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PSIR Answer Writing Module, 2022

Model Answer
Test 1
(For issues related to test series , write at psirtestseries@shubhraranjan.com )

Test Syllabus: Western Political Thought : Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke
1. The Concern of political thought is not just the explanation of the existence of the state or
its continuation, its concern is nothing less than “the moral phenomena of human
behaviour in the society” (C. L . Wayper). Comment.

“Political Science is architectonic discipline aiming at the highest good”- Aristotle, the
father of political science.
Political thought is the key area of study besides political philosophy, comparative politics
and international relation. In political thought we try to understand the prominent ideas
related to politics through the representative texts (classics) of the time, belonging to the
key thinkers. For example – Plato’s Republic,Hobbes’s Leviathan, Machiavelli’s The Prince
etc
There are three major approaches to study political thought:-
1. Textual approach represented by Leo Strauss.
2. Contextual approach represented by Quinter Skinner.
3. Interpretative approach represented by Gadamar.
Political thought is considered as the key component of the discipline because it provides
foundation to the subject. It provides basic concepts, terminologies and discourses.
It is said that political Science begins and ends with the state (Garner). Hence the study of
the state, government, constitutions, revolution etc. has been the subject matter of
political thought.
However, the significance of Political thoughts goes beyond the study of state and it is said
that it contains huge insights about ethical conduct as well. This is so because political
science in general and political thought in particular emerged as a branch of philosophy.
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Plato and Aristotle never made the separation between political and ethics. For Socrates
the question of ‘Good life’ and the ‘Good political life’ are intertwined.
However, scholars Machiavelli have made the strict separation between politics and ethics
, thus laying down the school of realism vis a vis idealism of Plato and Aristotle . The rise of
positivism , behaviouralism led to the ethical relativism , considered by David Easton as
one of the cause of the decline of political theory. With the publication of Rawls theory of
justice , Hannah Arendt’s On Human Condition, ethics and moral philosophy has regained
the centrality. Leo Strauss recommended that politics and ethics cannot be separated and
all essential questions of politics are questions of philosophy as well.

To conclude, it would not be wrong if we say that political thought reflect the constant
interplay between politics and ethics.

2. The philosopher king is no addition or insertion , but the logical outcome of insertion of
Plato's principles . (Ernest Barker). Critically examine.

Plato is considered as the ‘Father of political philosophy’. Plato’s most innovative

contribution in the field of Political thought is the institution of the’ philosopher king’.
Plato wrote ,”Until philosophers are the rulers or the rulers learn philosophy , there is no
end to the predicament of human life.”
Plato was troubled with the state of Athens. He diagnosed that the fundamental cause of
the problems of Athens was the “rule of ignorance”.
Plato’s advocacy for the institution of philosopher king is the logical outcome of the
Socratic dictum i.e. Virtue is knowledge. Plato believed that if Athens has to become an
ideal state, it is to be ruled by a philosopher. It is so because only a philosopher king
contemplate the idea of ideal state and can put that idea into practical format.
Though, Karl Popper, in his book ,’Open society and its enemies’ held that Plato wanted
himself to be the Philosopher king. However, we can support Levenson’s view, who wrote
in ‘The defence of Plato’ that we do not have any definite basis to doubt Plato’s
intentions.

Thus, it would not be wrong to say that the institution of philosopher king is not an
addition or insertion but the logical outcome of Plato’s foundational belief about
knowledge as a source of virtue . Hence , if Athens has to become an ideal state , it has to
be ruled by the man of knowledge.
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3. Give reasons for Aristotle’s preference for the mixed constitution .Do you think polity is
the best practicable form of government ? Substantiate your point of view.

Aristotle is known as the ‘Father of political science’ , primarily because of his in depth
study of around 158 constitution.
Aristotle held polity as the best practicable form of government. It represents the principle
of “golden mean” as it avoids extremes of oligarchy and democracy. Polity is the rule of
middle class. For Aristotle stability is a virtue. Polity is stable because both rich and poor
may conspire against each other however both trust the middle class. Polity establishes
the rule of law in a better way because middle class is in habit of respecting the
law.Whereas both rich and poor are prone to disobey the law , former because of
arrogance and latter because of ignorance. Aristotle saw the rule of middle class fulfils the
political ideals of equality and consensus. It smoothens the rough edges of the society as it
would know how to simultaneously command and obey . It would be bulwark against
selfishness , tyranny , unlawfulness and anarchy . In the words of Sibley, “Polity of Aristotle
reflect his practical wisdom, absence of adventurous spirit and is a perfect epitome of
Aristotle’s ethical-political positions .” Sinclair held that “Polity , based on principle of
golden mean is the best way for attainment of goodness.”
Thus, Aristotle is right when he is says that polity is the best practicable form of government.
Suitable for large number of states based on his principle of golden mean .Aristoltle has
rightly concluded that inequalities in the society give rise to unrest and rebellions.Whereas
the presence of large number of people in middle class contributes to the stability. For
example – pervasive inequality was the reason behind French Revolution, Russian
revolution, Chinese revolution. On the other hand in western countries , where mass poverty
has ended, there is stability and there is better governance as middle class is in the position
of governance . Thus, every country should try to minimize the inequality.

4. The real aim of Machiavelli’s searches and his science was the demonstration of precepts
related to political action. Discuss.

“The basic thing about The Prince is that it is not a systematic treatment , but a live work
in which political ideologies and political science is fused in the dramatic form of myth”-
Gramsci.
Machiavelli is one of the most criticized figure in the history of the western political
thought. Dunning held that , it’s a quite a paradox that Machiavelli has been criticized for
telling the truth. He commanded a sinister reputation like inventor of devil .
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The most important contribution of Machiavelli is his book ‘The Prince’. It is not treated as
the work of political philosophy like Plato’s Republic or Aristotle’s Politics. Thus,
Machiavelli does not explore the philosophy i.e. the idea behind state .Rather, like
kautilya’s Arthshastra, Machiavelli’s The Prince is treated as best book ever written in the
field of statecraft. It is so because it is based on Machiavelli’s in depth understanding and
his acute observation about the politics of his times. Some of the advises of Machiavelli to
the prince , on statecraft, includes:

A. Prince should try to find goodness in every profession.

B. Prince should learn, how to be bad, rather than how to be good.
C. Prince should be clever like fox and brave like lion.
D. Prince should not touch the property and women of his citizens.

It is because of such insights that Machiavelli was known as first modern political scientist
. He was an inspiration for the Italian statesmen like Cavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini.

Though Machiavelli’s book is treated as the best book in the field of state craft, yet Sabine
calls Machiavelli , “narrowly dated and narrowly located”. Sabine questions the
universalism and transcendentalism in Machiavelli’s work. However, we cannot doubt that
Machiavelli’s work is important reference point for anybody willing to make his fortune in
politics. Though father of political realism , yet inspite of his candid realism , we find
undertones of idealism as he does explore what ought to be rather than just what is . To
quote Bertrand Russell, “The renaissance , though it produced no important theoretical
philosophers, it produced one man of supreme eminence i.e. Machiavelli ”

5. The greatest liberty of the subject consists in silence of law. (Hobbes). Comment.

“The Leviathan is the greatest perhaps the sole masterpiece of political philosophy written
in English language” Oakeshott

Hobbes belonged to the troubled phase of British history. He witnessed Puritan revolution
of 1641. It was a complete chaos. Thus, he stood for security over liberty . For him ,state is
absolute power and man has liberty only where law is silent. If law exists, man has to act
according to the law. Man is free only to the extent state has permitted him to be free by
not making the law. If state has made law, man has to act according to the law. If man
does not obey the law, state will have right to punish him. In a particular territory, there
cannot be two sovereigns. If a person does not obey the law of the state , it implies that he
want his own law, thus trying to assert his sovereignty. The most important purpose, for
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which state exists is preservation of life. The state which cannot protect life is a failed
state. And in case state itself start taking life of the people arbitrarily , people will have
right to resist the state. Thus, in Hobbes sovereign has the right and the duty to govern
and conduct public policy , protect society , limit freedoms declare war and peace .
Subjects had no appeal against the will of sovereign . He stipulated that to ensure peace
sovereign has ultimate powers and it is only the fear of sovereign that will compel people
to act with restraint .

Thus, Hobbes is not the advocate of liberty. He prefers security over liberty. For him, the
greatest liberty of the subject consists in silence of law.

6. “Men being by nature all free , equal and independent , no one can be put out of his estate
and subjected to the political power of another without his own consent .” (Locke).
Elucidate.

Locke is considered as the ‘Father of liberalism ’. Political liberalism is a theory of limited

state. Rights of the citizens limit powers of state. Locke rejected the theory of absolute
authority of the state.

Unlike Hobbes , in Locke, state has limited power. Unlike Hobbes, where the state of
nature is the state of war because man does not have sufficient reason, the state of nature
in Locke is the state where peace, mutual assistance and goodwill prevail. In the state of
nature, people are enjoying natural rights. They are able to do so because of the presence
of reason. i.e. the natural law .
For Locke, government is not a necessity, it is just a matter of convenience, unlike Hobbes,
who gives absolute powers, Locke gives only limited rights. Power of government is limited
by the natural rights i.e. Right to life, liberty and property. Thus, government cannot take
away these rights. It cannot make any such law which deprive a person from his life,
liberty and property Government has to act according to the will of the people. It means
government is a trust and people are trustees. Government has to act according to the
wishes of trustees.

In case, the government performs against the consent of the people, People will have right
to revolt. In Locke the revolution is peaceful because people are rational and they have
freedom of speech and expression .

Locke emerges as a theorist of consent. Thus he gives the theory of limited state and the
theory of natural rights.
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Unlike Filmer, who interpreted the rights of rulers as a personal gifts from God . Locke held
that, political authority becomes legitimate only when it is based on consent. Ruler is a
trustee rather than the owner. It is because of his view that man has inalienable rights and
authority is based on consent , Locke is rightfully known as the father of liberalism.

7. ‘The prince’ was the first great work which marked a break from the medieval way of
thinking . Discuss.

If ancient Greece is seen as a birth place of rationalism and humanism , the medieval age
in European history is known as dark age due to overarching presence of religion . “The
Prince” was the first book in the discipline of political science which represent a break
from medieval way of thinking . The work clearly separates religion from politics. If
medieval political theory as found in the works of St Augustine, St Thomas Aquinas makes
political science a sub discipline of religion , Machiavelli has established the autonomy of
the discipline of political science making a break from medieval way of political thinking
enmeshed in religion. He clearly held that political actions should be measured by political
morality rather than religious or ethical morality.
The book in itself marks a great paradigm change as it separates church from state; it
separates politics from ethics. Thus Machiavelli became the originator of the western
secularism.
In medieval times , influence of church was all pervasive. It was Machiavelli who made this
separation and ended the confusion of two swords. He established the concept of dual
morality i.e. political actions to be judged on political standards not ethical . It is due to
above reasons that he is treated as the first modern thinker.

8. It is this clear cut individualism which makes Hobbes’s philosophy , the most revolutionary
of the age . (Sabine). Examine

Hobbes is the first thinker to give the complete theory of the sovereignty of the state.
Hobbes calls state as Leviathan, representing that the state has absolute powers. Hence,
Hobbes is seen as the supporter of the absolute state. According to Hobbes , Man has
only two options , either to live under the absolute authority of the state or in the state of
anarchy. He does not give any liberty to the people . To quote Hobbes, liberty is where law
is silent
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However, for Sabine the most revolutionary aspect of Hobbes thinking is his theory of
individualism. Sabine even call Hobbes as ‘greatest of all individualist’. Hobbes is the first
person to remove the sense of guilt from being an individualist . According to Hobbes, man
is individualistic by nature and social only out of necessity. According to Sabine , Hobbes
has advocated an absolute state only to protect the individual. . Hobbes’ absolutism is not
for the sake of absolutism but for the protection of the individual.Hobbes individualism is
evident even when he gives to every individual, right to self-preservation and right to
resist the state if state is takes away the life of man in an arbitrary manner .
Thus, the way Hobbes discusses individualism, Sabine establishes that the most
revolutionary element of Hobbes’s philosophy is his individualism. According to Sheldon
Wolin, individualism and absolutism of Hobbes where the two sides of his theory. Absolute
sovereignty was a natural outcome of riotous anarchy based on absolute individualism .
According to Dunn, Hobbes’s premises are individualistic and liberal , but his conclusions
are absolutists and illiberal. The two themes are interlaced . Absolutism and individualism
compliment each other. His absolutism does not marginalize his individualism . He took
atomistic individuals where instincts and reasons and the contractual agreement between
them to be the model , excluding even the family as a source of morality and sociability. It
is to be noted that Hobbes is both a normative individualist and a methodological
individualist.