Thermionic Energy Conversion

Topic 1: The Plasmatron: Advanced Mode Thermionic Energy Conversion

The plasmatron is a triode thermionic converter, a modification of the more

familiar ignited cesium diode thermionic converter. The third electrode is added so that
an auxiliary discharge can be used to produce ions for space charge neutralization
more efficiently. The purpose of the present work is to evaluate the plasmatron as a
thermionic converter, that is, to identify the controlling phenomena of the device, to
define those features important for optimum performance, and to determine its practical
potential and limitations. To accomplish this, a theory of the plasmatron has been
developed. Also, a wide range of measurements have been obtained with two versatile,
research devices. To gain insight into plasmatron performance, the experimental
results are compared with calculations based on the theoretical model of plasmatron
operation. Results are presented which show that the plasma arc drop of the
conventional arc (ignited) mode converter can be suppressed by use of an auxiliary ion
source. The improved performance, however, ispresently limited to low current densities
(< 2 amps/cm2, at practical spacings) because of voltage losses due to plasma
resistance. This resistance loss could be suppressed by an increase in the plasma
electron temperature or a decrease in spacing. Plasmatron performance characteristics
for both argon and cesium are reported. The argon plasmatron has superior
performance. Results are also presented for magnetic cutoff effects and for current
distributing effects. These are shown to be important factors for the design of practical
devices. (L. K. Hansen, G. L. Hatch, And N.S. Rasor, 1976)

Topic 2: Diminiode Thermionic Energy Conversion With Lanthanum-

Hexaboride Electrodes
 TEC with metal-hexaboride electrodes was part of a diode-screening project, at
the Lewis Research Center (LeRC) in 1970. The work depended on economical "mass
production" of the diminiode. This cesium diode had been designed with guarded
electrodes small enough to accommodate obtainable 0.04-cm-diameter single crystals
of refractory mate-rials like tungsten, rhenium, iridium, and metal hexaborides. In fact
procurement initiated in February 1971 for 0.8-cm-diameter LaB 6 single crystals to be
made by R. W. Johnson. But the in-core nuclear thermionic program incorporated the
diminiode capability for a statistical study of reactor-compatible electrode materials.
During the 1973 termination of space nuclear activities (including TEC) an attempt to
evaluate a diminiode with LaB 6 electrodes fell short. Subsequently presentation at the
1974 IEEE Inter-national Conference on Plasma Science reviewed TEC electrodes of
LaB6 and other metallides in conjunction with the diminiode. This paper presents
thermionic-conversion data obtained from a variable-gap cesium diminiode with a hot-
pressed, sintered lanthanum-htexaboride emit-ter and an arc-melted lanthanum-hexabo
ride collector. Performance curvescover a range of temperatures; emitter 1500 to 1700
K, collector 750 to 1000 K,and cesium reservoir 370 to 510 K. Calculated values of
emitter and collector work functions and barrier index are also given. (Erich W. Kroeger,
Virginia L. Bair, and Jamca F. Morris, 1978)

Topic 3: Minimize Fission Power Peaking Factor in Radial Direction of Water-

Cooled and Water-Moderated Thermionic Conversion Reactor Core
 The paper investigates the possibility for reducing the radial power peaking factor kr inside
the core of a water-cooled water-moderated thermionic converter reactor (TCR). Due to a highly
nonuniform power density, the TCR generates less electric power and the temperature increases
in components of the thermionic fuel elements, leading so to a shorter reactor life. A TCR with an
intermediate neutron spectrum has its thermionic fuel elements (TFE) arranged inside the core in
concentric circles, this providing for a nonuniform TFE spacing and reduces kr. The water-cooled
water-moderated TCR under consideration has a much larger number of TFEs arranged in a
hexagonal lattice with a uniform pitch. Power density flattening in a core with a uniform-pitch lattice
can be achieved, e.g., through using different fuel enrichment in core or using additional in-core
structures. The former requires different TFE types to be taken into account and developed while
the latter may cause degradation of the reactor neutronic parameters; all this will affect the
design’s economic efficiency. It is proposed that the core should be split into sections with each
section having its own uniform lattice pitch which increases in the direction from the center to the
periphery leading so to the radial power density factor decreasing to 1.06. The number of the
sections the core is split into depends on the lattice pitch, the TFE type and size, the reflector
thickness, and the reactor design constraints. The best lattice spacing options for each section
can be selected using the procedure based on a genetic algorithm technology which allows
finding solutions that satisfy to a number of conditions. This approach does not require the reactor
dimensions to be increased, different TFE types to be taken into account and developed, or extra
structures to be installed at the core center. (P.A. Alekseev, A.D. Krotov, M.K. Ovcharenko, V.A
Linnil, 2018)

Topic 4: Interplay Between Near-Field Radiative Coupling And Space Charge

Effects In A Micro Gap Thermionic Energy Converter Under Fixed Heat Input
 We investigate the performance of a micro gap vacuum thermionic energy
converter considering the loss mechanisms due to the space charge effect and
interelectrode radiative heat transfer. The dependencies of the space charge effect and
near-field radiative heat exchange on the interelectrode distance are derived based on
established theories. The electrode temperatures are determined by solving the steady-
state energy balance equations in a numerical, iterative process and considering a
constant energy flux input to the emitter. The resultant behaviour of the different
mechanisms of energy flow from the electrodes is studied for a wide range of
interelectrode distances, which provides insights into the device operation. The
maximum efficiency of the converter is obtained by optimizing the operating voltage and
interelectrode distance. Considering the interplay between space charge and near-field
radiative heat transfer, an optimal range is determined for the interelectrode distance.
The optimal value of the distance and the lower limit of this range are found to be
significantly higher than previously reported, where constant electrode temperatures
had been assumed. The findings of this work thus provide useful insights into the device
physics of a micro gap TEC which are crucial for the design and fabrication of
thermionic energy harvesting systems. (E. Rahman and A. Nojeh, 2020)

Topic 5: Low Work Function Thin Film Growth For High Efficiency Thermionic
Energy Converter: Coupled Kelvin Probe And Photoemission Study Of Potassium
Oxide
 Recent researches in thermal energy harvesting have revealed the remarkable
efficiency of thermionic energy converters comprising very low work function electrodes.
From room temperature and above, this kind of converter could supply low power
devices such as autonomous sensor networks. In this type of thermoelectric converters,
current injection is mainly governed by a mechanism of thermionic emission at the hot
electrode which explains the interest for low work function coating materials. In
particular, alkali metal oxides have been identified as excellent candidates for coating
converter electrodes. This paper focused to the synthesis and characterization of
potassium peroxide K2O2 onto silicon surfaces. In order to determine optimal synthesis
conditions of K2O2, they presented diagrams showing the different oxides as a function
of temperature and oxygen pressure from which phase stability characteristics can be
determined. From the experimental standpoint, they presented results on the synthesis
of potassium oxide under ultra high vacuum and controlled temperature. The resulting
surface is characterized in-situ by means of photoemission spectroscopy (PES) and
contact potential difference (CPD) measurements. A work function of 1.35 eV is
measured which and the expected efficiency of the corresponding converter is
discussed. It is generally assumed that the decrease of the work function in the
alkali/oxygen/silicon system, is attributed to the creation of a surface dipole resulting
from a charge transfer between the alkali metal and oxygen. (F. Morini, E. Dubois, J. F.
Robillard, S. Monfray, T. Skotnicki, 2019)