UNIT-2

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Topics to be covered-
● Characteristics of motivation, arousal of motives,
● Theories of needs & motivation:
○ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
○ McLelland’s APA theory,
○ Murray’s list of psychogenic needs,
○ Bayton’s classification of motives,
● Self-concept & its importance,
● Types of involvement.
● Personality & Consumer Behaviour:
○ Importance of personality,
○ Theories of personality- Freudian theory, Jungian theory, Neo-Freudian theory,
○ Trait theory: Theory of self- images; Role of self-consciousness.
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Topics to be covered-
● Consumer Perception:
○ Concept of absolute threshold limit, differential threshold limit & subliminal perception:
○ Perceptual Process: selection, organization & interpretation.
● Learning & Consumer Involvement:
○ Importance of learning on consumer behaviour,
○ Learning theories: classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, cognitive learning & involvement theory.
● Consumer Attitudes:
○ Formation of attitudes,
○ Functions performed by attitudes,
○ Models of attitudes: Tri-component model, multiattribute model, attitude towards advertisement model:
attribution theory.

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Motivation and Needs

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Motivation as a Psychological Force
• Motivation: It is the driving force within individuals that impels them to action. It is
defined as a condition that is initiated by a physiological or psychological deficiency or
need in an individual, which causes the individual to behave in a certain manner in
order to achieve a particular goal or incentive.

• Needs: A physiological or psychological imbalance leads to the creation of a need.

They are the essence of the marketing concept. Marketers do not create needs but can
make consumers aware of needs.

• Drive: A physiological condition which causes a person to work in a particular

direction.

• Incentives: Anything that can mitigates a need and decrease the intensity of a drive is
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called an incentive.
Motivation process model

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Types of Needs
● Innate Needs
○ Physiological (or biogenic) needs that are considered primary needs or
motives.
● Acquired Needs
○ Learned in response to our culture or environment. Are generally
psychological and considered secondary needs.

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Types and Systems of Needs
● Henry Murray’s 28 psychogenic needs
● Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
● A trio of needs

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Arousal of Motives

● Physiological arousal
● Emotional arousal
● Cognitive arousal
● Environmental arousal

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Philosophies Concerned with Arousal of Motives
● Behaviorist School
○ Behavior is response to stimulus
○ Elements of conscious thoughts are to be ignored
○ Consumer does not act, but reacts
● Cognitive School
○ Behavior is directed at goal achievement
○ Needs and past experiences are reasoned, categorized, and transformed
into attitudes and beliefs
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Theories of needs & motivation: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

● Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

○ consumers respond to motivation according
to levels of needs in this order:
■ physiological
■ safety/security
■ affiliation
■ Esteem
■ Self actualization
○ if these needs are met, the person may then
be motivated by growth needs SHREYA JHA
Maslow states that people have a hierarchy of motivational needs. Once the needs at a particular level
in the hierarchy of needs are satisfied, the needs at the next level in the hierarchy become motivators
for the individual. The needs are:

● Physiological needs: Primary needs such as basic pay, workspace, water, cafeteria, etc
● Safety needs: Emotional and physical dimensions like job security, life insurance, safety
regulations, etc
● Social needs: Affection or Affiliation (social belongingness) needs such as good coworkers,
peers, superiors, etc
● Esteem needs: Developing and obtaining respect from others such as important projects,
recognition, prestigious office location, etc
● Self actualization needs: Realization of full potential and its fulfillment such as challenging
projects, opportunities for innovation and creativity, training, etc
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Theories of needs & motivation: McLelland’s APA theory

It is a theory that states achievement, power and affiliation are three important needs that help
explain motivation. The needs are:

● Need for achievement: It is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards,
to strive to succeed.
● Need for power: It is the need to make others behave in a way in which they would not
have behaved otherwise.
● Need for affiliation: It is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

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Murray’s list of psychogenic needs
● Theories of personality based on needs and motives suggest that our personalities are a
reflection of behaviors controlled by needs. While some needs are temporary and
changing, other needs are more deeply seated in our nature.

● According to Murray, these psychogenic needs function mostly on the unconscious

level but play a major role in our personality. Murray identified needs as one of two
types:

○ Primary needs: Primary needs are basic needs that are based upon biological
demands, such as the need for oxygen, food, and water.

○ Secondary needs: Secondary needs are generally psychological, such as the need
for nurturing, independence, and achievement. While these needs might not be
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fundamental for basic survival, they JHA for psychological well-being.
are essential
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The following is a partial list of 24 needs identified by Murray and his colleagues. According
to Murray, all people have these needs, but each individual tends to have a certain level of
each need.
● Ambition Needs

○ Achievement: Success, accomplishment, and overcoming obstacles.

○ Exhibition: Shocking or thrilling other people.

○ Recognition: Displaying achievements and gaining social status.

○ Retention: Keeping things.

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● Power Needs
○ Abasement: Confessing and apologizing.
○ Autonomy: Independence and resistance.
○ Aggression: Attacking or ridiculing others.
○ Blame Avoidance: Following the rules and avoiding blame.
○ Deference: Obeying and cooperating with others.
○ Dominance: Controlling others.
● Information Needs
○ Cognizance: Seeking knowledge and asking questions.
○ Exposition: Education others.

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● Materialistic Needs
○ Acquisition: Obtaining things.
○ Construction: Creating things.
○ Order: Making things neat and organized.
● Affection Needs
○ Affiliation: Spending time with other people.
○ Nurturance: Taking care of another person.
○ Play: Having fun with others.
○ Rejection: Rejecting other people.
○ Succorance: Being helped or protected by others.

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Influences on Psychogenic Needs
Each need is important in and of itself, but Murray also believed that needs can be
interrelated, can support other needs, and can conflict with other needs. For example, the
need for dominance may conflict with the need for affiliation when overly controlling
behavior drives away friends, family, and romantic partners. Murray also believed that
environmental factors play a role in how these psychogenic needs are displayed in
behavior. Murray called these environmental forces “presses.”

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Self concept

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Self-concept
● The self-concept summarizes the beliefs a person holds about his own attributes and how he
evaluates the self on these qualities.
● Although your overall self-concept may be positive, there certainly are parts of it you evaluate more
positively than others.
● For example, Lisa feels better about her professional identity than she does about her feminine
identity.
● Attributes of self-concept along such dimensions as
○ content [e.g., facial attractiveness versus mental aptitude),
○ positivity (i.e., self-esteem),
○ intensity and stability over time, and
○ accuracy (i.e., the degree to which one's self-assessment corresponds to reality). SHREYA JHA
Self concept
● Self-esteem refers to the positivity of a person’s self-concept.
● People with low self-esteem expect that they will not perform very well, and they will try to
avoid embarrassment, failure, and rejection.
● Self: It refers to the personality of an individual as viewed by that person himself/herself
● Self Concept: It refers to the efforts made by an individual to understand his/her own self
● Self efficacy: It refers to a person’s perception of his ability to cope with different situations
as they arise. It is measured by:
○ Level: It refers to the number of tasks a person can effectively perform
○ Strength: It refers to how firmly a person believes he/she is capable of performing a task
○ Generality: It refers to the extent to which the self-efficacy expectations of an individual
can be generalized instead of varying from situation to situation
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Self and Self image

● Self-images, or “perceptions of self,” are very closely associated with

personality in that individuals tend to buy products and services and

patronize retailers with images or “personalities” that closely correspond to
their own self-images.
● Such concepts as one or multiple selves, self-image, and the notion of the

extended self is explored by consumer behavior researchers

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The Makeup of the Self-Image

● A person has a self-image of him/herself as a certain kind of person.

○ a) The individual’s self-image is unique, the outgrowth of that person’s

background and

○ experience.

● Products and brands have symbolic value for individuals, who evaluate them on the

basis of their consistency with their personal pictures or images of themselves.

● Products seem to match one or more of individual’s self images; other products seem

totally alien. SHREYA JHA

The Makeup of the Self-Image (Contd.)

● Four aspects of self-image are:

○ Actual self-image—how consumers see themselves.
○ Ideal self-image—how consumers would like to see themselves.
○ Social self-image—how consumers feel others see them.
○ Ideal social self-image—how consumers would like others to see them.
● Some marketers have identified a fifth and sixth self-image.
○ Expected self-image—how consumers expect to see themselves at some specified future time.
○ “Ought-to” self—traits or characteristics that an individual believes it is his or her duty or obligation to
possess.
○ In different contexts consumers might select different self-images to guide behavior.
● The concept of self-image has strategic implications for marketers.
● Marketers can segment their markets on the basis of relevant consumer self-images and then position their products or
stores as symbols for such self-images
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One or Multiple selves

● Historically, individuals were thought to have a single self-image and focused on

products accordingly.
○ Research indicates a consumer is quite likely to be or act differently with
different people and in different situations.
● The idea that an individual embodies a number of different multiple selves
suggest that marketers should target their products and services to consumers
within the context of a particular self.
● The healthy or normal person is likely to display a somewhat different
personality in various situations or social roles.
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Multiple Selves

Marketers pitch products

needed to facilitate active
role identities.

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The looking glass self

● This process of imagining the reactions of others towards us is known as ‘taking

the role of the other’, or the looking-glass self.
● According to this view, our desire to define ourselves operates as a sort of
psychological sonar: we take readings of our own identity by ‘bouncing’ signals
off others and trying to project what impression they have of us.
● The looking-glass image we receive will differ depending upon whose views we
are considering

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Self-consciousness

● There are times when people seem to be painfully aware of themselves. If

you have ever walked into a class in the middle of a lecture and noticed that
all eyes were on you, you can understand this feeling of self-consciousness.
● In contrast, consumers sometimes behave with shockingly little self-

consciousness.
● For example, people may do things in a stadium, a riot or a student party that

they would never do if they were highly conscious of their behaviour.

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Self-consciousness(Contd.)

● Several measures have been devised to measure this tendency. Consumers

who score high on a scale of public self-consciousness, for example, are also
more interested in clothing and are heavier users of cosmetics.
● A similar measure is self-monitoring. High self-monitors are more attuned to

how they present themselves in their social environments, and their product
choices are influenced by their estimates of how these items will be
perceived by others

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Self/Product Congruence

● Consumers demonstrate their values through their purchase behavior

● Self-image congruence models: we choose products when attributes matches the self

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Self/Product Congruence

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The Extended Self

● Consumers’ possessions can be seen to “confirm” or “extend” their self-images. The above suggests that much of human emotion

can be connected to valued possessions.

● Possessions can extend the self in a number of ways:

○ Actually, by allowing the person to do things that otherwise would be very difficult or impossible to accomplish (e.g.,

problem-solving by using a computer).

○ Symbolically, by making the person feel better or “bigger” (e.g., receiving an employee award for excellence).

○ By conferring status or rank (e.g., status among collectors of rare works of art because of the ownership of a particular

masterpiece).

○ By bestowing feelings of immortality, by leaving valued possessions to young family members (this also has the potential

of extending the recipients’ “selves”).

○ By endowing with magical powers (e.g., a cameo pin inherited from one’s aunt might be perceived as a magic amulet

bestowing good luck when it is worn). SHREYA JHA

Altering the Self

● Consumers often wish to change themselves—to become a different or improved

self.
● It seems consumers are trying to express their individualism or uniqueness by
creating and maintaining a new self.
● Clothing, cosmetics, jewelry, grooming aids, and all kinds of accessories offer
consumers the opportunity to modify their appearance and thereby to alter their
selves.
● Personal vanity and self-image are closely related.

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The levels of Extended Self

● Individual: personal possessions (cars, clothing)

● Family: residence and furnishings
● Community: neighborhood or town where you live
● Group: social or other group

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Involvement

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Involvement

● Involvement is "a person's perceived relevance of the object based on their inherent needs,
values, and interests."
● We use the word object in the generic sense to refer to a product (or a brand), an advertisement, or a
purchase situation. Consumers can find involvement in all these objects.
● Involvement reflects our level of motivation to process information.
● To the degree that you feel knowing more about a product will help you to achieve some goal,
you'll be motivated to pay attention to information about it.
● As our involvement with a product increases, we devote more attention to ads related to the
product, we exert more cognitive effort to understand these ads, and we focus more attention on the
product-related information in the ads. SHREYA JHA
Factors
creating
Involvement

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Types of involvement

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Types of involvement (Contd.)
● Product involvement is a consumer’s level of interest in a particular product. As a
rule, product decisions are likely to be highly involving if the consumer believes there
is perceived risk.
● Message involvement refers to the influence media vehicles have on the consumers.
Print is a high-involvement medium while television tends to be considered a low-
involvement medium.
● Situational involvement takes place with a store, website, or a location where people
consume a product or service. One way to increase this kind of involvement is to
personalize the messages shoppers receive at the time of purchase
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Five types of Perceive Risk

1. Monetary risk
2. Functional risk
3. Physical risk
4. Social risk
5. Psychological risk

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Personality & Consumer Behaviour

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Personality
● A consumer’s personality influences the way he responds to marketing
stimuli, but efforts to use this information in marketing contexts meet with
mixed results.
● Personality can be defined as the sum total of ways in which an individual
interacts with people and reacts to situations.
● Personality can also be defined as the traits exhibited by a person during
these interactions.

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Personality

● Personality is defined as those inner psychological characteristics that both

determine and reflect how a person responds to his or her environment.

● The emphasis in this definition is on inner characteristics—those specific
qualities, attributes, traits, factors, and mannerisms that distinguish one
individual from other individuals.
● The identification of specific personality characteristics associated with

consumer behavior has proven to be highly useful in the development of a

firm’s market segmentation strategies.
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Theories of personality- Freudian theory

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Theories of personality- Freudian theory (Contd.)
Sigmund Freud developed the idea that much of one’s adult personality stems from a fundamental conflict between a
person’s desire to gratify his or her physical needs and the necessity to function as a responsible member of society.

● The id is oriented toward immediate gratification and. It operates on the pleasure principle (behavior guided
by the primary desire to maximize pleasure and avoid pain). The id is selfish and acts without regard to
consequences.
● The superego is the counterweight to the id or one’s conscience. It internalizes society’s rules and it works to
prevent the id from seeking selfish gratification.
● The ego is the system that mediates between the id and the superego. The ego tries to balance these two
opposing forces according to the reality principle, whereby it finds ways to gratify the id that will be
acceptable to the outside world. Much of this battle occurs in the unconscious mind.
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Theories of personality- Freudian theory (Contd.)
● The Id is the “warehouse” of primitive and impulsive drives, such as: thirst, hunger, and sex, for which the

individual seeks immediate satisfaction without concern for the specific means of that satisfaction.

● Superego is the individual’s internal expression of society’s moral and ethical codes of conduct.

○ a) The superego’s role is to see that the individual satisfies needs in a socially acceptable fashion.

○ b) The superego is a kind of “brake” that restrains or inhibits the impulsive forces of the id.

● Ego is the individual’s conscious control which functions as an internal monitor that attempts to balance the

impulsive demands of the id and the sociocultural constraints of the superego.

Freud emphasized that an individual’s personality is formed as he or she passes through a number of distinct stages

of infant and childhood development. These distinct stages of infant and childhood development are: oral, anal,

phallic, latent, and genital stages. An adult’s personality is determined by how well he or she deals with the crises

that are experienced while passing through each of these stages. SHREYA JHA
Freudian Theory and Product Personality

● Those stressing Freud’s theories see that human drives are

largely unconscious, and that consumers are primarily unaware
of their true reasons for buying what they buy.
● These researchers focus on consumer purchases and/or
consumption situations, treating them as an extension of the
consumer’s personality.

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Theories of personality- Non-Freudian Theories

● Karen Horney
○ Compliant versus detached versus aggressive
● Alfred Adler
○ Motivation to overcome inferiority
● Harry Stack Sullivan
○ Personality evolves to reduce anxiety
● Carl Jung
○ Developed analytical psychology

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Theories of personality- Non-Freudian Theories (Contd.)

● Several of Freud’s colleagues disagreed with his contention that personality is

primarily instinctual and sexual in nature.
○ They argued that social relations are fundamental to personality development.
● Alfred Adler viewed human beings as seeking to attain various rational goals, which
he called style of life, placing emphasis on the individual’s efforts to overcome
feelings of inferiority.
● Harry Stack Sullivan stressed that people continuously attempt to establish significant
and rewarding relationships with others, placing emphasis on efforts to reduce
tensions. SHREYA JHA
Theories of personality- Non-Freudian Theories (Contd.)
● Karen Horney focused on the impact of child-parent relationships, especially the

individual’s desire to conquer feelings of anxiety. She proposed three personality

groups: compliant, aggressive, and detached.

○ Compliant individuals are those who move toward others—they desire to be

loved, wanted, and appreciated.

○ Aggressive individuals move against others—they desire to excel and win

admiration.

○ Detached individuals move away from others—they desire independence, self-

sufficiency, and freedom from obligations. SHREYA JHA

The 10 needs as set out by Horney

● Moving Toward People

○ The need for affection and approval; pleasing others and being liked by them.
○ The need for a partner; one whom they can love and who will solve all problems.
● Moving Against People
○ The need for power; the ability to bend wills and achieve control over others— while most persons seek
strength, the neurotic may be desperate for it.
○ The need to exploit others; to get the better of them. To become manipulative, fostering the belief that
people are there simply to be used.
○ The need for social recognition; prestige and limelight.
○ The need for personal admiration; for both inner and outer qualities—to be valued.
○ The need for personal achievement; though virtually all persons wish to make achievements, as with
No. 3, the neurotic may be desperate for achievement SHREYA JHA
● Moving Away from People
○ The need for self sufficiency and independence; while most desire some autonomy, the neurotic may
simply wish to discard other individuals entirely.
○ The need for perfection; while many are driven to perfect their lives in the form of well being, the
neurotic may display a fear of being slightly flawed.
○ Lastly, the need to restrict life practices to within narrow borders; to live as inconspicuous a life as
possible

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Theories of personality- Jungian theory

● Disciple of Freud
● Established concept of collective unconscious
● Explained the creation of archetypes
○ Old wise man
○ Earth mother
● Young & Rubicam uses the concept of archetypes in its Brand Asset Archetypes
mode

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Theories of Personality-Trait Theory

● Trait theory focuses on the quantitative measurement of personality traits. Personality

traits are the identifiable characteristics that define a person.
● For instance, we might say that someone is an introvert or an extrovert. Some of the most
relevant traits for consumer behavior are listed.
● Innovativeness is the degree to which a person likes to try new things.
● Materialism is the amount of emphasis a person places on acquiring and owning products.
● Self-consciousness is the degree to which a person deliberately monitors and controls the
image of the self that he or she projects to others

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Theories of Personality-Trait Theory (Contd.)

● Trait theory is a significant departure from the earlier qualitative measures that are typical of
Freudian and neo-Freudian theory.
● It is primarily quantitative or empirical, focusing on the measurement of personality in terms of
specific psychological characteristics called traits.
○ A trait is defined as any distinguishing, relatively enduring way in which one individual
differs from another.
● Selected single-trait personality tests increasingly are being developed specifically for use in
consumer behavior studies.

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Theories of Personality-Trait Theory (Contd.)

● Types of traits measured include:

○ Consumer innovativeness—how receptive a person is to new experiences.
○ Consumer materialism—the degree of the consumer’s attachment to “worldly
possessions.”
○ Consumer ethnocentrism—the consumer’s likelihood to accept or reject foreign-made
products.
● Researchers have learned to expect personality to be linked to how consumers make their
choices, and to the purchase or consumption of a broad product category rather than a specific
brand.

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Theories of Personality-Trait Theory (Contd.)

● The need for cognition is the degree to which a person likes to think about
things and by extension, expends the necessary effort to process brand
information.
● Frugality is the tendency to deny short-term purchases and to make due with
what they already own.
The use of standard personality trait measurements to predict product choices has
met with mixed success. It is simply hard to predict consumer behavior based on
personality.

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Theories of Personality-Trait
Theory (Contd.)

The most widely recognized

approach to measuring
personality traits is the Big Five
(also known as the Neo-
Personality Inventory).

This is a set of five dimensions

that form the basis of
personality:

● openness to experience,
● conscientiousness, extroversion,
● agreeableness,and
● neuroticism.
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Consumer Perception

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Perception

● Perception is a three stage process that translates raw stimuli into meaning.
● Sensation is the immediate response of our sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose,
mouth, and fingers) to basic stimuli (light, color, sound, odor, and texture).
● Perception is the process by which sensations are selected, organized, and
interpreted.
● The design of a product affects our perception of it.

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Perceptual Process

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Key concepts in Exposure

● Sensory threshold
● Psychophysics
● Absolute threshold
● Differential threshold
● JND

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Sensory Thresholds

● Psychophysics is the science that focuses on how the physical environment is

integrated into our personal, subjective world.

● The absolute threshold refers to the minimum amount of stimulation a person
can detect on any given sensory channel.
● The differential threshold refers to the ability of a sensory system to detect

changes in or differences between two stimuli.

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Sensory Thresholds(Contd.)
● The absolute threshold means that the stimulation used by marketers must be sufficient to
register. For instance, a highway billboard might have the most entertaining copy ever
written, but this genius is wasted if the print is too small for passing motorists to see it. The
differential threshold refers to the ability of a sensory system to detect changes in or
differences between two stimuli. The minimum difference we can detect between two
stimuli is the j.n.d. (just noticeable difference). Sometimes a marketer may want to ensure
that consumers notice a change, as when a retailer offers merchandise at a discount. In
other situations, the marketer may want to downplay the fact that it has made a change,
such as when a store raises a price or a manufacturer reduces the size of a package.
● A consumer’s ability to detect a difference between two stimuli is relative. A
psychophysicist named Ernst Weber found that the amount of change required for the
perceiver to notice a change systematically relates to the intensity of the original stimulus.
The stronger the initial stimulus, the greater a change must be for us to notice it. This
relationship is known as Weber’s Law.
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The Pepsi Logo Evolves

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Attention

● Attention is the extent to which processing activity is devoted to a particular stimulus.

● Consumers experience sensory overload.
● Marketers need to break through the clutter.

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How do marketers get attention?
● Personal Selection
○ Experience
○ Perceptual filters
○ Perceptual vigilance
○ Perceptual defense
○ Adaptation
● Stimulus Selection
○ Contrast
○ Size
○ Color
○ Position
○ Novelty
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Perceptual Selection
● Perceptual vigilance-consumers are more likely to be aware of stimuli that relate to
their current needs.
● Perceptual defense-people see what they want to see and vice versa.
● Adaptation-the degree to which consumers notice a stimulus over time.

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Factors leading to Adaptation
Several factors can lead to adaptation:

● Intensity-Less-intense stimuli (e.g., soft sounds or dim colors) habituate because they
have less sensory impact.
● Duration-Stimuli that require relatively lengthy exposure in order to be processed
habituate because they require a long attention span.
● Discrimination-Simple stimuli habituate because they do not require attention to detail.
● Exposure-Frequently encountered stimuli habituate as the rate of exposure increases.
● Relevance-Stimuli that are irrelevant or unimportant habituate because they fail to attract
attention.
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Stimulus Organization

● Gestalt: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

○ Closure: people perceive an incomplete picture as complete
○ Similarity: consumers group together objects that share similar physical
characteristics
○ Figure-ground: one part of the stimulus will dominate (the figure) while the
other parts recede into the background (ground)

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Interpretation
● Interpretation refers to the meaning we assign to sensory stimuli, which is based on a
schema

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Subliminal Techniques
● Embeds: figures that are inserted into magazine advertising by using high-speed
photography or airbrushing.
● Subliminal auditory perception: sounds, music, or voice text inserted into
advertising.

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The field of semiotics helps us to understand how marketers use symbols to create
meaning

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Examples of Brand Positioning

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Learning & Consumer Involvement

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Importance of Learning on Consumer Behavior

● Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience.

● The learner need not have the experience directly; we can also learn when we observe events that affect
others.
● We learn even when we don't try: We recognize many brand names and many product jingles, for example,
even for products we don't personally use. We call this casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge
incidental learning.
● Learning is an ongoing process. Our knowledge about the world constantly updates as we are exposed to new
stimuli and as we receive ongoing feedback that allows us to modify our behavior when we find ourselves in
similar situations at a later time.
● The concept of learning covers a lot of ground, ranging from a consumer's simple association between a
stimulus such as a product logo (e.g., Coca-Cola) and a response (e.g., "refreshing soft drink") to a complex
series of cognitive activities (e.g., writing an essay on learning for a consumer behavior exam). SHREYA JHA
Learning theories
● Psychologists who study learning advance several theories to explain the learning process.
● These theories range from those that focus on simple stimulus-response connections
(behavioral theories) to perspectives that regard consumers as solvers of complex problems
who learn abstract rules and concepts when they observe what others say and do (cognitive
theories).
● It's important for marketers to understand these theories as well, because basic learning
principles are at the heart of many consumer purchase decisions.
● Behavioral learning theories focus on stimulus-response connections.
● Cognitive theories focus on consumers as problem solvers who learn when they observe
relationships.
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Learning Theories- Classical conditioning

● Classical conditioning: a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that
initially does not elicit a response on its own.
● Components of Conditioning
○ Unconditioned stimulus
○ Conditioned stimulus
○ Conditioned response
● Conditioning Issues
○ Repetition
○ Stimulus generalization
○ Stimulus discrimination SHREYA JHA
SHREYA JHA
Classical Conditioning

● He paired a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs. The
powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was naturally capable of causing the
response. Over time, the bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS). The bell did not initially cause
salivation but the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the
sound of the bell only. The drooling of these canine consumers because of a sound was a conditioned
response (CR).
● Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned (CS) and unconditioned (UCS)
stimuli have been paired a number of times. This effect is known as repetition. Stimuli similar to a CS
may evoke similar responses. This is known as stimulus generalization. Conditions may also weaken
over time especially when a UCS does not follow a stimulus similar to a CS. This is called stimulus.
SHREYA JHA
Instrumental conditioning/ Operant Conditioning

● Instrumental conditioning (also, operant conditioning): the individual learns to perform

behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes.
● Instrumental conditioning occurs when we learn to perform behaviors that produce
positive outcomes and avoid those that yield negative outcomes.
● How Does Instrumental Conditioning Occur?
○ Positive Reinforcement
○ Negative Reinforcement
○ Punishment

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How Does Instrumental Conditioning Occur?
Instrumental conditioning occurs in one of three ways:

1. When the environment provides positive reinforcement in the form of a reward, this strengthens the response
and we learn the appropriate behavior. For example, a woman who gets compliments after wearing Obsession
perfume learns that using this product has the desired effect, and she will be more likely to keep buying the
product.
2. Negative reinforcement also strengthens responses so that we learn the appropriate behavior. A perfume
company might run an ad showing a woman sitting home alone on a Saturday night because she did not wear
its fragrance. The message this conveys is that she could have avoided this negative outcome if only she had
used the perfume.
3. In contrast to situations where we learn to do certain things in order to avoid unpleasantness, punishment
occurs when unpleasant events follow a response (such as when our friends ridicule us if we wear a nasty-
smelling perfume). We learn the hard way not to repeat these behaviors. SHREYA JHA
Types of Reinforcement
● Law of Effect states that responses followed by pleasant consequences are more likely to
be repeated, while responses followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be
repeated
● Reinforcement refers to a stimulus which strengthens the probability of a particular
response being repeated
● Positive Reinforcement increases the chances that a particular behavior would be
repeated because it results in a desirable consequence
● Negative Reinforcement makes an individual repeat a behavior not because he/she
wants to but because he/she wants to avoid negative consequence
● Punishment can be defined as an action that weakens a particular behavior and
reduces its frequency SHREYA JHA
Types of Reinforcement

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Reinforcement Schedules

It’s important for marketers to determine the most effective reinforcement schedule to use because this decision relates to
the amount of effort and resources they must devote when they reward consumers who respond as they hope to their
requests. Several schedules are possible:

● Fixed-interval reinforcement- After a specified time period has passed, the first response you make brings the
reward. Under such conditions, people tend to respond slowly right after they get reinforced, but their responses get
faster as the time for the next reinforcement approaches. For example, consumers may crowd into a store for the last
day of its seasonal sale and not reappear until the next one.
● Variable-interval reinforcement- The time that must pass before you get reinforced varies based on some average.
Because you don't know exactly when to expect the reinforcement, you have to respond at a consistent rate. This is
the logic behind retailers' use of so-called secret shoppers: people who periodically test for service quality when they
pose as customers at unannounced times. Because store employees never know exactly when to expect a visit, they
must maintain high quality constantly "just in case." SHREYA JHA
Reinforcement Schedules (Contd.)

● Fixed-ratio reinforcement- Reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses. This
schedule motivates you to continue performing the same behavior over and over. For example,
you might keep buying groceries at the same store in order to earn a prize when you collect 50
register receipts.
● Variable-ratio reinforcement- You get reinforced after a certain number of responses, but you
don't know how many responses are required. People in such situations tend to respond at very
high and steady rates, and this type of behavior is very difficult to extinguish. This
reinforcement schedule is responsible for consumers' attractions to slot machines. They learn
that if they keep throwing money into the machine, they will eventually win something (if they
don't go broke first). SHREYA JHA
Cognitive Learning Theory

● Cognitive learning consists of a relationship between cognitive

environmental cues and expectation.
● Learning is a developing pattern of behavior from bits of knowledge about
and the cognition of the environment.
● Learning of association between the cue and expectation is termed as S-S
learning.
● First, there is a stimulus and then, there is a stimulus again (S-S).

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Consumer Attitudes

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Attitude

● Attitude: a lasting, general evaluation of people, objects, advertisements, or issues

● Attitude object (AO): anything toward which one has an attitude.
● There are several different components that make up attitudes.
● The components of attitudes are sometimes referred to as CAB or the ABC’s of attitude.
○ Cognitive component- your thoughts and beliefs about the subject.
○ Affective components- how the subject, person, issue, or event makes you feel
○ Behavioral component- how the attitude influences your behavior.
● Attitudes can also be implicit and explicit.
○ Explicit attitudes- those we are consciously aware of and that clearly influence our
behaviours and beliefs.
○ Implicit attitudes- are unconscious but still have an effect on our beliefs and behaviours.
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Formation of attitude (Contd.)
● Experience- attitudes form directly as a result of experience. They may emerge due to direct personal
experience or they may result from observation.
● Social Factors- social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles
relate to how people are expected to behave in particular role or context. Social norms involve
society’s rules for what behaviors are considered appropriate.
● Learning- attitudes can be learned in a variety of ways.
○ Classical conditioning- Classical conditioning is defined as a process in which a formerly
neutral stimulus, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus
that elicits a conditioned response. First, there is a stimulus and then, there is a response (S-R).
○ Operant conditioning- Consequences determine the behavior that results in learning. Behavior
is repeated depending on the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about as a
consequence of a particular behavior. First, there is a response and then, there is a stimulus (R-S)
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Attitude Commitment

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Functional Theories of Attitude

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● Utilitarian function- We develop attitudes on things if they are pleasurable or
painful. Example: chocolate tastes good;I like it.
● Value-expressive function- A person forms a product attitude not because of its
objective benefits, but what it says about him. Example: he drives a Mercedes, what
does that say about him?
● Ego Defensive function- Attitudes formed to protect consumers from
external/internal threat insecurities: example: deodorants.
● Knowledge function- Attitude because of need for order, structure or meaning-need
is presents when person in ambiguous situation or with a new product.
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Attitudes are more complex than they first appear

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Models of Attitude- Tri-component model

According to the tricomponent attitude model, attitudes consist of three major components: cognition,
affect, and conation.

● The Cognitive Component- Cognitions are knowledge and perceptions that are acquired by a
combination of direct experience with the attitude object and related information from various
sources.
● This previous knowledge and perceptions commonly take the form of beliefs.
● The consumer believes that the attitude object possesses various attributes and that
specific behavior will lead to specific outcomes.

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● The Affective Component
○ The affective component of an attitude consists of the consumer’s emotions or feelings.
■ Researchers frequently treat these emotions and feelings as evaluative in nature.
○ Affect-laden experiences manifest themselves as emotionally charged states (such as happiness or sadness).
■ These states may enhance positive or negative experiences for the consumer.
■ Later recollections of such experiences may impact what comes to mind and how the individual acts.
○ Recent research suggests that “positive and negative forms of affect operate differently and that their direct
and indirect effects on attitudes are influenced by brand familiarity.”
○ In addition to using direct or global evaluative measure of an attitude object, consumer researchers can also
use a battery of affective response scales to construct a picture of consumers’ overall feelings about a product,
service, or ad.
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● The Conative Component
○ Conation, the final component of the tricomponent attitude model, is concerned with the likelihood or
tendency that an individual will undertake a specific action or behave in a particular way with regard to
the attitude object.
■ The conative component may include the actual behavior itself.
○ In marketing and consumer research, the conative component is frequently treated as an expression of
the consumer’s intention to buy.
■ Intention-to-buy scales are used to assess the likelihood of a consumer purchasing a product or
behaving in a certain way.

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Models of Attitude- Multi-attribute Model
● Multiattribute attitude models portray consumers’ attitudes with regard to an attitude object as a function of
consumers’ perception and assessment of the key attributes or beliefs held with regard to the particular
attitude object.
● There are many variations of the attitude model, three to consider are: attitude-toward object model,
attitude-toward-behavior model, and the theory-of-reasoned-action model.
● The attitude-toward-object model is especially suited for measuring attitudes toward a product category or
specific brands.
● According to the attitude-toward-object model, the consumer’s attitude toward a product or specific
brands of a product is a function of the presence (or absence) and evaluation of certain product-specific
beliefs and/or attributes.
● Consumers generally have a favorable attitude toward those brands they believe have an adequate level of
attributes that they evaluate as positive, and they have unfavorable attitudes toward those brands they feel
do not have an adequate level of desired attributes or have too many negative or undesired attributes.
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Models of Attitude- attitude toward advertisement model: attribution
theory
● As the attitude-toward-the-ad model depicts, the consumer forms various feelings
(affects) and judgments (cognitions) as the result of exposure to an ad.
● These feelings and judgments in turn affect the consumer’s attitude toward the ad and
beliefs about the brand acquired from exposure to the ad.
● Finally, the consumer’s attitude toward the ad and beliefs about the brand influence
his or her attitude toward the brand.
● Consumer socialization has also shown itself to be an important determinant of a
consumer’s attitudes toward advertising.

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● Attribution theory attempts to explain how people assign causality to events on the basis of either their own
behavior or the behavior of others.
● Self-perception theory addresses individuals’ inferences or judgments as to the cause of their own behavior.
○ In terms of consumer behavior, self-perception theory suggests that attitudes develop as consumers look at
and make judgments about their own behavior.
○ Internal and external attributions—attitudes develop as consumers look at and make judgments about their
own behavior. These judgments can be divided into internal, external, and defensive attributions.
■ Internal attribution—giving yourself credit for the outcomes—your ability, your skill, or your effort.
■ External attribution—the purchase was good because of factors beyond your control—luck, etc.
○ Defensive attribution—consumers are likely to accept credit personally for success, and to credit failure to
others or to outside events.
■ For this reason, it is crucial that marketers offer uniformly high-quality products that allow consumers
to perceive themselves as the reason for the success; that is, “I am competent.”
SHREYA JHA
Thank You

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