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6 Cell Division

Why do cells divide?

 Remember that large cells have a reduced SA:VOL ratio and are therefore much less efficient
than smaller cells.
o If an organism is to grow larger, it needs to produce more cells - and each of those cells
needs a copy of the organism's DNA.
 Cell division allows for growth of the organism by producing more copies of cells
o allows for more cell differentiation to occur.
 Mitosis is happening most frequently in developing embryos.
 New cells are also needed on a regular basis to replace dead, damaged or infected cells.
any time new cells are required, mitosis is required
 Growth: Multicellular organisms increase their size by increasing their number of cells by
mitosis
 Asexual reproduction: Certain eukaryotic organisms may reproduce asexually by mitosis (e.g.
vegetative reproduction)
 Tissue Repair: Damaged tissue can recover by replacing dead or damaged cells
 Embryonic development: A fertilized egg (zygote) will undergo mitosis and differentiation in
order to develop into an embryo

Cell cycle: describes the behavior of cells as they grow and divide.
 series of events through which cells pass to divide and create two identical daughter cells.

Involves 3 main stages:

1. Interphase: active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring in the nucleus and
cytoplasm.
 the longest phase of the cell cycle  Cells spend most of their time here
 consists of the parts of the cell cycle that don’t involve cell division.

Processes include:
1. DNA replication in the nucleus
2. Metabolic reactions
3. protein synthesis in the cytoplasm (DNA transcription/translation)
4. organelles number increases e.g mitochondria and/or chloroplast
5. cell growth

It is divided into 3 phases; G1, S and G2:

 G1 – the cell grows larger – Protein synthesis – Mitochondria & Chloroplast replication & increase.
 S (synthesis) – DNA is replicated.
 G2 – cell grows and prepare for mitosis
o cells can also be said to be in G0 (Gap 0). This is a ‘resting’ phase where the cell has left the
cycle and has stopped dividing. Cells in G0 still carry out all their normal functions.

1. Mitosis: The division of the nucleus to form two genetically identical daughter nuclei.
 It is divided into: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

2. Cytokinesis is the last stage during which the cytoplasm divides to create two daughter cells – occurs
simultaneously with telophase.

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 Supercoiling of chromosomes
 Chromosomes condense by a process called supercoiling
 The two copies of each chromosome are held together by a protein structure called a centromere.
 Each chromosome in this state is represented by a pair of sister chromatids.
 Sister chromatids are two identical DNA molecules held together by centromere.
 Strain is placed on a DNA helix by overwinding or underwinding of the helix
 This causes the DNA molecule to coil back on itself becoming shorter and wider
o in eukaryotes proteins called histones aid the process
 Human cells are on average 10μm in diameter and the nucleus is less than 5 μm in diameter.
 Human chromosomes are 15mm to 85mm (15,000μm to 85,000 μm) in length.
 Chromosomes need to be stored compactly to fit within the nuclei of cells.
 during mitosis chromosomes need to be short and compact enough that they can be separated and
moved to each end of the cell.

Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei

Phases of mitosis PMAT

1. Prophase  DNA supercoils, chromatin condenses and becomes sister chromatids, which
are visible under a light microscope
 The centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell and spindle fibers begin to
form between them
 The nuclear membrane is broken down and disappears
2. Metaphase  The sister chromatids move to the middle and line up separately.
 The spindle microtubules from each pole attach to each centromere on opposite
sides.
 The spindle microtubules are fully developed
3. Anaphase  the spindle microtubules contract to pull the sister chromatids apart, splitting
the centromeres.
 This splits the sister chromatids into chromosomes.
 Each identical chromosome is pulled to opposite poles.

4. Telophase  The chromosomes uncoil & de-condense to chromatin (and are no longer visible
under a light microscope).
 Chromosomes arrive at the poles and microtubule spindle fibers disappear
 New nuclear membranes reform around each set of chromosomes
 The cell then divides by cytokinesis to form two daughter cells with identical
genetic nuclei.

Identification of phases of mitosis in cells viewed with a microscope or in a micrograph.

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 Cytokinesis: Occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and animal cells.

Plant cell Animal cell

Mitosis No centrioles Centrioles are present
Cytokinesis The cell wall forms a plate between the The cell is pinched in two forming a
dividing cells. cleavage furrow.

Animal cells Plant cells

 A ring of contractile protein
(microfilaments) inside the
plasma membrane at the
equator pulls the plasma
membrane inward.
 The inward pull on the
plasma membrane produces
the characteristic cleavage
furrow.
 When the cleavage furrow
reaches the centre of the
cells it is pinches apart to
form two daughter cells.
 During telophase, membrane-enclosed vesicles derived from the Golgi
apparatus migrate to the centre of the cell.
 Vesicles fuse to form tubular structures.
 The tubular structures merge (with the addition of more vesicles) to form
two layers of plasma membrane (i.e. the cell plate)
 The cell plate continues to develop until it connects with the existing cell’s
plasma membrane.
 This completes the division of the cytoplasm and the formation of two
daughter cells.
 Vesicles deposit by exocytosis
 pectin and other substances in the lumen between the daughter cells to
form the middle lamella (‘gluing’ the cells together)
 Both daughter cell secrete cellulose to form their new adjoining cell walls.

The Mitotic index: the ratio between the number of cells in mitosis and the total number of cells

Mitotic index = number of cells in mitosis (Count all the cells (even faded ones, the ones in the corner))
Total number of cells
The mitotic index is an important prognostic tool for predicting the response of cancer cells to
chemotherapy (when cells divide rapidly  it causes cancer). High mitotic index means cancer is
forming
• The mitotic index may be elevated during processes that promote division, such as normal
growth or cellular repair

Identifying Mitotic Cells

• Cells undergoing mitosis will lack a clearly defined nucleus and possess condensed chromosomes
• Prophase – Chromosomes condensed but still confined to a nuclear region
• Metaphase – Chromosomes aligned along the equator of the cell
• Anaphase – Two distinct clusters of chromosomes apparent at poles of the cell
• Telophase – Two nuclear regions present within a single cell

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 interphase 

prophase   metaphase   anaphase       telophase

Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle.

Cyclins:
 a group of proteins that ensure that the tasks of every phase of the cell cycle are performed at the
correct time so that the cell can move on to the next stage

1. Cells cannot progress to the next stage of the cell cycle unless the specific cyclin reaches it threshold.
2. Cyclins bind to enzymes called cyclin-dependent kinases
3. These kinases then become active and attach phosphate groups to other proteins in the cell.
4. The attachment of phosphate triggers the other proteins to become active and carry out tasks
(specific to one of the phases of the cell cycle).

Progression through parts of the cell cycle are affected in various ways by specific cyclins :
 Cyclin D – triggers cells to move from G0 to G1, and from G1 to S phase
 Cyclin E – prepares the cell for DNA replication in S phase
 Cyclin A – activates DNA replication inside the nucleus in S phase
 Cyclin B – promotes the assembly of the mitotic spindle and other
tasks in the cytoplasm to prepare for mitosis.

Tumor formation and cancer

When cells have an uncontrolled mutation/growth  it causes

cancer
Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the development of primary and secondary
tumors.
Tumors are cell mass from uncontrolled cell division that can occur in any organ or tissue.

Could be of two types:

1. Primary tumors: when cells adhere to each other and don’t invade nearby tissue. These tumors are
unlikely to cause any harm and are classified as benign.

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2. Secondary tumors: when tumor cells become detached, move elsewhere in the body (metastasis)
and develop into secondary tumours. These tumors are very likely life-threatening and are classified
as malignant, known as cancer.
- Angiogenesis: tumor recruits blood vessels and grows larger
- Metastasis: the movement of cells from a primary tumor to set up secondary tumors in other
parts of the body. (stage 4 cancer)
- Mutagen: an agent that changes the genetic material of an organism that causes mutations
- Mutagens that lead to the formation of cancer are further classified as carcinogens
- Carcinogens may include:
 Mutagens, Some viruses, High energy radiation (X-rays and short-wave ultraviolet light).

Mutations: random changes to the base sequence of genes, which can cause cancer.
 agents that cause gene mutations.
 Not all mutations result in cancers but has the potential to cause a cancer. 
 Several mutations must occur in the same cell for it to become a tumour causing cell.
o The probability of this happening in a single cell is extremely small
 The few genes that cause cancer after mutating are known as oncogenes.
 In a normal cell, oncogenes are involved in the control of the cell cycle and cell division.

How tumors form from an oncogene:

1. mutation in a oncogene
2. malfunction in the control of the cell cycle
3. uncontrolled cell division
4. tumor formation

Factors (other than exposure to mutagens) that increase the probability of tumour development include:  
• The vast number of cells in a human body – the greater the number of cells the greater the
chance of a mutation.
• The longer a life span the greater the chance of a mutation.

how a primary tumour can become a secondary tumour:

1. A primary tumor is a malignant tumor growing at the site where the
abnormal growth first occurred.
2. Cancerous cells can detach from the primary tumour.
3. Some cancerous cells gain the ability to penetrate the walls of lymph or
blood vessels and hence circulate around the body
4. The circulating cancerous cells invade tissues at a different location and
develop, by uncontrolled cell division, into a secondary tumor.

The correlation between smoking and incidence of cancers.

 There is a strong positive correlation/ directly proportional between

cigarette smoking the death rate due to cancer (incidence of cancers).
 Surveys have shown that the more cigarettes that one smokes per day,
the higher the death rate due to cancer.
 The main cancers involved are cancer of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, esophagus and lungs