getting

information or making a deal. It has a
specific purpose and is driven by needs
and wants rather than sociability. Unlike
interactional language, transactional
spoken language has its intention to
achieve a give-and-take relationship
between the speaker and the listener.
Here, a specific query is a given specific
answer.
 5. Phatic - It means engaging in small, plain
talk. The speaker and listener use a
minimal amount of language to engage in
the conversation. This spoken language
variety poses familiarity of topic and
context between the speaker and the
listener.

Characteristics of Written Language

● The written variety presupposes the absence of an interlocutor.

● The written language is mostly maintained in the form of a monologue.
● The written language is more carefully organized and more explanatory. Most often, the word
choice is more deliberate.
● The written language is able to live forever with the idea it expresses.
● The written language can be detached and objectively looked at. The writer has an
opportunity to correct and improve what has been put on the paper.
● The written language bears a greater volume of responsibility than its spoken counterpart.

Written Language Examples

1. Formal - Formal language is less personal Contractions

than informal language. It is used when Informal:
writing for professional or academic I donʼt believe that the results are
purposes like university assignments. accurate. Formal:
Formal language does not use The results are not believed to be accurate.
colloquialisms, contractions or first person
pronouns such as ‘I’ or ‘We’. Phrasal verbs
Informal:
The balloon was blown up for the
experiment. Formal:
The balloon was inflated for the experiment.

Slang/Colloquialism
Informal:
Lecturers still count on students to use correct
grammar and punctuation in essays.
Formal: Lecturers expect students to use correct
grammar and punctuation in essays

First person pronouns

Informal:
During the interview, I asked students about their
 2. Informal - Informal language is more experiences.
casual and spontaneous. It is used when Formal:
communicating with friends or family either During the interview, students were asked about
in writing or in conversation. It is used their experiences
when writing personal emails, text
messages and in some business
correspondence. The tone of informal
language is more personal than formal
language.

3. Neutral- are used with non-emotional When greeting others avoid

topics and information. Neutral register is
used to deliver facts. It means that they
are not specifically formal or informal.
It is used in articles, reviews, essays,
technical writing reports, business letters,
and others
Gentlemen, ladies, ma’am, sir, girls,
guys Consider using context:
Thanks friends, have a great night, Good
morning Folks, Hi everyone

Spoken and Written Language

Both varieties, however, may be different in terms of their phonetics, morphology, lexicon, and
syntax. Yet, the most striking difference between the spoken and written language is in the
vocabulary used. There are words and phrases typically colloquial, on one hand, and typically
bookish, on the other hand. If colloquial words and phrases find their way in the written language,
they immediately produce a marked stylistic effect and can be used for the speech characterization.
 Types of Words Forms/Types of Spoken and Written Language

Culturally Responsive, Engaging, and Appropriate Language

“Calling an illegal alien an undocumented immigrant is like calling drug dealer an undocumented
pharmacist.” – Anon

The choice of words is a powerful strategy in communication. When Confucius said, “when
words lose their meanings, people lose their freedom”, the control of language is an essential tool
for an engaging and responsive communication. Hence, cultural appropriateness of language is
conforming to a culture’s acceptable expressions and standards of behavior and thoughts. This is
referred to as “POLITICAL CORRECTNESS”.

Some Important Terms to Know:

Cultural Cultural Awareness is knowing that there are multiple different cultures –
Awareness and based on religion, ethnicity, nationality, and other factors- that have different
Cultural Sensitivity attitudes and outlooks.
Cultural sensitivity involves accepting those differences without insisting
your own culture is better , or that everyone should do it your way
(Sherman, 2018).
 Cultural Appropriation Cultural Appropriation of images is the adoption of the iconography of
another culture, and using it for purposes that are unintended by the original
culture or even offensive to that culture’s mores. This poses deeper
concerns and issues of communication in which the origin of that particular
culture gets offended.

Gender Sensitivity Gender Sensitivity refers to the aim of understanding and taking account of
the societal and cultural factors involved in gender-based exclusion and
discrimination in the most diverse spheres of public and private life.

Gender-sensitive Gender-sensitive language is the realization of gender equality in written and

Language spoken language. It is attained when women and men and those who do not
conform to the binary gender system are made visible and addressed in
language as persons of equal value, dignity, integrity, and respect.

Political Correctness Political correctness is used to describe language, policies, or measures that
are intended to avoid offense or disadvantage to members of particular
groups in society.

How to Choose Appropriate Language

1. Notice and reflect on disrespectful language, thoughts and actions.

2. Respect people of different races.
3. Use language that includes the LGBTQIA+ people.
4. Avoid exclusionary, gender-specific language.
5. Avoid using explicitly religious terms in mixed-religious company.
6. Avoid expressions that devalue people with physical or mental disabilities.
7. Refrain from language that groups people into one large category.

Cultural Awareness and Sensitivity Guidelines

1. View human difference as positive and a cause for celebration;

2. Have a clear sense of your own ethnic, cultural, and racial identity;
3. Be aware that in order to learn about others, you need to understand and be prepared to
share your own culture;
 4. Be aware of your own discomfort when you encounter differences in race, color, religion,
sexual orientation, language, and ethnicity;
5. Be aware of the assumptions that you hold about people of cultures different from your own;
6. Be aware of your stereotypes as they arise and develop personal strategies for reducing the
harm that they cause;
7. Be aware of how your cultural perspective influences your judgments about what appropriate,
normal, or superior behaviors, values, and communication styles are;
8. Accept that in cross-cultural situations, there can be uncertainty, and that uncertainty can
make you anxious. It can also mean that you do not respond quickly and take the time
needed to get more information;
9. Take any opportunity to put yourself in places where you can learn about differences and
create relationships;
10. Understand that you will likely be perceived as a person with power and racial privilege (or
the opposite), and that you may not be seen as unbiased or as an ally.

Gender-sensitive Language

Language plays an important role in achieving a more effective communication. Using

appropriate terms also avoids conflicts and misunderstanding.
Gender biased Bias-free

forefathers ancestors

Man-made, mankind artificial, humanity

common man average/ordinary person

chairman chair, chairperson, coordinator

freshman first-year student

manpower human resources

congressman legislator, representative

mail-man, postman mail carrier, letter carrier, postal worker

businessman, salesman business person, sales representative

man person, individual

 policeman police officer

waiter/waitress, authoress, stewardess Server, author, flight attendant

Political Correctness

Political correctness has an important purpose: it promotes equality by demonstrating an

understanding that all people and groups are valuable to society regardless of race, culture,
religion, gender, or sexual orientation.
Biased Bias-free

Cheating, dishonest academic dishonesty, ethnically disoriented

ugly aesthetically challenged

negra black

bald comb-free

disabled differently abled

drug addict drug dependent

broken home/family dysfunctional family

poor economically marginalized

old elderly, senior

deaf hearing impaired

squatters informal settlers

mental retardation intellectual disability, intellectual

development disorder

body odor nondiscretionary fragrance

homeless outdoor urban

fat people of mass

pervert sexually dysfunctional

psychopath socially misaligned

 computer illiterate technologically challenged

short, blind vertically challenged, visually challenged

Cultural Appropriation

How well can you detect culturally inappropriate images and illustrations?
Take a close look at the images below.

What are your observations on the images presented above?

MODULE 4- Evaluating messages and Images

What is the Message?

Message is one of the elements that gives information and ideas to its intended
receiver or audience. In rhetorical studies and communication studies, the message is
the information conveyed by: (a) words (in speech or writing, and/or (b) other signs and
symbols (Nordquist, R., 2017). Therefore, messages whether verbal or nonverbal, or
both, make up the content of the communication process. The source or sender starts the
process by conveying the message to a receiver (cited in Nordquist, Richard “message
communication”).
● Verbal and Nonverbal Content

Verbal and nonverbal content are both part of the information that is
transferred in a message. Verbal content refers to the written or spoken
words, email, text messages, phone calls, snail mail, sky-writing, etc.
Nonverbal content, on the other hand, refers to the meaningful behavior
beyond words such as body movement and gestures, eye contact,
artifacts, and clothing, vocal variety, touch, timing, etc.

● Messages in Classical Rhetoric

“Both Cicero and Quintilian accepted the Aristotelian Notion that a

rhetorical message consists of effective use of logical (logos), ethical
(ethos), and pathetic proof (pathos). The rhetor who has command of
these three persuasive strategies, is in a good position to motivate an
audience.” (J.L Golden et.al. The Rhetoric of Western Thought, 8th ed.
Kendall Hunt, 2003).

● Messages in the Media

“A well-defined message has two key components. First, it is simple, direct,

and concise. Second, it defines the issues on your own terms and in your
own words.

(Peter Obstler, “Working with the Media”. Fighting Toxics: A Manual for
Protecting Your Family, Community, and Workplace, ed. By Gary Cohen
and John O’Connor. Island Press, 19990)

“People who are highly media literate are able to see much more in a given
message. They are more aware of the levels of meaning. This enhances
understanding. They are more in charge of programming their own mental
codes. This enhances control. They are much more likely to get what they
want from the messages. This enhances appreciation. Thus, people
operating at higher levels of media literacy fulfill the goals of higher
understanding, control, and appreciation”. (W. James Potter, Media
Literacy, 4th ed. Sage, 2008)
What is the Purpose of the Message?

According to Jennifer Lombardo, MUD school instructor and freelance artist,

“determining the purpose of your message is the first step in deciding what you want to
say and how you want to say it. Once you have the goal selected, it is then easy to tailor
the message in order to reach your audience. It is essential to choose whether to inform,
persuade, or offer goodwill via a message in the workplace”.
Informative Message Goodwill Message Persuasive Message

➢ to influence ➢ to show a sense ➢ to convince another

understanding; to
make it clearer or
more developed.
➢ The message
should be very clear,
straight to the point,
and easy to
understand
of kindness, person or group to take
friendliness, certain
gratitude, regret, specific actions.
sympathy, ➢ It should be as specific
congratulations, as possible and the
invitations, and purpose
appreciation. should be observable and
measurable.

The Reader and The Audience

Both reader and audience are receivers of the message. However, they differ on
the source and the way they receive messages. A reader interprets written messages by
reading aloud or by eyes. On the other hand, the audience receives messages by
listening to oral messages.

The reader of any text plays a vital role of providing interpretations concerning
what has been read. Interpretation of the text is done through seeing relationships of the
elements presented. You may accept or reject a text depending on its effect on you.
There are instances that you respond based on your emotions and some would do this
based on their intellect.
What do we do with Messages?

Messages come from the texts being read. These could be evaluated by the
readers in different ways; hence, they begin to have different levels of reading
comprehension.

Messages may also come from different materials such as printed texts (i.e.,
magazines, articles, newspapers, journals, researches, books, and the like) and online
texts. These may be shown in different ways and may be given various interpretations
based on their presentations.

CRITICAL READING: Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension is the process that involves thinking, teaching, past experiences,
and knowledge. Critical literacy is the highest level of comprehension. It is the process of
making evaluations or judgments when experiencing “print, non-print, image-based, and
verbal” communication (Phelps, 2002).
Steps to becoming a critical reader

1. Prepare to become a part of the writer’s audience.

2. Prepare to read with an open mind.
3. Consider the title.
4. Read slowly.
5. Use the dictionary and other appropriate reference works.
6. Make notes.
7. Keep a reading journal.

The 3 Processes of Reading

Bottom Up Top Down interactive

• Text to Mind (only • Mind to Text • Combination of Bottom-Up

interpreting what (incorporation of the and Top-Down
the reader’s prior • Reader already has prior
reader understands knowledge to the text)
knowledge about
from the material) • Background idea some
• All the understanding about the topic of the parts of the text and is still
comes from the text. text. able to gain new
knowledge.
 Reading Strategies
1. Previewing Begin with a general idea of what the passage is about.

To preview,
● read the title
● read the first sentence of each paragraph
● read the last sentence of the passage

2. Reading By reading for main ideas, you identify the point of view of the author.
for Main
Ideas

3. Use A context is a combination of vocabulary and grammar that surrounds

context a word. Context helps you make a general prediction about meaning.
clues for Context can be a sentence or a paragraph or a passage.
vocabulary

4. Scanning Find important content words. Let your eyes travel through the
for details passage for the same content word or synonyms of the words.
Content words are usually nouns, verbs, or adjectives. They are
called content words because they contain the content of the
sentence.

5. Making In reading a passage, you will find a direct statement of a fact. That is
Inferences called evidence. Then, you will need to use the evidence to make an
inference. An inference is a logical conclusion based on evidence. It
can be about a passage itself or the author’s viewpoint.

6. Drawing A conclusion refers to information that is implied or inferred. This

Conclusio means that the information is not clearly stated in the text.
ns

CRITICAL VIEWING: Messages in the Media

A well-defined message has two key components: 1. simple, direct, and concise
and 2. defines the issues on your own terms and in your own words.

Visual literacy is reading the text whereas critical visual literacy is reading beyond the text.
A critical visual reader:

● Analyzes texts and looks at intentions, points of view, biases

● Evaluates the texts’ socio-political context
● Reads what images and passages are saying: what messages they are suggesting,
and how they are shaped to influence the attitudes, values, and beliefs of readers
● Identifies bias in words and expressions
● Recognizes stereotypes in pictures and images
● Understands symbols
● analyzes/evaluates assumptions, beliefs, and practices

Factors affecting Varied Interpretation of Texts

● Social Environment
● Home Environment
● Cultural Environment
● Experiences
● Intellectual Level
● Language Differences

Ways Used to Convey Messages from Various Texts Read

There are different ways by which we can interpret messages from various texts and
these ways may also vary based on our level of understanding. For example, kids would
interpret the meaning of a story based on images that they see from the text. In this time
that everybody has been facing globalization, kids normally look for pictures, graphs,
charts, or symbols since most of them are visual/ global learners. Hence, the use of
images would be very useful in writing to elicit a number of responses from them.

This also applies to students in the higher level. Sometimes, they prefer to see and get
the meaning of a text through images. These students are considered global learners -
those who can analyze things through illustrations.
 They would probably choose reading materials which are presented below:

In addition, readers may also use images as symbols of how they understand the
meaning of a text. They give responses through pictures. When we ask them to describe
their families, one of them may get a family picture to tell us how his/her family looks.

For youngsters who are inclined to use social media, one way by which they can
interpret a text, or any observation is through their own stories.

Stories can help clarify key values and also help demonstrate how certain tasks
are performed within an organization. With this, their interpretations of things may also be
sent and delivered to other people through social media sites. There are instances that
they include a photo to give emphasis.

People use images of objects which they want to emphasize or sometimes, things
that they want to advertise. Visual narratives are also being created by many of these
readers/ interpretations/ presenters. These have also been used in Semiotics, as
mentioned by Molnar (2011).
The Target Audience
We normally consider our audience whenever we write a letter, a book, or any
scholarly materials. Yes, we find it difficult to begin writing due to lack of appropriate
vocabulary of terms to be used but this would be easier if we become specific of our
target audience.

As cited by Kranz (2007), knowing the audience will also help to determine the
degree of formality with which we should write. He added that knowing who we are
writing for should dictate whether to use conventions like contractions for informal writing
or those mechanics for formal/ technical writing.

The messages which we would like to deliver should fit the target audience of the
material. With this, we should have knowledge about their backgrounds; hence, they
would understand the material which we prepared.
Love your Audience

Different ways to help them understand your message (Everse, 2011)

● Keep the message simple, but deep in meaning.

● Inspire, educate, and reinforce them.
● Use 21st century media and be unexpected

Key Concepts of Media Literacy

Media Literacy is the ability to “critically consume and create media” in order to
“better understand the complex messages we receive from the internet and other forms
of media. The key concepts of Media Literacy framework serves as a basis for developing
critical understanding of the content of mass media, the techniques used, and the impact
of these techniques. Also, these key concepts can be very helpful in the construction of
media texts for different purposes.

The term “text” includes any form of written, spoken, or media work conveying
meaning to an audience. Text may use words, graphics, sounds, and images in
presenting information. It may be in oral, print, visual, or electronic form.

Kids normally look for pictures, graphs, charts, or symbols since most of them are
visual/ global learners. Global learners are those who can analyze through illustrations.
KEY CONCEPTS GUIDE QUESTIONS IN MEDIA TEXT ANALYSIS

1. All media messages a. What is the message of the text?

are constructed.
b. How effectively does it represent reality?
How is the message constructed?

2. Media have embedded a. What lifestyles, values, and points of view are represented in
values and points of the text?
view.
b. Who or what is missing?

3. Each person interprets a. What message do you perceive from the text?
the message differently.
b. How might others understand it differently? Why?
 4. Media have a. What is the purpose of the text?
commercial, ideological,
or political interests. b. Who is the target audience of the text?
c. Who might be disadvantaged?

d. Who created the text and why?

5. Media messages are a. What techniques are used and why?

constructed using a
creative language having b. How effective are the techniques in supporting the messages
its own rules. or themes of the text?
c. What are the other ways of presenting the message?

MODULE 5- Communication Aids and

strategies Using Tools of Technology

The Role of Technology in Communication

Communication and Technology have become essential in today’s

generation. All around the world, the government, education system, researchers,
community leaders, teachers, and parents consider technology to be a critical
part of a child's communication competence and skills development. These
advances in technology have influenced the way people create, share, use, and
develop information in society, and young people need to be highly skilled in their
use of information and communication technologies.

Technology-assisted communication or machine-assisted

interpersonal communication combines characteristics of both interpersonal
and mass communication situations (Dominick, 1999). In this setting, one or more
people are communicating be means of a mechanical device or devices with one
or more receivers. One of the important characteristics of technology-assisted
communication is that it allows the source and the receiver to be separated both
by time and space.
Learning the history of communication is very significant because knowing what
happened many years ago will help people understand what is going on now. Modern
communicators needed to trace human civilization to better appreciate the tools of
communication they are currently using. Humans’ early ancestors must have had some
means of non-verbal communication long before they have learned and eventually
developed the spoken language.

Seven Milestones in the Evolution of Human Communication

1. Language
2. Writing
3. Printing
4. Telegraphy and Telephony
5. Photography
6. Radio and Television
7. Computer and Internet

With the evolution of the seven milestones of human communication and

technology, in general, it is difficult to predict the ultimate shape of a new communication
medium. It appears that the emergence of a new communication tool changes but does
not extinguish those advances that came before it. Each advance in communication
increases the power to convey and record information, and each has played a significant
role in creating the culture and society that people have nowadays.

The Meaning of Relational Technology

Technological devices play a vital role in the way people communicate nowadays.
Personal and relational identities are created and maintained through the use of
these technologies. Duck and McMahan (2009) refer to cellphones, Ipods, and
other technological devices as relational technologies to emphasize the relational
functions and implications of their use in society and within specific groups.

Media and Technology Generations

The progress of technology plays a major influence in identifying the

perceptions and experience of generations. Media scholars Gary Gumpert and
Robert Cathart (1995) have maintained that the traditional notion of separating
generations according to time can be replaced by separating generations
according to their media experience.

What separates generations is not just the chronological era in which they
were born but also the media and technology that encompass their world. Media
generations (Duck and McMahan, 2010) are differentiated by unique media
grammar and media consciousness based on the technological environment in
which they were born.
Online Communication

Experts say online communication is the new face to face communication. Upper
and lower cases of text messages and emojis have carried almost similar
meanings and intent as in a face-to-face communication. The advent of
computer-mediated communication has given man greater freedom and heavier
responsibility to survive in an online environment. While communication is easy,
the online environment arises from the fact that cyber communication has also
expanded opportunities for online users to hide under different and fraudulent
identities.

Several factors contribute to the construction of identities by communicators in an

online setting. They help shape communication styles that take place in the
internet (Duck & McMahan, 2010)

Screen Names

Identity development is accompanied in part through the selection of screen

names which are frequently selected when participating in chat rooms but are
also evident when playing games, uploading videos, leaving online comments,
and evaluations, and even selling items online. A person is sometimes known to
others by his or her screen name, which may or may not provide an accurate
presentation of the person behind the screen.

Users may select screen names based on genuine perceived

characteristics of the self or uncharacteristic traits they wish to establish online.
Such screen names as “shyguy21” or “toughgirl17” may be used by those who
view themselves as outgoing or aggressive, as well as by those who see
themselves as introverted or passive offline but wish to create a unique online
persona. People may select a screen name based on genuine characteristics as a
neutral extension of the self-but they may choose unrepresentative traits as a
way to develop untapped aspects of the self and to test these characteristics in
what may be an anonymous and nonthreatening environment.

E-mail Addresses

Also connected to identity instruction, e-mail addresses have these main parts, all
of which can convey personal information to others: the username (sometimes a
person’s screen name), the domain name, and the top-level domain. The
username comes before the @ symbol; the domain name comes immediately
after the @ symbol. And the top-level domain follows the dot (.).
 Much of what has been discussed about screen names also applies to
usernames. You can convey multiple aspects of the self through the selection of a
username, and other people form impressions of you based on the name you
select. Screen and usernames may also create undesired impressions:
“2Sexy4U” or “YourKindOfGuy”, for example, may be fine with corresponding and
interacting with friends online but not in professional situations. Keep this in mind
when creating your resume. Potential employers may reject a job candidate
whose contact information includes an e-mail address like “LazyBug93”.

The domain name can reveal service provider, profession, or affiliations.

Domain names often display a person’s Internet service provider which may be
selected based on how people wish to portray themselves to others. For
instance, some people may select a relatively small and unfamiliar internet
provider as opposed to a large and recognizable one in an effort to be unique or
to display disapproval of large corporations. Individuals wishing to convey internet
experience and capability may use high-speed internet e-mail addresses with
pride. Many of you reading this may have an e-mail account through a school that
connects you symbolically to that institution. Many university alumni organizations
allow former students to retain their college e-mail addresses after graduation to
signify their association with their alma mater.

The top-level domain material spearing at the end of the e-mail addresses
also reveals personal information to others. Such codes as .edu, .gov, .mil, .org
may also indicate to others a connection to an environment with education,
government, military, or an organization. E-mail addresses originating in countries
other than the United States come with a two-digit country code, such as .ph, .uk,
which provides further information about their owners.

Online Content Creation and Identity

The internet has become both an instrument and a site for social expression
especially for the younger generation; personal web pages, blogs, and the
posting of share and display of their thoughts, interests, talents, and other
characteristics of the self. While internet users of all ages perform these activities,
younger people use the internet for self-expression more than adults. In fact,
more than half of online teenagers are considered content creators, internet users
who have developed or maintained a Web site or blog or shared creative work
online. (Lenhart and Madden, 2005 as mentioned in Duck & McMahan, 2010).
Personal Web Pages and Blog

The material and information on personal Web sites and blogs are usually
provided for specific reasons. People may incorporate content specifically for
personal expression and a desire to share it with others, for example, and they
frequently use personal Web pages to maintain connections with their social
networks by providing information about the latest events in their lives. The
majority of bloggers cite expressing themselves creatively as the primary reason
for maintaining a blog, with documenting and sharing personal experiences a
close second (Lenhart & Fox, 2006).

Social Networking Sites

Social Networking Sites such as Skype, Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, and

Messenger allow people to connect with friends, families, and others in an
existing social network while establishing new connections and forming
relationships with people from around the world. Equally important as
establishing and maintaining connections with others, social networking sites are
becoming important tools in the display and creation of personal and relational
identities, as well as the disclosure of personal information.

Mediated Communication and its Impact on Personal Relationships

A closer look at the pace of technology has revolutionized communication says a

lot about human relationships. Kraut, Bryanin, and Kiesler (2006) as mentioned in
Dave and McMahan (2009) revealed that “on one level, changes in technology
simply allow people to achieve relatively stable relational goals in new ways.”
Cards and small mails have been replaced by e
cards and e-mails. Correspondence takes place through phone calls rather than
letters. These authors also maintain, however, “that more than simply altering
how traditional goals are met, technological transformation also changes what
can be accomplished, creating new relational goals and norms.

Cellphones and Personal Relationships

Cell phones have come to represent constant connection to those who possess your
number, and how freely people give out their cell phone numbers varies.

Giving or denying someone access to your cell phone number establishes

both the boundaries and the degree of closeness desired and expected within the
relationship. Limiting the availability of contact with a person establishes specific
relational boundaries. How that person views and evaluates such limits depends
on your relationship. Refusing to provide a cell phone number to a friend may be
viewed as legitimate (Duck & McMahan, 2009).
 On the other hand, providing another person with your cell phone number
suggests a desire for connection with that individual and perhaps an indication of
the type of relationship you wish to establish. For instance, making your number
available to an acquaintance could imply a desire to develop a closer type of
relationship. The evaluation and meaning of providing an acquaintance your
number generally depends on your relationship with that person.

Shared Experience

Shared experience can be derived from the use of cell phones. First, the actual
use of cell phones constitutes shared technological experience. Especially when
people correspond through text messages, the engagement is in the use of the
same technology. Particular groups assign great significance and meaning to the
use of particular technology, and younger generations adapt more quickly to
changing technology. More than simply transmitting information, the act of
sending and receiving text messages both announces and establishes shared
membership and acceptance into a group.

Personal Relationships and Social Network

Online communication enables people to maintain existing relationships, enhance

existing relationships, and create new relationships, and is dramatically changing
social networks (Boase, Horrigan, Wellaman, & Rainie, 2006). Contrary to fears
that the internet will hinder personal relationships, the majority of the internet
users indicate that it has improved the quality of their relationships (Howard,
Rainie, & Jones, 2002). In fact, increased use of the internet allows for increased
interaction with friends and family not only online but also face-to-face and over
the telephone.

Online communication is dramatically changing the construction and nature of

social networks. Boase, Horrigan, Wellman, & Rainie (2006) have examined
online communication’s impact on social networks and the development of social
capital, or the availability of other people to fulfill the needs and provide
assistance. Their findings indicate that massive changes in the size and the
configuration of social networks are taking place as a result of online
communication.

One consequence of online communication is the ability to maintain larger social

networks. Internet users report larger numbers of people in their social networks
than non-users, made possible in part by how easily contact can be maintained
through online communication. As part of their study, Boase, Horrigan, Wellman,
& Rainie (2006) distinguished two types of connection in social networks: Core
ties and Significant ties.
CORE TIES include people with whom you have a very close relationship and are in
frequent contact. You often discuss important matters in life, with core ties, and you often
seek their assistance in times of need.

SIGNIFICANT TIE though more than mere acquaintances represent a somewhat weaker
connection. You make less contact with significant ties and are less likely to talk with them
about important issues in your life to seek help from them, but they are still there for you
when needed.

Competence and Challenges in Mediated Communication

● Learner Messages
Social scientists use the term richness to describe the abundance
of non-verbal cues that add clarity to a verbal message. Face-to-face
communication is rich because it abounds with nonverbal cues that give
communicators cues about the meanings of one another’s words and
offer hints about their feelings. By comparison, most mediated
communication is a much learner channel for conveying information.
Because most mediated communication are learners that the face-to-face
variety, they can be harder to interpret with confidence. Irony and attempts
at humor can easily be misunderstood, so as a receiver, it is important to
clarify interpretations before jumping to conclusions. As a sender, think
about how to send unambiguous messages so you aren’t misunderstood.

● Disinhibition
Sooner or later, most of us speak before we think, blurting out
remarks that embarrass ourselves and offend others. The tendency to
transmit uncensored messages can be especially great in online
communication, where we don’t see, hear, or sometimes even know the
target of our remarks. This disinhibition can take two forms.

Sometimes, online communicators volunteer personal information

that they would prefer to keep confidential from at least some receivers.
Consider the example of social networking sites like Facebook, Twitter,
and Instagram. A quick scan of home pages there shows that many users
post text and images about themselves that could prove embarrassing in
some contexts.

This is not the sort of information most people would be eager to

show their prospective employers or certain family members.
 A second form of disinhibition is increased expressiveness. A
growing body of research shows that communicators are more direct-
often in a critical way- when using mediated channels than in face-to-face
contact. Sometimes, communicators take disinhibition to the extreme,
blasting-off angry-even vicious- e-mails, text messages, and website
postings. The common term for these outbursts is “flaming”.

● Permanence
Common decency aside, the risk of hostile e-messages- or any
inappropriate mediated messages- is their permanence. It can be bad
enough to blurt out a private

thought or lash out in a person, but at least there is no permanent record

of your indiscretion. By contrast, a regrettable text message, e-mail, or
web posting can be archived virtually forever. Even worse, it can be
retrieved and forwarded in ways that can only be imagined in your worst
dreams. The best advice, then, is to take the same approach with
mediated messages that you do in person: Think twice before saying
something you may later regret.

SOCIAL MEDIA ETIQUETTE: WHAT’S SAFE TO SHARE ON SOCIAL

NETWORKS? By Scott Steinberg

Social networks- self-contained online forums where users can share their
lives and careers and engage in ongoing dialogue with others in the forum of text,
photos, videos, comments, and other forms of high-tech communication- have
grown by leaps and bounds over the past decade. Billions of people worldwide
now regularly turn to social networks to provide friends and strangers alike with
snapshots and updates of their daily life and, in turn, what friends, family, and
acquaintances are doing at any given moment. In fact, it’s fair to say that today,
we’re juggling two lives: real and virtual. But what do basic rules of online
etiquette look like, and which information and viewpoints are OK to share on
these most public of forums? As we note in the new book Netiquette Essentials:
New Rules for Minding Your Manners in a Digital World, answers are often hard
to come by.
 Multimodal Advocacy

The images shown are examples of an advocacy campaign.

An advocacy is a strategic series of actions designed to influence those
who hold governmental, political, economic, or private powers to implement
public policies and practices that benefit those with less political power and fewer
economic resources- usually the affected group.

An advocacy campaign is a long-term set of activities that includes

research, planning, and acting, monitoring, and evaluating advocacy efforts. By
practice, advocacy campaigns are delivered through different platforms of media-
television, print, and radio. However, contemporary technology has enabled
advocates to use digital media such as the internet, mobile devices, and Social
Media as tools for pushing advocacy as well.

Jumpstarting your Advocacy

● Developing your message

Your advocacy message is what you choose to say about your

issue, its solution and who you are. To develop a message, you will need
information to back up the arguments you see. In order to do this, you
should:

● Know your audience

● Know your political environment and moments (controversies,
issues, fear, etc.)
● Keep your message simple and brief
● Use real-life stories and quotes
● Use precise, powerful language and active verbs
● Use clear facts and numbers creatively
● Adapt the message to medium you are going to use
● Allow your audience to reach their own conclusions
 ● Encourage audience to take action
● Present a possible solution

● Delivering your message

Message delivery involves careful attention to how the information will be

transmitted and to whom or what the message will convey. Choices about
delivery differ depending on the audiences and the community. In places
where access to electronic or printed information is limited, people trust
information they receive face-to-face from a person they regard as
knowledgeable or an authority in the community. Other information
sources simply do not reach them.

● Choosing the right medium

Your choice of a medium to deliver the message depends on who you are
speaking to, what you want to say, your purpose, and your ability to work
with that medium. Mass media can be both a tool and a target of your
advocacy. On the other hand, because mass media reaches so many
people, it is a powerful tool to inform and build support around your issue.
Its influence over public opinion and values makes it a prime target.

Traditional Mediums for Advocacy

● Press Release
● Radio and Television
● Theater and Songs
● Pamphlets, Comic Books and Photos

MODULE 6- Communication for various Purposes

SPEECH TO INFORM

An informative speech is one whose goal is to explain or describe facts,

truths, and principles in a way that stimulates interest, facilitates understanding,
and increases the likelihood of remembering. In short, informative speeches are
designed to educate audiences. Thus, most classroom lectures are basically
informative speeches (although they may range from excellent to poor in quality).

Informative speeches answer the questions about a topic, such as those

beginning with who, when, what, where, why, how to, and how does. For
example, your informative speech might describe who popular singer-songwriter
Adele is, define Scientology, compare and contrast the similarities and differences
between Twitter and Facebook, narrate the story of basketball professional Kobe
Bryant, rise to fame, or demonstrate how to create and post a blog or video on a
website like YouTube.

Informative speaking differs from other speech forms (such as speaking to

persuade, to entertain, or to celebrate) in that your goal is simply to achieve
mutual understanding about an object, person, place, process, event, idea,
concept, or issue (Verderver, 2015).

The purpose of informative communication is to add to a listener’s

understanding. In order to achieve this goal, a speaker must communicate
information clearly and interestingly. There are many different ways to categorize
informative speeches and these will be discussed in this module.

Techniques in Delivering an Informative Speech

TECHNIQUES USE EXAMPLE

Presentation To provide the A diagram of the process of

al Aids opportunity for the making ethanol
audience to retain a
visual as well as an
audio memory of
important or difficult
material.

Repetition To give the audience a “The first dimension of romantic

second or third chance love is passion; that is, it can’t
to retain important really be romantic love if there is
information by repeating no sexual attraction.”
or paraphrasing it.
 Transition To increase the “So the three characteristics of
likelihood that the romantic love are passion,
audience will retain the intimacy, and commitment. Now,
relationships among the let’s look at each of the five ways
information being you can keep love alive. The first
presented, including is through small talk.”
which information is
primary and which is
supporting.

Humor and To create an emotional “True love is like a pair of socks:

other memory link to important you’ve got to have two, and
Emotional ideas. they’ve got to match. So, you
Anecdotes and your partner need to be
mutually committed and
compatible.”

To provide an easily Carat, Clarity, Cut, and

remembered memory
prompt or shortcut to
Mnemonics and
increase the likelihood that
Acronyms
a list is retained.
“You can remember the
four criteria for evaluating
a diamond as the four C’s:
Color.” “As you can see,
useful goals are SMART:
Specific, Measurable,
Action-oriented,
Reasonable, and
Timebound. That’s
SMART.”

Characteristics of Effective Informative Speaking

● Intellectually Stimulating
● Relevant
● Creative

Methods of Informing

1. Description

Description is a method used to create a precise, vivid, verbal picture of an

object, geographic feature, setting, event, person, or image. This method usually
answers and overarching “who”, “what”, or “where” questions. If the thing to be
described is simple and familiar (like a light bulb or a river), the description may not
 need to be detailed. But if the thing to be described is complex and unfamiliar (like a
sextant or holograph), the description will be more exhaustive. Descriptions are of
course easier if you have a presentational aid, but vivid verbal descriptions can also
create informative mental pictures.

2. Definition

Definition is a method that explains the meaning of something. There are four
ways to define something:

● By classifying and differentiating

● By derivation or etymology
● By explaining its use or function
● By using synonyms or antonyms
3. Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and Contrast is a method of informing that centers on how

something is similar to and different from other things. Use of Venn diagrams can be
a good technique to organize your ideas in developing an informative speech using
the comparison and contrast method.

4. Narration

Narration is a method that retells an autobiographical or biographical event, myth, or

other story. Narratives usually have four parts. First, the narrator tells the listener by
describing when and where the event took place and by announcing the essential
characters. Second, the narration discusses the order of events that led to a complication
or problem, including details that enhance the progression. Third, the narration explains
how the complication or problem affected key characters. Finally, the narration recounts
the manner by which the complication or problem was solved. The features of a good
narration comprise a strong story line; use of descriptive language and details that
improve the plot, people, setting, and events; effective use of dialogue; pacing that builds
suspense; and a powerful voice.

5. Demonstration

Demonstration is a method that shows how something is done, displays the

stages of a process, or exhibits how something works. Demonstrations range from
very simple with few easy-to-follow steps (such as how to iron a shirt) to very
complex (such as demonstrating how a nuclear reactor works). Whether you
present a simple or difficult subject, to demonstrate effectively requires you to be an
expert in doing it. Use orderly sequencing, clear language, and visual aids.
Guidelines for Organization Pattern
PATTERN USE WHEN POSSIBLE TOPICS

Chronological You want to show a step-by-step Vacation to the

progression and/ or you want to Province Growth of
discuss an event, phenomenon, or Banana Tree
concept over time.

Spatial You want to help the audience An Interesting Island

visualize something you are The New Gym The
describing and/ or you want to Park at the
describe something by moving from Neighborhood
point to point through space.

Categorical You want to emphasize the Departments of the

significance of the categories or ABS Company
divisions in some way or you are
interested in flexible approach to
organization

Causal You want your audience to

understand those factors (causes) The Effects of Bad Study Habits Good
that have contributed to some Study Habits
outcome (effects) or you want your Advantages
audience to understand the impact
Healthy Diet and its Consequences
(effects) of some problem or
phenomenon.
 Problem You want to make your audience Noise Pollution
Solution understand a problem more fully while Water Pollution
acknowledging associated solutions or Scarcity of
you want to help your audience Resources
become aware of diverse solutions to
a problem without advocating any one
of them.

SPEECH TO PERSUADE

PERSUASION is the process of altering or reinforcing attitudes, beliefs, values, or

behavior. Although knowing your listener’s attitudes, beliefs, and values can help you write
any message, these three variables when explaining psychological audience analysis are
especially necessary to include when drafting and presenting a persuasive message. Your
attitude exhibits our likes and dislikes. Technically speaking, a mental outlook is a learned
choice to reply positively or negatively toward something. In your task to persuade, you
might want to influence your listeners to like or propose a new shopping mall, to like bats
because of their ability to eat insects, or to disapprove an increase in tax.

Ways to Present Persuasive Ideas

Cognitive Telling listeners about existing Many high school students

Dissonance problems or information that is today are not computer
inconsistent with their currently literate. Without this
held beliefs or known knowledge, your students will
information creates not be competitive in today’s
psychological discomfort. job market. You should
support a local bond proposal
that would provide more
money for computers in our
schools.
 People are motivated by You could be the envy of
unmet needs. The most people you know if you
basic needs are purchase this new sleek
Hierarchy of Needs
psychological, followed by sports car. You will be
safety needs, social needs, perceived as a person of
self esteem needs, and high status in your
finally, self actualization community.
needs.

Positive People will more likely change You should take a course in
Motivation their thinking or pursue a public speaking because it will
particular course of action if they increase your prospects of
are convinced that good things getting a good job. Effective
will happen to them if they communication skills are the
support what the speaker most sought-after skills in today’s
advocates. workplace.

Negative People seek to avoid pain and If you receive a letter or package
Motivation discomfort. They will be that looks suspicious because it
motivated to support what a is unusually lumpy, has no return
speaker advocates if they are address, is marked “personal” or
convinced that bad things will “confidential”, or is from someone
happen to them unless they do. you do not know, wash your
hands after you touch it. Report
the suspicious letter or package
to the post office immediately. If
you do not head these
suggestions, you increase the
chances of being contaminated
by a biological agent.

SPEECH TO ENTERTAIN

The speech to entertain usually happens in an after-dinner situation, or at a time when the
audience does not expect to be asked to think very hard or to take a very serious action.

Purposes and Challenges of the Speech to Entertain

The overarching purpose of the speech to entertain is to help listeners enjoy themselves; the
speaker whose purpose is not the same as a stand-up comedian. Rather, in the context of
enjoyment, most speakers also seek to impart some sort of memorable message. In many ways,
the speech to entertain is a very difficult speech to give. Humor is hard to plan; professional
humorists are likely to employ teams of writers, and even they can and often do flop. Also, what
may seem funny to you or to a few of your friends one night may not seem funny the next morning.

Enjoyment versus Humor

Creating enjoyment, it should be pointed out, does not always mean being funny. In fact, most
successful speeches to entertain will probably include a lot of informative material, they will stick to
a central theme or point, and, however light-hearted, many, like a good fable, will have a moral at
the end.

For the audience, enjoyment comes from being relaxed and interested in the point of moral
communication, and not necessarily from being amused. Furthermore, different people enjoy
different things.

What people enjoy is not always easy to predict, and the clues you can get from audience analysis
may or may not be helpful. Obviously, listeners will bring diverse tastes and preferences to any
speaking situation. Even so, if you think about it, you can probably guess with some accuracy what
kind of music many college students find enjoyable, what sorts of television programs most people
watch, what movies are popular, what the serious interests are of those in particular majors, and so
forth.

Many speeches to entertain are developed inductively, as the speaker shares amusing,
meaningful, and interesting stories. Of course, the strategy to be used depends, as always, on the
speaker’s specific worthy goal. But only those speeches that aim primarily at enjoyment can be
successful when the overarching result is enjoyment.

Preparing and Presenting the Speech to Entertain

If you have the talent, interest, and opportunity to develop and deliver a speech to entertain, here
are some tips to keep in mind:

● Aim to stimulate enjoyment in your audience.

● Make your presentation brief.
● Provide a memorable message.

Basic Parts of Speech to Entertain

Introduction

Your task as a speaker in the speech to entertain is to start it by stimulating the

audience’s attention, setting the mood, and creating the main point. Do not attempt to
present a serious or complicated concept/ idea that makes your audience think because
your only goal is to give the listeners a total entertainment experience.

Body

Always remember the kind of audience you have, the occasion and your speaking
skill as well as limitations when you plan your speech. Several variations can be used in
organizing your speech to entertain: topical order and descriptions.
 Conclusion

The conclusion is usually very short and maintains a robust and joyful mood that
was maintained throughout the speech. Specific devices for concluding were discussed in
the previous lessons and should be reviewed as a means of determining which technique
best suits the specific occasion you are to speak at (Samovar, 1998).

MODULE 7- COMMUNICATION FOR WORK PURPOSES

COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

In an organization, the manager has to read, speak, write, listen, observe, and
supervise are all means of communication. You should know how to make letters, reports,
proposals, and memos and other communication. In order to do so, you must improve your
communication skills. It can be the most important step you can make in your career, the
ability to communicate is an essential skill that employers expect employees to have when
they enter the workforce.

Ambition and great ideas aren’t enough, people in every field need to communicate
with people in order to succeed in their career. They often need to share ideas with
colleagues and connect with people outside their field.
 Communication in the workplace primarily involves a system of managing the flow of
information within an organization. You will appreciate it more if you understand how
confusing unregulated communication is, even in a small organization with barely 20
employees. If each were to pass information to everyone, each employee will have to send
and receive information
possibly conflicting information- from all those employees.

With this degree of complexity, there is a system for structuring who will
communicate with whom. These systems are called communication networks- regular
patterns of person-to person relationships through which information flows in an
organization.

Formal Communication Networks (Adler & Ehlmorst, 1999)

Formal communication networks are systems designed by management to dictate who

should talk to whom to get a job done. In a small organization, networks are so simple that
they may hardly be noticeable; in larger organizations, they become more intricate. The
most common way of describing formal networks is with organizational charts.

They are more than a bureaucrat’s toy; they provide clear guidelines of who is responsible
for a given task and which employees are responsible for other’s performance. A typical
organization chart shows that communication can flow in several directions: downward,
upward, horizontally, and lateral.
 Types of Formal Communications in the Organization
DOWNWARD UPWARD HORIZONTAL/LATERAL

Definition Superior to Subordinate Subordinate to Superior Between co-workers

with different areas of
responsibility

Types Job instructions Rationale What subordinates are doing Coordinated tasks
for job Organizational
procedures and Unsolved work Problems Solve Problems
practices Feedback to Suggestions for
improvement Share information
subordinates Manage conflicts Build
Indoctrination to Subordinate’s feelings
about job and co-workers a rapport
Organization culture

Potential Prevention/ correction of Prevention of new Increased

Benefits employee errors Greater
job satisfaction Improve
Morale
problems and solution of cooperation aiming
old ones Increased employees with
acceptance of different duties
management decisions
Greater
understanding or
organization’s mission

Potential Insufficient or unclear Superiors may Rivalry may occur

Problems messages Message discourage, disregard or between employees
overload Message downplay from different areas
distorted as it passes importance of Specialization makes
through one or more subordinates’ messages understanding difficult
Information overload
intermediaries Supervisors may unfairly
discourages contacts
blame subordinates for
Physical barriers
unpleasant news
discourage contacts

Lack of motivation
Business Letter

From paper to email, letters dominate the world of business and are the most often
used in communicating. Historically, business letters were sent via postal mail or courier
but the rapid innovations on technology changed our way of sending business letters.
Business correspondence needs to be polished and professionally formatted.

Basic Parts

● Heading/Letterhead/Return Address
● Dateline
● Inside Address
● Salutation
● Body of the letter
● Complimentary Close
● Signature Block
● Reference Initials

Heading/Letterhead/Return Address

The heading or letterhead includes the sender’s details such as the name, address,
contact details (mobile number, e-mail address) and even the logo of the company where
the sender is part of. It is also called return address for it contains the address where the
recipient will refer when sending the response. This is typed 2 spaces above the dateline.

Dateline

The date of a letter when a letter was written should be placed spaces below the writer’s
return address information. It is the final component in the heading of a business letter.
Format it using the month, day and year or you can also format it using the day, month and
year. Date of letter shouldn’t be abbreviated and must be indicated completely.

Inside Address

Inside Address as a counterpart of the letterhead, contains the receiver’s details. These
contain information such as the name of the receiver, his or her position, company, and
company address. This is typed 2 spaces below the dateline.

Salutation

Salutation is the initial greetings of the sender to the receiver of the letter. In writing the
salutation, it is very important to consider proper titles for the person to which the letter will
be sent. In a business letter, a colon is being used as the punctuation mark for the
salutation. This part is typed 2 spaces after the inside address.
Body of the Letter

Body is the most important part because it is the essence of the letter. It contains the
message of the sender to the receiver. In writing the body of the letter, the sender must take
into consideration several factors. There are actually six qualities of effective business
letters.

Complimentary Close

It is considered to be the closing greetings of the sender to the receiver. It is typed 2

spaces below the body of the letter. In writing the complimentary close, it is only the first
letter of the first word which should be typed in uppercase; the rest should be in lower case
only. Punctuation mark to be used must be a comma (,).

Signature Block

This part identifies the sender. It shows the full name of the sender of the letter with his or
her signature above. It is typed 3 to 5 spaces below the complimentary close to give space
for the sender’s signature. This makes the letter valid and reliable.

Reference Initials

It is the TYPIST’S INITIALS. Therefore, if the sender is not the same person who typed the
letter, it is not the sender’s initials which will appear on the letter, rather, the typist’s initials.
This commonly happens in business letters. For instance, the company president asked his
secretary to type a letter, it is the secretary’s initials which will appear on the letter. However,
the company president will remain the sender of the letter whose details and name will
appear on the same letter. Reference initials can be typed 2 spaces below the signature
block.

Styles or Formats of Business Letter

● Full-block Style
● Modified Block Styles
● Semi-block Style
● Simplified Style

Full-block Style

This is the format that will work well in every situation and can be used for formal as well
as in informal correspondence. This block format business letter illustrates how quick and
easy communications can be to type. This format has no indentation at the beginnings of
paragraphs and all the information is typed flush left, with one-inch margins all around.
Modified Block Style

This modified block business letter format differs from the full block style for some parts of
it are moved to the right side. However, the beginnings of the paragraphs remain not
indented. Modified block style are just a little less formal than full block style. The dateline,
complimentary close, and the signature block all start near the center of the page,
proceeding to the right side. On the other hand, the other parts remain on the left.

Semi-block Style

The semi-block business letter format looks very much like the modified block style, except
that the paragraphs have been indented. Semi-block letter format letters are just a little
more formal than modified block style. If you are using this format, the dateline must be
placed at the right center of the page, type the inside address and salutation flush left. The
complimentary close and signature block must be aligned also with the dateline. For formal
letters, avoid abbreviations; indent the first line of each paragraph one-half inch.

Simplified Style

This is another modification of the full block format. This is used when you write a letter
and you don’t know the name and title of the person you are writing the letter to.

The format is widely used when the writer of the letters does not want to give importance to
formality; this format gives more importance to the core matter of the letter. This format
omits the salutation and the complimentary close; all lines are flush with the left margin;
dateline is placed six spaces below the letterhead, inside address is placed 4 spaces below
dateline; subject is typed in capital letters, 3 spaces below the inside address; and writer’s
name and official title/ position are types in capital letters, 4 or 5 spaces below the body of
the letter.

COMMON TYPES OF BUSINESS LETTERS

1. Absence Letter

Absence letter is a formal notification when you plan to miss work. This is the
correspondence that every employee may need to provide an excuse letter when they miss
time from work to interview or for other reasons.

2. Appreciation Letter

Sending thank you notes to everyone who helps with your career or job search goes a
long way. It is a great way to reach out and make others aware of your gratitude for their
help.
 3. Congratulations Letter

This is the type of correspondence that you send someone who has just gotten a
promotion or a new job, retirement, or when someone has done a great job at work,
congratulate them to let them know they are appreciated.

4. Cover Letter

A cover letter is a one-page document that explains why you are an ideal candidate for the
job. Attach a cover letter with your resume when you apply for jobs to show your passion for
the position or company, and highlight relevant qualifications that could add value to the
company.

5. Follow-up Letter

A follow-up letter is sent after an interview to check on the status of a resume or a job
application you have submitted. It gives you the chance to re-introduce yourself if you
received no response to an earlier correspondence.

6. Job-offer Letter

Formal job-offer letter confirms the details of the offer of employment including some or all
of the following job description, salary, benefits, paid time-off, work schedule, reporting
structure, etc.

7. Resignation Letter

Resigning professionally and gracefully, whenever possible, is the best way to leave a job.
A resignation letter will ease the transition over the job and will help you maintain a positive
relationship with your employer even after you are no longer with the company. There are a
variety of circumstances, including basic and formal resignation letters, two week’s notice,
no notice, short notice, retirement, and farewell letter.

RESUME

A resume is a structured summary of a person’s education, employment background, job

qualifications and accomplishments which highlights the aspects that would be of interest to
a prospective employer.

Where to start?

First, you should decide on the format that you will use. It can be Chronological and
Functional. Each format has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Chronological Format

This format presents the traditional type of a resume that emphasizes career progression
that provides a quick, orderly overview of your candidate’s work and educational
experience. This format is used when a candidate wants to apply for a similar field and
wants to promote upward career mobility.

Functional Format

This format focuses on the abilities and skills of a candidate. It emphasizes the applicant’s
qualifications. Functional format is more suitable for those candidates with an expert level of
experience. This format is used when a candidate has gaps in employment and if the
candidate wants to change career path and wants to highlight a specific skill set.

ORDER OF INFORMATION

● Name
● Mailing Address
● Telephone Number
● Email Address
● Picture
● Resume Introduction
● Key Skills and Strengths
● Technical/ Software Skills
● Educational History
● Employment History
● References/ Referees

INTERVIEW

Interview is a two-party conversation in which at least one person has a specific, serious
purpose. This definition makes it clear that interviewing is a special kind of conversation,
differing from other types in several ways. Most importantly, interviewing is always
purposeful. Unlike more spontaneous conversations, an interview includes at least one
participant who has a serious, predetermined reason for being there.

There are two parties involved in an interview: the interviewer and the interviewee.
INTERVIEWER is the one who initiates the interview. It refers to the person who delivers
the questions to the other party who is called the interviewee. INTERVIEWEE is the one
who responds to the questions being asked by the interviewer.
PLANNING AN INTERVIEW

A successful interview begins before the parties face each other. Whether you are the
interviewer or the respondent, background work can mean the difference between success
and disappointment. In planning the interview, the steps on the left side of this slide are
being considered.

● Identify and analyze the other party.

● Prepare a list of topics.
● Choose the best interview structure.
● Consider possible questions.

CONDUCTING AN INTERVIEW

The environment where an interview takes place greatly determines the success or failure
of its conduct. With some planning of time and place, you can avoid the frustrations of trying
to discuss a confidential matter with a co-worker within earshot of people who would love to
overhear your conversation or of trying to stop your boss in the hall to ask for a raise when
she’s on her way to a meeting and the easiest way to get free of you is to say no.

After careful planning, the interview itself takes place. An interview consists of three stages
(Adler & Elmhorts, 1999):

1. Opening

A good introduction can shape the entire interview. Research suggests that people form
lasting impressions of one another in the first few minutes of a conversation. Deaver (1986)
describes the importance of its impressions in a job interview this way: “The first minute is
all important in an interview. Fifty percent of the decision is made within the first 30 to 60
seconds. About 25 percent of the evaluation is made during the first 15 minutes. It’s very
difficult to recover the last 25 percent if you’ve blown the first couple of minutes”. These
initial impressions shape how a listener regards everything that follows.

2. Body

It is here that questions and answers are exchanged. While a smooth interview might look
spontaneous to an outsider, you have already learned the importance of preparation.

It is unlikely that an interview will ever follow your exact expectations, and it would be a
mistake to force it to do so. As an interviewee, you will think of important questions- both
primary and secondary- during the session. As a respondent, you will probably be surprised
by some of the things the interviewer asks. The best way to proceed is to prepare for the
general areas you expect will be covered and do your best when expected issues come up.
 3. Closure

An interview should not end with the last answer to the last question. As with most other
types of communication, certain functions need to be performed to bring the interview to a
satisfactory conclusion.

● Review and clarify the results of the interview.

● Establish future actions.

● Conclude with pleasantries.

ETHICS OF INTERVIEWING

The exchange of information that goes on between interviewer and interviewee should be
guided by some basic ethical guidelines and responsibilities (Wilson & Goodall, Jr., 1991)
as mentioned in Adler & Elmhorst (1999). In addition to the moral reasons for following
these guidelines, there is often a pragmatic basis for behaving ethically. Since the interview
is likely to be part of an on-going relationship, behaving responsible and honorably will
serve you well in future interactions. Conversely, the costs of developing a poor reputation
are usually greater than the benefits of gaining a temporary advantage by behaving
unethically or irresponsibly.

Obligations of the Interviewer

● Make only promises you are willing and able to keep.

● Keep confidences
● Allow the interviewee to make free responses.
● Treat every interview with respect.
Obligations of the Interviewee
TYPE OF INTERVIEW DO’s DON’
FACE-TO-FACE
INTERVIEW
This is the most common type and
often called a “personal interview”.
The interviewer gets to see the
interviewee up close and personal.
He/ She can keep an eye on the body
language of the interviewee to assess
his/ her sincerity, flexibility, and
commitment. It
can be formal or informal and it’s
usually conversational.
• Make a research about the profile of
the company you are applying to.
• Dress professionally.
• Arrive on time.
• Greet the interviewer with a
smile. • Sit upright.
• Maintain eye contact.
• Be yourself.
• Thank the interviewer after the interview.
• Never be late. Being tardy is
never excusable.
• Do not be too cocky. Wait for
the interviewer to offer you a
seat.
• Do not slouch. Good posture
reflects confidence.
• Always be modest when
answering.
• Do not be desperate.
• Do not fidget.
• Never lie
• Do not say bad things about
your company or colleagues.
• Do not reveal personal
information or make
unprofessional remarks.
 TYPE OF INTERVIEW DO’s DON’Ts
PANEL INTERVIEW
This type of interview involves two
or more interviewers. They try to
gauge the group management and
group presentation skills of the
interviewee since this type is
mostly used when interviewing
applicants for senior level
positions.
TYPE OF INTERVIEW DO’s DON’T’s
GROUP INTERVIEW
It is also known as Group Discussion
of GD. It involves bringing an
applicant with several other
candidates who are vying for the
same position. All of them are
interviewed simultaneously. The main
purpose of this type of interview is to
evaluate how different interviewees
react and interact with others and how
they influence others with their
knowledge and reasons.
• Be sure to do some research on • Don’t rush your answers.
both the interviewers. Know their
roles within the company.
• Don’t act pressured because of the
• The key to a panel interview is to “firing squad”.
keep all the interviewers involved by
maintaining eye contact.
• Build rapport.
• Engage the group with your
responses.
• When responding, direct your initial
answer to the one who asked you
the question, but as you elaborate
your examples, address other
interviewers.
• Dress appropriately. • Do not arrive
unprepared.
• Instead of emphasizing other people’s
weaknesses, highlight the positive • Do not talk too much
things you can do for the company.
to overpower your
• Listen to your peers’ answers. This fellow interviewees, but
will help you think and answer better. do not talk very little,
• Support some co-interviewee’s too. Know when to
statements. strike a balance.
• Smile and nod a lot.
• Do not ask what the
• Ask brilliant questions. This will make company does, how
you stand out from the rest. much pay you would be
getting, or if you got the
• Greet and thank the interviewer and
co interviewees. job.
• Do not bully other
applicants.
 TYPE OF INTERVIEW DO’s DON’T’s

TELEPHONE INTERVIEW • Remember telephone • Do not search

This type of interview is
conducted via telephone.
Usually, companies do this as
an initial step before inviting
an applicant for a face-to-face
interview. Because the
interviewer cannot see the
applicant’s body language, it is
important that the interviewee
has positive and concise
answers and speaks with
enthusiasm to impress the
interviewer.
etiquettes. the internet while
• Make a research about the talking over the
company in advance phone.
• Make the interviewer feel that
you are listening well by being • Do not use slang
alert in answering the or informal
questions.
language.
• Practice being interviewed
over the phone by asking your • Do not interrupt
friends to call you. the interviewer.
• Be professional and upbeat.
• Don’t be afraid to
• Maintain professional tone ask questions for
throughout the interview.
clarification.
• Take down notes.

Whether the setting is an employment, a performance review session, or an

information gathering survey, it can be tempting to tell interviewers what they want to hear.
The temptation is especially great if your welfare is at stake. But besides, being unethical,
misrepresenting the facts is likely to catch up with you sooner or later and harm you more
than telling the truth in the first place would have.

DON’T WASTE THE INTERVIEWER’S TIME

If the choice exists, be sure you are qualified for the interview. For example, it would
be a mistake to apply for a job that you have little chance of landing or to volunteer for a
customer survey if you are not a member of the population being studied. If the preparation
for the interview is necessary, be sure to do your homework. Once the interview has begun,
be sure to stick to the subject in order to use the time most wisely.
 MODULE 8- COMMUNICATION FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

BOOK REVIEW

You have just taken a journey. Maybe you went to meet Mr. Darcy. Or
perhaps, you went back in time or visited a foreign land. Perhaps you shook hands
with Mother Theresa or witnessed the Declaration of Philippine Independence on
June 12, 1898 in the then Cavite el Viejo (now Kawit, Cavite). How did you do these
wonderful things? You read a book, of course.

You think you and your friends should visit the world in the book you have
just read. You can show your friends this world by writing a book review. Simply
stating your personal feelings about a book is not enough. You need to support your
statements with explanations and references to the work.

The Prewriting Process

Take brief notes as you read the material you will respond to. You might note
your favorite parts, parts that puzzle you, and parts that you disagree with.
Afterwards, ask yourself questions to help you analyze and evaluate the material:

● Whose point of view does the work present?

● Which parts reveal the point of view?
● What might the work’s purpose be?
● Which parts reveal the purpose?
● What is the author’s thesis?
● What are the most and least effective aspects of the work?
● What might readers and reviewers learn from the work?

Purpose and Audience

You have read your book and you are ready to tell people what you think. Before
you begin, think about:

● The purpose of your book review

● The people who will be reading it (your audience)
 Your purpose for writing a book review will be closely linked to your audience and to
their purpose for reading the review. Here are some questions and possible
responses to help you think about your audience and their purpose.

Gather and Organize Details

YOU GET THE IDEA

If you want people to read the book you have chosen, you need to say more
about it than simply, “It’s good.” You need to give them a summary of the book. A
summary of a piece of writing includes only the key ideas of the piece. When you
summarize a novel, you will briefly retell the important events. The notes that you
took while you read your novel will help you write your summary.

THERE IS MORE TO THE STORY

If a story were plot alone, it would not be much fun to read. Readers will be
more interested in plot events if they know something about the people and places
involved. When you write a summary include a description of the characters and the
setting.

WRITING A BOOK REVIEW: ITS PARTS

1. Introduction

In your first paragraph, identify the material that you are responding to. Name the author
and date of publication. To help your readers, provide a summary or brief description of the
work. You might also state your thesis in your opening paragraph.

2. Body

Devote at least a paragraph to each main point. Support each point with details from your
planning notes- including your own responses- and with examples from the work itself.

3. Conclusion

If you haven’t started your thesis in the first paragraph, do so in the conclusion. Sum up
your judgment of the work’s main ideas and the way they are presented.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review is not an annotated bibliography in which you summarize briefly

each article that you have reviewed. While a summary of what you have read is
contained within the literature review. It goes well beyond merely summarizing
professional literature. It focuses on a specific topic of interest to you and includes a
critical analysis of the relationship among different works, and relating this research to
your work. It may be written as a stand-alone paper or to provide a theoretical
framework and rationale for a research study such as a thesis or dissertation (Helen
Mongan-Rallis, 2014).

It is an evaluative report of information found in the literature related to your

selected area of study. The review should describe, summarize, evaluate, and clarify
this literature. It should give a theoretical base for the research and help you (the
author) determine the nature of your research. Works which are irrelevant should be
discarded and those which are peripheral should be looked at critically.

A literature review is more than the search for information, and goes beyond being a
descriptive annotated bibliography. All works included in the review must be read,
evaluated, and analyzed (which you would do for an annotated bibliography), but
relationships between the literature must also be identified and articulated, in relation to
your field of research.

In writing the literature review, the purpose is to convey to the reader what
knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and
weaknesses are. The literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g. your
research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative
thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set
of summaries.

Steps in Writing a Literature Review

1. Writing the Introduction

The introduction should:

● Define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern, thus providing an
appropriate context for reviewing the literature.
● Point out overall trends in what has been published about the topic; or conflicts in the
theory, methodology; or a single problem, or new perspective of immediate interest.
● Establish the writer’s reason (point of view) for reviewing the literature; explain the
criteria to be used in analyzing and comparing the literature and the organization of
the review (sequence); and when necessary, state why certain literature is or not
included (scope).

2. Writing the Body

The body should:

● Group research studies and other types of literature work (reviews, theoretical
articles, case studies, etc.) according to common denominators such as qualitative
versus quantitative approaches, conclusions of authors, specific purpose or
objective, chronology, etc.
● Summarize individual studies or articles with as much as little detail as each detail
merits according to its comparative importance in the literature, remembering that
space (length) denotes significance.
● Provide the reader with strong “umbrella” sentences at the beginning of paragraphs,
“signposts” throughout, and brief “so what” summary sentences at intermediate
points in the review to aid in understanding comparisons and analyses.

3. Writing the Conclusion

The conclusion should:

● Summarize major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of

knowledge under review, maintaining the focus established in the introduction. ●
Evaluate the current “state of the art” for the body of knowledge reviewed, pointing
out major methodological flaws or gaps in research, inconsistencies in theory and
findings, and areas or issues pertinent to future study.
● Conclude by providing some insight into the relationship between the central topic of
the literature review and a larger area of study such as a discipline, a scientific
endeavor, or a profession.
3. RESEARCH REPORT

Have you ever written a report in which you used several different sources? If so,
you have already produced a research report. A research report is a written report that
presents the results of a focused, in-depth study of a specific topic. Its writer chooses a
topic, gathers information about the topic from several sources, and then presents that
information in an organized way.

Steps in Developing a Research Report

1. Choosing a Subject

One of the most important parts of doing research is choosing a topic. By

choosing wisely, you can ensure that your research will go smoothly and that you
will enjoy doing it. A subject is a broad area of interest, such as Philippine History or
animal behavior. One way to approach the search for a research-report topic is to
first choose a general area of interest and then focus on some part of it. Make sure
that you have a real reason for wanting to explore the subject. Often, the best
subjects for research-reports are the ones that are related to your own life or to the
lives of people you know.

Use Free Writing Techniques

● Freewriting or Clustering
● Brainstorming
● Questioning
● Discussing

2. Limiting your Subject to a Specific Topic

Once you have come up with a list of ideas for possible topics, you need to
evaluate and limit them- that is on the basis of certain criteria. Here are some
criteria for judging a research topic:

● The topic should be interesting.

● The topic should be covered in readily available sources.
● The topic should be significant.
● The topic should be objective.
● You should not simply repeat material available in other sources.
● The topic should be narrow enough to be treated fully.
 3. Writing a Statement of Controlling Purpose

Once you have decided on a specific topic, your next step is to write a statement of

Both print and non-print sources will be available to you, and you will want to
take advantage of both. Here are some good places to start looking for information:

● Other people
● Institutions and organization
● The government
● The library/ media center
● Bookstores
● Bibliographies
● Online information service
● Reference works
● Other sources

4. PROJECT PROPOSAL

A proposal is a written report that seeks to persuade the reader to accept a suggested plan
of action. For example, a manager may write a project proposal that seeks to persuade a potential
customer to purchase goods or services from the writer’s firm, persuade the government to locate
a new research facility in the headquarters city of the writer’s firm, or persuade a foundation to
fund a project to be undertaken by the writer’s firm.

Proposals may either be solicited or unsolicited. Government agencies and many large
commercial firms routinely solicit proposals from potential suppliers. For example, the government
may publish an RFP (request for proposal) stating its intention to purchase 5, 000
microcomputers, giving detailed specifications regarding the feacontrolling purpose. This is a
sentence or pair of sentences that tells you what you want to accomplish in your report. It is called
a statement of

controlling purpose because it controls or guides your research. The statement of

controlling purpose usually contains one or more keywords that tell what the report is going to
accomplish. Keywords that often appear in statements of controlling purpose include analyze,
classify, compare, contrast, define, describe, determine, establish, explain, identify, prove, and
support.
 To come up with a statement of controlling purpose, you will probably have to do a good
deal of preliminary research. That is because before you can write a statement of controlling
purpose, you need to know enough about your topic to have a general idea of what you want to
say in your report.

4. Preparing a List of Possible Sources

Once you have written a statement of controlling purpose, you are ready to put
together a list of potential sources. The list of sources that might be useful to you in
writing your paper is called a working bibliography. You will have to use some sources
during your preliminary research, and you will probably want to include some or all of
those sources in your working bibliography. As you continue to research and draft, you
might find new sources to add to the list. Before you decide to add a new source to
your list, however, be sure to evaluate it. tures it needs on these computers, and inviting
prospective suppliers to bid on the project. Similarly, the computer manufacturers that
submit the successful bid might publish an RFP to invite parts manufacturers to bid on
supplying some components the manufacturer needs for these computers.

The unsolicited proposal differs from solicited proposal in that the former typically
requires more background information and more persuasion. Because the reader may
not be familiar with the project, the writer must present more evidence to convince the
readers of the merits of the proposal.

The proposal reader is typically outside the organization. The format for these
external documents may be a letter report, a manuscript report, or even a form report,
with the form supplied by the soliciting organization. If the soliciting organization does
not supply a form, it will likely specify in detailed language the format required for the
proposal. The reader’s instructions should be followed explicitly. Despite the merits of a
proposal, failure to follow such guidelines may be sufficient reason for the evaluator to
reject it.

When writing a proposal, the writer must keep in mind that the proposal may
become legally binding on the writer and the organization. In spelling out exactly what
the writer’s organization will provide, when, under what circumstances, and at what
price, the report writer creates the offer part of a contract which, if accepted, becomes
binding on the organization (Ober, 2006).
Techniques in Writing Project Proposal

● Give ample, credible evidence for all statements.

● Do not exaggerate.
● Provide examples, expert testimony, and specific facts and figures to support your
statements.
● Use simple, straightforward, and direct language, preferring simple sentences, and
active voice.
● Stress reader benefits. Remember that you are asking for something, usually a
commitment of money; let the reader know what he or she will get in return.

Sections of a Typical Project Proposal

1. Background

Introduce the problem you are addressing and discuss why it merits the
reader’s consideration. Provide enough background information to show that a
problem exists and that you have a viable solution.

2. Objectives

Provide specific information about what the outcomes f the project will be. Be
detailed and honest in discussing what the reader will get in return for a
commitment of resources.

3. Procedure

Discuss in detail exactly how you will achieve these objectives. Include
step-by step discussion of what will be done, when, and exactly how much each
component or phase will cost.

4. Qualifications

Show how you, your organization, and any of others who would be involved
in conducting this project are qualified to do so. If appropriate, include testimonials
or other external evidence to support your claims.

5. Request for Approval

Directly ask for approval of your proposal. Depending on the reader’s needs,
this request could come either at the beginning or at the end of the proposal.
 6. Supporting Data

Include as an appendix to your proposal any relevant but supplementary

information that might bolster your arguments.

5. POSITION PAPER

There may have been instances when you were required to explain a variety of
positions on an issue, possibly including those in favor of it, those against it, and those
with various views in between. These patterns used for expository papers (narration,
description, exemplification, etc.) can be expanded for a position paper. The objective
for a position paper is to take a stand on the issue, organize materials and notes, and
write a paper that is convincing to your reading audience.

Organization, or deciding on a framework of ideas for your paper is the first step,
then you will need to think about: (1) how the material can be divided into parts, (2) how
these parts can be placed in an order, and (3) what the logical relationships are among
the ideas and parts. To help accomplish this, let us look first at the advice classical
writers give on these matters.

PARTS OF CLASSICAL ORGANIZATION OF ARGUMENTS

1. Introduction

Make the subject and purpose clear at the start. Also, include information that will
interest the audience so that they will want to keep reading.

2. Statement of Proposition and Division

State your claim at or near the end of the introduction. Sometimes, name the major
sections of the paper so that is easier for readers to follow along.

3. Narration

Provide background about the subject and the events that have led to the
controversy. Indicate why the subject is important. Offer reasons for an interest in
the subject and cite qualifications for writing about it.
 4. Proof

Establish reasons and evidence that are acceptable to the audience to prove the
proposition or claim.

5. Refutation

Refute opposing positions. It may be placed after the proof, before the proof, or at
various points among the items of proof.

6. Conclusion

Emphasize the important point and remind the audience of the other important
points.

Use Organizational Patterns to Help You Think and Organize

Organizational patterns represent distinct ways to think about the parts of your
reaction paper, the order in which you place them, and the relationships among the ideas
and parts. They can be incorporated into the overall structure of the classical model,
particularly in the proof section (body) of the paper. Use the patterns alone or in
combinations accompanied by an introduction and a conclusion. Use these formats both to
help you think about your ideas as well to organize them.

● Claim with Reasons (or Reasons followed by Claim)

● Cause and Effect (or Effect and Cause)
● Chronology or Narrative
● Deduction
● Induction
● Compare and Contrast