Disinfection and Disinfection By-products Control

PURPOSE OF DISINFECTION
The purpose of potable water disinfection is to produce water suitable for human
consumption as well as commercial and industrial applications. The purpose of
wastewater and sludge disinfection is to destroy pathogens and thus prevent the spread of
waterborne diseases in the environment.
PATHOGENS, DISINFECTION, AND DISINFECTANTS
Primary concern is twofold: (1) to prevent direct transmission of disease to man through
water and (2) to break the chain of disease and infection by destroying responsible infective
agents before they reach the water environment.
Disinfectants must possess the following properties:
1. They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be introduced into
municipal water or wastewater and do so within a practicable period of time, and over an
expected range in water temperature, while meeting possible fluctuations in composition,
concentration, and condition of the waters or wastewaters to be treated.
2. They must be neither toxic to man and his domestic animals nor unpalatable or otherwise
objectionable in required concentrations.
3. They must be dispensable at reasonable cost, and safe and easy to store, transport, handle,
and apply.
4. Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be easily, quickly, and preferably
automatically determinable.
5. They must either persist within disinfected water in a sufficient concentration to provide
reasonable residual protection against its possible recontamination before use; or, because
this is not a normally attainable property, the disappearance of residuals must be a warning
that recontamination may have taken place.
Primary disinfectants are those used for the inactivation of Giardia cysts, viruses, and
bacterial contaminants, while secondary disinfectants suppress biological regeneration in
the distribution system or environment. Common primary disinfectants are chlorine, chlorine
dioxide, ozone, and UV radiation. Secondary disinfectants include chlorine, chlorine dioxide,
and chloramines.
DISINFECTION BY HEAT
The boiling of water at 100oC for 5 min will disinfect it.
DISINFECTION BY ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
Sunlight is a natural disinfectant, principally as a desiccant. Irradiation by ultraviolet (UV)
light intensifies disinfection and makes it a manageable undertaking. To ensure disinfection,
the water must be free from light-absorbing substances, from phenolic and other aromatic
compounds, and from suspended matter that shades the organisms against the light; the time–
intensity product of exposure must be adequate, and the water must be well mixed while it is
being exposed in relatively thin films in order to counter its own absorptivity. Since UV
radiation is not a chemical agent, it produces no toxic residual, known as disinfection by-
products (DBP).
Major advantages of UV radiation are its:
 Simplicity,
 lack of impact on the environment and aquatic life, and
 Minimal space requirements.
 In addition, the required UV contact times are seconds rather than minutes.
 The UV equipment is simple to operate and maintain if the apparatus are cleaned
properly on a regular basis.
DISINFECTION BY CHEMICALS
Exposing water long enough to adequate concentrations of chemicals of the following kinds
will disinfect it.
Oxidizing Chemicals
These comprise:
(1) the halogens—chlorine, bromine, iodine, monochloramine, and chlorine dioxide—
released in suitable form from acceptable sources;
(2) ozone; and
(3) Other oxidants such as potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide, but these are not
as effective as the halogens and ozone.
Chlorine in usually used and Ozone is a good but relatively expensive disinfectant that
normally leaves no measurable monitoring residual. However, the ability of ozone to
destroy a number of objectionable odours and to bleach colour effectively is in its favour.
Potassium permanganate, too, is a relatively expensive disinfectant
 DISINFECTION BY CHLORINE
The following substances are released when chlorine or its hypochlorite compounds are
added to water:
1. Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), hypochlorite ion (OCl-), and elemental chlorine (Cl2):
Distribution of the three species depends on pH. Elemental chlorine, from chlorine gas, lasts
but a fleeting moment within the normal pH zone. The two prevailing species HOCl
and OCl- are referred to in practice as free available chlorine.
2. Monochloramine (NH2Cl), dichloramine (NHCl2), and nitrogen trichloride (NCl3):
Ammonia, or organic nitrogen, is essential to the production of these compounds. The
distribution of the three species is again a function of pH. Nitrogen trichloride is not formed
in significant amounts within the normal pH zone except when the breakpoint is approached.
The two prevailing species, NH2Cl and NHCl2, are referred to in practice as combined
available chlorine.
3. Complex organic chloramines, especially in heavily contaminated waters.
4. Chloride, formed on reaction with reducing compounds, such as ferrous iron, sulfides, and
organic reducing compounds.
Reducing substances react with chlorine to produce the chlorine demand. Depending on the
nature of the substances present in water, the chlorine atom, by gaining electrons, is changed
into chloride ion or organic chloride. Reducing substances may include inorganic Fe2+, Mn2+,
NO2-, and H2S along with the greater part of the organic material (living and dead).
The inorganic substances generally react rapidly and stoichiometrically; the response of the
organic material is generally slow, and its extent depends on how much available chlorine is
present in excess of requirements. Because the organic material in drinking water supplies is
closely related to their natural color or stain, their probable organic chlorine demand may be
estimated from the depth of color. Enough chlorine must be added to take care of them so that
sufficient free chlorine remains for the disinfecting reactions. To assure this, chlorine
residuals remaining after a specific time of contact, rather than initial chlorine doses, are
made standards of accomplishment or comparison. Because the chlorine demand is a
function of temperature, concentration, and time, its determination must take all three
factors into account.
FREE AVAILABLE CHLORINE AND FREE CHLORINATION

Free chlorine residual or free available chlorine is the amount of chlorine remaining in a
water purification system after the chlorine demand is satisfied. It is the amount of free
chlorine in the water that is available to oxidize, sanitize, or disinfect the water. The
disinfection process is free chlorination in which free residual chlorine or free available
chlorine is used for disinfection process control by water purification system operators. The
following equilibrium equations are obtained when elemental chlorine is dissolved in pure
water:

COMBINED AVAILABLE CHLORINE AND CHLORAMINATION

The treatment of drinking water with a chloramine disinfectant is termed chloramination.
Both chlorine and small amounts of ammonia are added to the water one at a time which
react together to form chloramine (also called combined chlorine), a long lasting disinfectant.
As such, chloramine disinfection is sometimes used in large distribution systems.
BREAKPOINT REACTIONS OF AMMONIA

There is oxidation of ammonia and reduction of chlorine when the molar ratio of chlorine to
ammonia is greater than 1.0. A substantially complete oxidation–reduction process occurs in
the neighbourhood of a 2:1 ratio and leads, in the course of time, to the disappearance from
solution of all the ammonia and oxidizing chlorine.

Between points 1 and 2, molar ratios of chlorine to ammonia are less than 1.0, and the
residual oxidizing chlorine is essentially all monochloramine. Between point 2 and the
breakpoint, oxidation of ammonia and reduction of chlorine increase until complete
oxidation–reduction occurs at the breakpoint. In this region, again, the residual oxidizing
chlorine is essentially all monochloramine. Beyond the breakpoint, unreacted hypochlorite
remains in solution, and some nitrogen trichloride is formed, if the pH is low.
The rate of the breakpoint reaction is strongly affected by pH. The maximum lies between pH
6.5 and 8.5. Important advantages of chlorinating to and beyond the breakpoint or otherwise
obtaining free available chlorine residuals are that:
(1) Most odours and tastes normal to water are destroyed and
(2) rigorous disinfection is assured.
However, in the presence of undecomposed urea, nitrogen trichloride is very likely to be
formed and give rise to bad odors and tastes.
DECHLORINATION
When large amounts of chlorine have been added to water, for example, to ensure
disinfection before the water is to be consumed or to destroy odors and tastes, unwanted
residuals can be removed by dechlorination. Intensive use of chlorine in this manner without
the breakpoint reaction is called superchlorination and dechlorination.
DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS
Formation of Disinfection By-products
DBPs are formed by two basic mechanisms:
(1) reduction, oxidation, or disproportionation of the disinfecting agent and
(2) Reaction of oxidation by the disinfectant with materials already in the water.
Reduction, oxidation, or disproportionation can occur when the disinfecting agent is added to
water.
Strategies for Controlling Disinfection By-products
The formation of halogenated by-products is affected by a number of factors, including the
concentration and types of organic materials present when chlorine is added, the dosage of
chlorine, the temperature and pH of the water, and the reaction time.
Three strategies for controlling formation of halogenated materials during chlorination:
1. Remove the by-products after they are formed.
2. Use alternate disinfectants that do not produce undesirable by-products.
3. Reduce the concentration of organics in the water before oxidation or chlorination to
minimize the formation of by-products.