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Role of the Media

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R

Role of the Media and organizations, which are engaged in securing

human rights. Today printing has become highly
Salvin Paul and Maheema Rai sophisticated and the print media, namely, news-
Department of Peace and Conflict Studies and paper, weeklies, and monthlies, use these modern
Management, Sikkim University, Gangtok, India printing presses which are capable of printing
very fast. Computers have further improved print-
Keywords ing operations, thus making print media indis-
pensable part to society. In the present era of
Media · Human rights · Peace and security
globalization and media explosion, one cannot
restrict themselves to the boundaries of traditional
media. As a result the law governing them has
Introduction
been increasing. The information and views com-
municated through these media have great impact
Media plays a catalytic role in transforming the
on the attitudes and problems of the people. Due
society in a globalized world. World in recent
to mass media, the range and amount of informa-
years has undergone rapid changes in all spheres
tion available to the people has vastly increased,
due to the impact of media. These changes have
resulting in protecting their human rights if there
also influenced and significantly transformed the
is any violation. Mass media create an impact by
mass media system too. We are living in such a
playing a role as change agent, reflector, and rein-
society where instantaneous availability of infor-
force policies, law protecting their rights. Media
mation, facts, and knowledge is possible due to
plays a major role in protecting human rights in
the information and communication technologies.
the world.
Role of media in understanding the spatial and
temporal aspects of social life is beyond compre-
hension as the influence of media is increasing day
Defintion of Media
by day. The Internet and new social media have
overcome the difficulties faced by the conven-
Media is one of the medium of communications
tional media in time and space. Media plays a
that have brought the world into one single unit.
major role in protecting human rights in the
As the word media derives from the Latin medium
world. It educates people to make aware of their
that means in the middle. The media refers to
human rights, suggests how they can solve their
traditional mass communication system and con-
problems and thus empower them to protect their
tent generators as well as other technologies for
rights. Media gives publicity to the individuals
mediated human speech. This would include
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
S. Romaniuk et al. (eds.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Global Security Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74336-3_277-1
2 Role of the Media
traditional publishing (newspapers, periodicals, or
books), traditional electronic media
(broadcasting, broadband, cable, or satellite),
motion pictures, video gaming, recorded music,
advertising, and adaptations of the Internet for any
of these media (Hoag 2008). Information and
messages are transferred from the sender to the
receiver through a certain channel, known as
media. In the form of a spoken, written, or printed
word or any sign, medium is what conveys a
meaning. These could be coded in the form of
electronic message. Besides this scientific under-
standing of the concept of media, there is a current
common parlance of it, as a process or instrument
designed to reach a large number of consumers as
audience, readers, or viewers. In the common
parlance, “media” and “mass media” are used
almost interchangeably. The term “media” was
first used with the advent of newspapers and mag-
azines (Pushparaj 2014).
The media works as the tools that publicize
information and entertainment to a large and vast
number of populations. A number of Internet-
based newspapers, journals, and periodicals have
already made their presence felt (Kumar 2008).
The web newspapers are becoming increasingly
popular. And the net editions of almost all the
major newspapers are as popular as their print
editions. Mass media have helped in creating
social awareness and have also provided people
with an easy way of living life (Rajan 2011). Thus,
media refers various means of communication, its
aim to reach a very large population, such as the
entire population of country.
Types of Media
Media is devices of the communication which is
useful to communicate and interact with a large
number of audiences in various languages. One
cannot separate himself from media. Media is
used for the entertainment, communication and
dissemination of information, advertising, mar-
keting, and for expressing and sharing views,
opinion, and ideas. There are different types of
media that are accustomed to the day and age.
Whether its children, young people, or adults,
everyone had their own share of media related
exposure every day.
One of the foremost sources of information
earlier was the print media. The first printed news-
paper appeared in Beijing, China, in the eighth
century A.D. In India, the first newspaper Hicky’s
Bengal Gazette appeared in English and edited
and published by James Augustus Hicky, an
ex-employee of the East India Company on
January 29, 1780 (Vilanilam 2005). Traditionally
the term print media refers to the distribution of
printed works. It includes newspaper, magazines,
booklets, barouches, house magazine, periodicals
or newsletters, direct mailers, handbills or flyers,
billboard, press releases, books, etc. Print media
like newspapers and magazines influence people
such as politicians and policy makers who often
turn to print media for their news, intended to
reach general public.
The second is the electronic media that is kind
of media which requires the user to utilize an
electric connection to access it. It is also known
as broadcast media. It includes television, radio,
and telephones, etc. The invention of electronic
media was a turning point in the history of com-
munication process (Lee 2009). The third is the
social media or can be called as new media. The
emergence of Internet and mobile technology, a
new way of news dissemination, started taking
place. Today there are a number of social media
sites in the form of blogs, social networks, micro-
blogs, forums, wikis, photos, audio and video
sharing. Hjarvard (2013) opines that due to the
advancement in technology, it is not only the
journalists who become the news distributers.
Anyone can publish news and opinions on the
Internet and on the social networking media.
Social media use web and mobile technologies
to make communication as an interactive dialogue
(Mathur 2012). It allows the people with little
knowledge about the technology to create and
share content (Dar 2011). Social media are a
group of web-based applications that enable peo-
ple to create and exchange information, pictures,
videos, and social booking.
Social media is one area of communication that
allows one to share views and opinions. A major
point of difference between social media and
Role of the Media
conventional media is that the former allows
instant responses, which is critical in moments of
conflict. However, uncontrolled and irresponsible
usage of this media is a great danger to the society
(Baruah and Upadhyaya 2014).
Media as a Source of Information
In the contemporary world, media plays an impor-
tant role as a source of information about every-
thing including human rights, as for most people
television, radio, and newspapers are their only
source of information. Media possess a power to
select issues and events in the world we got to
know about, they decide what constitute news,
they filter and frame issues, they contextualize
the problem, they set the political agenda, and
they create both the consciousness and on matters
that include human rights (International Council
on Human Rights Policy 2002).
In a democracy, public opinion formation is
critical in making and breaking governments and
can influence the policy decisions drastically. This
large consumer base coupled with the right to
freedom of press – the mother of all freedoms –
makes media a very powerful entity in a country.
It can make and unmake individuals and institu-
tions. It can also build and break societies (Sawant
1998). Over the last 20 years media have made
great changes. Accessibility of media is one of the
revolutions of our times. Availability of news on
computers and mobiles empowers people with
updates on-the-go. Press and electronic media
are also easily accessible due to their association
with the Internet that helps people to connect
anywhere in the world at any time (Kant 2012).
The role of any media new or old is to effectively
deliver information. It means providing the right
information to the right people at the right time.
New communication opportunities can keep indi-
viduals to be more informative and sensible for
their own rights and duties as well. The new
communication technology can create a media-
literate public (Sarma 2014).
The media are generators and source of infor-
mation: out here reporters gather, process, and pre-
sent most of the information we receive about
3
everything including human rights. In addition to
just processing information, the media are political
and moral agents, deciding to highlight a particular
story, taking clear editorial positions, and calling
for something to be done. Media are the carriers of
information generated by human rights organiza-
tions like NGOs, national human right commis-
sions, etc.: they act as the most powerful
gatekeepers between these organizations and the
wider public. Whether mounting a campaign on a
particular issue or publishing a report about a par-
ticular country or appealing for fund, organizations
channel their information through the selective fil-
ter of the media (International Council on Human
Rights Policy 2002, p. 36). Media has proved the
power it holds in building up public opinion on
different subject matters. The pen is mightier than
the sword goes an old proverb which has been
proved since the advent of writing and develop-
ment of media (Patricia McFadden 1998).
Media as Peace and Security Instrument
The social responsibility that lies on media today
is not just confined to the traditional idea of trans-
mitting news and entertainment. It has tremen-
dous power in going beyond these basic
responsibilities and reaching out to society in
achieving positive peace, which shall be one of
the main goals of media. Media are often blamed
for becoming active in a conflict situation for their
commercial gains. But media are powerful entity
that can be made use of, for constructive purposes
especially in resolving and transforming dreaded
ethnic conflicts so as to find lasting peace in a
conflict-ridden society. Although there are many
NGOs that are working towards the same goal,
media are in an advantageous position to achieve
this goal, because they have the power to influ-
ence the attitude and behavior of the people and
are able to reach out to a large number of audience
at the same time. The role of media in security is
not just to project the developing activities in a
particular area but to offer a comprehensive pic-
ture, encompassing all aspects of the policies of
the country (Hali 2003).
4 Role of the Media
Today, electronic media is the most effective
and powerful means of mass motivation. A nation
not motivated enough to withstand the aggression
cannot aspire to preserve its freedom, faith, and
ideology for long. On the other hand, strong moti-
vated people cannot be forced to abandon their
struggle against heavy odds. It is for this aspect of
unique coverage and impact that the electronic
media can be geared up effectively to promote
and expand security awareness among the people
at large (Hussain 2008). Media remains an impor-
tant component of statecraft, not only for one
country but for the rest of the world, as it helps
the States attain their goals and objectives, mainly
due to the effect that media has on opinion-
building of the public (Hamburg and Vance
1997). However, in terms of matters of national
security, media of any country follows a national-
istic approach, even though the dynamics of
media are different and diverse in different coun-
tries (Abraham 2011). Sometimes, the States use
media to create fear or hatred among countries and
sometimes prolong diplomatic ties. In the contem-
porary strategic environment, media and the Gov-
ernment have a very strong and symbiotic
relationship which is believed to be evolving as
even political actors have started working in the
environment set or prescribed by the media for
undertaking their duties (Yadava and Mathur
2008). Thus, not only are the perceptions of the
public set by the media in this modern world, but
also that of the authorities and leaders, which in
turn help them to set up policies in tune with the
demands of the people.
History also shows that media did play an
important role in bringing normalcy and peace in
the society. Media function as a channel of peace
that clarifies all the misunderstanding and misper-
ceptions. It frames and analyzes the conflict, iden-
tifies the interests, defuses mistrust, and provides
opportunities for emotional outlets. The media
thus becomes a facilitator of positive social
change rather than a professional reporter
(Howard 2002). Some of the initiatives that have
been encountered by media are shown in some
case studies below.
Albinism in Tanzania: One of the most recent
arguments that have been on the focus is how the
media can help in to protect the people with albi-
nism in Tanzania, as this albinism is a rare genetic
condition which affects the pigment in the eyes,
hair, and skin. The most common and most severe
type in sub-Saharan Africa is ocular albinism
which gives people white hair, pink skin, low
vision or blindness and a greater susceptibility to
skin cancer. People with albinism in Africa face a
range of prejudices and social stigmas. They are
often dismissed as belonging to another race, or as
ghosts or spirits. In East Africa, adults and chil-
dren with albinism face discrimination and human
rights violations driven by beliefs rooted in witch-
craft that albino body parts bring wealth and for-
tune. Many are murdered for body parts, including
infants and babies. Most of the attacks have taken
place in Tanzania. Murders and attempted attacks,
though in smaller numbers, have also been
documented in Burundi, Kenya, Swaziland,
Guinea, Nigeria, South Africa, Congo, Zambia,
Namibia, Ivory Coast, and Burkina Faso. The
media had played one of the most important
roles in stopping and delivering punishment for
the culprit for this inhuman act. Media reporting
on these attacks as crimes had helped and lead to a
death sentence of the culprit and also helped in
reducing the violence (Bruke 2017). The key mes-
sage that media portrayed through their channel is
that people with albinism are humans who have
rights so the whole community should treat them
well and protect them from harm.
Child Rights: National and international
efforts are underway across all continents to stop
systematic abuse of the rights of children. Even
so, shockingly high levels of child rights viola-
tions continue. Hundreds of millions of children
live with hunger, homelessness, and illiteracy and
suffer sexual violence, physical abuse, forced
labor, and other varied and complex risks. To
confront and reduce the persistently the high rate
of child rights violation and to protect the rights of
the child, the media has contributed their valuable
role towards it. In Brazil the media had and still is
playing a very important role in shaping the social
conversation and views on child rights. As the
media has been widely explored by Civil Society
Organization initiatives on media and human
rights in Brazil and many of these projects focus
Role of the Media
on online media content, as it is a more democratic
and accessible distribution medium. There are
three key projects that have gained large recogni-
tion: the EscolaPolular de ComunicacaoCritica
(http://www.espocc.org.br/. Accessed 12th
March, 2018) (Community school for critical
communication/engagement) of the NGO
Observatorio de Favelas (Rio de Janeiro), the
School of Citizen Journalism of Bahia and
Media Literacy program of the Federal University
of TriânguloMineiro (UFTM) in partnership with
UNESCO. (http://www.uftm.edu.br/redeci/
images/APRESENTACAO.pdf. Accessed 12th
March, 2018) Journalist training programs focus-
ing on child rights media coverage is another
important initiative led by ANDI and the Univer-
sity Jorge Amado, in Salvador, Bahia. Finally,
there are several major awards for child rights
reporting in Brazil, including the Child Friendly
Journalist Award granted by ANDI to media pro-
fessionals who have addressed children’s issues,
and the Tim Lopes Award and Vladmir Herzog
Award, which are awarded to quality human rights
reporting. One of the most striking features of the
media is the documentary of the child labor by
BCC in the cocoa farm in Ghana and Ivory Coast
in west Africa. In the documentary, the children
are said to be not going to school and they use
hazardous tools and are deprived of childhood
life. This is an allusion to ILO Convention
182 and Convention on the Rights of the Child,
CRC. The children used in child labor are traf-
ficked from Burkina Faso, which is faced with
lack of the basic necessities of life (ILO 2011).
Some women whose children were used in child
labor said they had no option other than to give
their children to work. Others claim they were not
directly responsible for their children’s trafficking
to cocoa farms. The film portrays the children as
victims of human rights violations, who are in
need of help (Wasserman 2009). According to
the narration of the documentary, some of the
children were trafficked and used as child labor.
They were not paid any wage. In some cases, a
close relative received the wage. The documen-
tary explicitly states that trafficking is illegal and a
serious breach of global standards. It states that
ILO Convention prohibits the worst forms of child
5
labor: work likely to harm the health, safety, or
morals of children, which includes the use of
hazardous tools. It also prohibits work which
interferes with schooling (Nwankwo 2011). All
this is done through the advancement in technol-
ogies and interference of the media which resulted
in the awareness of the rights of the children and
connecting people with the social issues to which
all the countries are facing with.
Conflicts in India: The media can set the pub-
lic agenda by reporting one news story in place of
another, then the media can take up the human
rights agenda by publishing or broadcasting
human rights programs. The media can dissemi-
nate human rights information, mobilize human
rights NGOS, strengthen popular participation in
civil society, promote tolerance, and shine a light
on government activity. There is a common belief
that human rights and democracy are mutually
supportive or related to each other by definition
(Freeman 2002). Freedom of expression, and
press freedom in particular, is an important factor
in democracy because of the media’s ability to
provide information which serve as link between
mass publics, elites, and government (Whitten-
Woodring 2009).
In Kashmir Country’s media has been working
in a united manner to create an environment
against the terrorists who violate human rights.
Media is always fully alert about the designs of
Pakistan and terrorists. The incidents of open vio-
lation of human rights of people by terrorists get
prominent space in the Indian media. Debate pro-
grams are shown on TV channels particularly
related to cases involving terrorist incidents.
Long exclusive articles are published in newspa-
pers. The local media of Jammu & Kashmir as
well as the national media working in Delhi gives
prominent space to terrorists and the nefarious
acts carried out by them. Many journalists and
columnists, while talking about human rights,
also talk of the human rights of terrorists and
support to protect their human rights as well. If
we talk about Jammu & Kashmir, on November 3,
2014, in Badgam (Jammu & Kashmir) the army
killed two men in a firing. Since military has the
power of Arm Forces Power Act, 1958, they can
attack anyone on the basis of suspicion and they
6 Role of the Media
do not need to answer anyone for this. But the
matter of killing innocent men without any evi-
dence has been heavily dominated in the print and
electronic media, including on social media (The
Times of India 2014).
Human Rights and Ethiopia: Media, at the
international level, is often criticized for
underreporting certain specific human rights espe-
cially socio-economic and cultural rights. How-
ever, in Ethiopia, it is possible to challenge the
above analysis and maintain a position that socio-
economic rights have better coverage than civil
and political. Particularly, media institutions
under Ethiopian radio and Television Agency are
engaged in the promotion and education of socio-
economic and cultural rights to the general
public. This, perhaps, is an obvious outcome of
development journalism, which is the principle at
all government owned media institutions. The
media institutions in Ethiopia follow the same
trend by discussing the rights of women and chil-
dren whenever notable violations or activities
with regard to it occur. There are also regular
trends by the media in covering the human rights
of specific groups for the purpose of creating
awareness. Especially, the human rights of
women, children, nations, nationalities, and peo-
ple are often discussed and promoted in light of
the Ethiopian constitution and international
human rights instruments like CRC, CEDAW,
ICCPR, and The International Covenant on Eco-
nomic, Social and Cultural Rights (Terje 2009). In
spite of this effort, the need of the country and the
massive extent of human rights violations espe-
cially on women and children require additional
measures to be taken by the media. For example,
Ethiopia is, at present, one of the countries where
a large number of women and children suffer from
different types of abuses and exploitation as a
result of human trafficking (Endeshaw et al.
2010). In addition, early marriage, Harmful Tra-
ditional practices (HTPs) particularly on Female
Gentile Mutilation (FGM), abduction, inequality
of women, and child labor abuses are the promi-
nent practices in the country (Interview with
AtoAberaYasin 2010).
In order to contribute towards the prevention of
these massive and brutal human rights violations
on women and children, the media has to crop up
with effective plan to bring behavioral change of
the public. One of the most effective strategies of
addressing these problems is engagement of the
media with governmental and nongovernmental
organizations whose objective is advocating the
rights of women and children (Kelklachew and
Haileyesus 2009). So far, as already discussed,
national human rights institutions are collaborat-
ing with the media for such purpose. In addition to
the activities with national human rights institu-
tions, the media is engaged with nongovernmental
actors whose purpose is advocating the human
rights of specific groups including women and
children. In this instance, it is appropriate to note
the collaboration of the media with Population
Media Center (PMC). PMC is an exemplary non-
governmental organization working for behav-
ioral change in Ethiopia.
Threats of Media to Security
Recent world events have shown that social
media, just like traditional media, can act as a
tool that threatens national security. Social media
can act as a tool for widening democratic space,
but on the other it can lead to destabilization. The
media can be used to spread propaganda and hate
speech and incite to violence and others. Any
debate about the role of the social media must
therefore be grounded on the larger debate
between information flows and stability of state.
Social media has well-known security risks to
nations (Wanner 2011). Threats of social media
can manifest themselves in many ways. Social
Media are more and more used by terrorist orga-
nizations as tools for ideological radicalization,
recruitment, communication, and training. In
addition to this, terrorist groups take advantage
of Social Media to communicate with cyber-crime
groups and to coordinate along with them fund-
raising activities carried out in part or completely
on the Internet (UN 2011).
Lorraine Bowman-Grieve pointed out that
Social Media play an important role in influencing
the behavior of the individual and their readiness
to take part in collective action because of their
Role of the Media
inherent socializing that in turn can lead to
changes in attitudes and behavior over time
(Bowman-Grieve 2010). These changes in atti-
tude might include adopting the most prevalent
ideology expressed within the community. Social
Media and, more generally speaking, the
Internet allow the publication and diffusion of
extremist ideas and material that may lead a vul-
nerable individuals to recruit themselves, some-
times unaided by any intermediary. During the
second Israeli-Lebanese war in 2006, Mayfield
carried out several Information Warfare activities
through the use of Social Media (Kimutai 2014).
Further on that, cases of nonauthorized and
uncontrolled publication of classified or sensitive
information or content (print, audio, photo, etc.)
through Social Media are more and more frequent.
In these cases, national security can be severely
compromised by the use of Social Media. Exam-
ples include the famous leaks of Wiki leaks of US
Cable Communications (ibid., 40). New technol-
ogies and in particular Social Media constitute an
asset of great importance both for social move-
ments/groups and for revolutions (Papic and
Noonan 2011). Rebels and revolutionary groups
turn to such tools to better organize and spur
masses to action, to arrange protest or struggle
activities, and to manage their tactical and opera-
tional aspects and also the social media is also
used for electronic financial fraud and hacking.
Conclusion
Media is the reflection of our society and it depicts
what and how society works. Media, either it is
printed, electronic or the web is the only medium,
which helps in making people informed. It also
helps in entertaining the public and educate and
make people aware of the current happenings.
Media has today become the voice of our society.
There are various forms of media that help to
inform, educate, and entertain our society. Media
can be in print form that is through newspapers,
books, magazines, etc. Media includes an elec-
tronic form for spreading information which is
one of the most used media of mass communica-
tion. With the help of radio and TV, listeners and
7
viewers not only get updated but it also creates an
understanding of current happenings. Radio being
an audio medium helps in disseminating informa-
tion to every nook and corner of our country.
Radio has also played a vital role in creating a
platform for imagination. The reach of this audio
medium is not only limited to urban areas but it
has covered a wide range even to the remote areas
of our country.
In the contemporary society, media have
acquired tremendous power that influences the
socio, cultural, religious, political, and economic
fabric of everyday life. Media have become one of
the essential amenities of life. They function as
custodians of the constitution of a nation. It has
the duty to inform, entertain, and educate the
people on matters related to their lives. It is pos-
sible that media can construct reality and make
people believe what they report. It is also seen that
media highlight irrelevant events as important and
vice versa. Thus, media can mislead people and
deviate from important issues and concerns.
Sometimes media try to please the aspirations of
the audience whom they address. Therefore, they
frame images of reality to form public opinion and
support. Most of the researches on media’s role in
conflict show that media played a negative role in
the major conflicts around the world. The misuse
of the media and its technology has boosted the
emergence of terrorism.
The role of media is very vital in a conflict
situation. Under such circumstances, media can
either incite violence or promote peace with their
reporting. Media reporting has great impact on
public attitudes and the resolution of the conflict.
As there persist many drawbacks of media but still
media play an important role in a democratic
society. Media help people to come to know
what is happening around them. It is all the more
apparent during conflict situations where people
totally depend on mass media to know the devel-
opment of escalation and de-escalation of vio-
lence. In the age of information revolution,
media is most influential tool and instrument in
persuasion of national policies and security.
8 Role of the Media
Cross-References
▶ Arab Spring
▶ Chronic Threats
▶ Digital Divide
▶ Digital Power
▶ Global Security
▶ Risk and Security
▶ War on Terror
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