Polynomial and Rational Functions

MATH PREP 2022 - Track B Module 3

1 Polynomial Functions
Definition 1.1. A polynomial function is a function of the form
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + · · · + a1 x + a0
where n is a nonnegative integer and a0 , a1 , ..., an are real numbers called its coefficients. If an 6= 0,
it is called the leading coefficient and n is called the degree of the polynomial function and.
If all the coefficients are 0, the polynomial function is called the zero polynomial function, which
has no degree.
Illustration 1.2. ˆ f (x) = 7 − 4x5 is a polynomial function with leading coefficient −4.
√
ˆ g(x) = x − 7 is not a polynomial function since the variable x is raised to 1/2, which is not
an integer.
ˆ G(x) = x1 − 3x2 is not a polynomial function since the variable x is raised to −1 which is a
negative integer.
Graphs of polynomial functions are unbroken and continuous curves. The resulting graph
depends on the degree of the polynomial, and often, on its leading coefficient as well.
ˆ For the case when the degree n = 1, we obtain the linear function f (x) = a1 x + a0 whose
graph is a line.
ˆ When n = 2, we obtain the quadratic function f (x) = a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 whose graph is a
parabola.
ˆ When n ≥ 3, the behavior of the graph of f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 as
x becomes very large (and positive), or very large but negative, would be determined by
the leading term an xn . The following table summarizes the properties of the graph of f (x),
depending on whether n is odd or even, and whether the leading coefficient an is positive or
negative.

an n Properties of the Graph

Positive Even Comes down from the left, goes up to the right
Positive Odd Comes up from the left, goes up to the right
Negative Even Comes up from the left, goes down to the right
Negative Odd Comes down from the left, goes down to the right

The following are possible graphs for each of the four cases in the table above.

an > 0, n even an > 0, n odd an < 0, n even an < 0, n odd

 Some useful tools to find the zeros of a polynomial are the remainder and factor theorems, as
well as synthetic division, which we now briefly summarize.

Theorem 1.3. (The Remainder Theorem) Let P be a polynomial function. If P (x) is divided by
x − r, then the remainder is given by P (r).

Theorem 1.4. (The Factor Theorem) Let P be a polynomial function. Then x − r is a factor of
P (x) if and only if P (r) = 0.

Illustration 1.5. Let P (x) = 4x3 + 9x2 − 8x + 3. By the remainder theorem, when P (x) is divided
by x − 1, the remainder is 8 since

P (1) = 4(1)3 + 9(1)2 − 8(1) + 3 = 8.

Furthermore, by the factor theorem, x + 3 or x − (−3) is a factor of P (x) since

P (−3) = 4(−3)3 + 9(−3)2 − 8(−3) + 3 = 0.

Illustration 1.6. To find the remainder when P (x) = 6x3 − 3x2 + 5x − 8 is divided by 3x − 1, we
note that 3x − 1 = 3(x − 31 ). We can then use the remainder theorem with r = 13 and obtain as
remainder    3  2  
1 1 1 1 58
P =6 −3 +5 −8=−
3 3 3 3 9
Note that the additional factor of 3 in front of the divisor only affects the quotient, but not the
remainder of the division.

Applying the remainder and the factor theorems involve the division of a polynomial function
by linear expressions of the form x − r. To find the quotient as well as the remainder when a
polynomial function P is divided by x − r, a shortened version of long division, called synthetic
division, makes the task simpler.

Steps in dividing a polynomial function P (x) by x − r using synthetic division:

1. Suppose P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 . Write the coefficients an , an−1 , . . . , a1 , a0

in this order in the first row. Insert a 0 for any missing coefficient. To help us keep track,
write r somewhere to the left of an .

2. Bring down the first coefficient, an , to the third row. We will refer to this number as the
“pivot” in the next two steps.

3. Multiply this “pivot” number by r and write the product in the second row in the next
column, i.e., just below an−1 .

4. Add this product to the coefficient (an−1 ) just above it in the first row. Write the sum in the
third row.

5. Using this new sum as the pivot, repeat steps 3 and 4.

6. Repeat for each coefficient of P in the first row until we get to the last one, using each new
sum as the pivot.

7. The rightmost entry in the third row is the remainder and the other entries (from left to
right) are the successive coefficients of the quotient which is a polynomial of degree one less
than that of P .
Illustration 1.7. Let us use use synthetic division to find the remainder when 2x4 − 7x3 − 14x + 8
is divided by x − 4. The coefficients are 2, −7, 0, −14 and 8, where we use 0 as the coefficient of the
missing x2 -term. The following is the computation by synthetic division:

This means that the quotient is 2x3 + x2 + 4x + 2 and the remainder is 16.
In the discussion above, the divisor has form x − r, so the coefficient of x is 1. In case the divisor
has a leading coefficient a 6= 1, we can still use synthetic division but with some adjustments.
P (x) by 3x − 2. Since 3x − 2 = 3 x − 32 , we apply


Suppose we want to divide the polynomial
synthetic division on P (x) ÷ x − 32 . If the resulting quotient and remainder are 5x2 − 6x + 9 and

7, respectively, then
P (x) 2 7
2 = 5x − 6x + 9 + .
x− 3 x − 23
If we now divide both sides of the equation by 3, then we get
P (x) 5x2 − 6x + 9 7
= + .
3x − 2 3 3x − 2
Thus, when P (x) is divided by 3x − 2, the quotient is 35 x2 − 2x + 3 which is the previous quotient
divided by 3, while the remainder 7 stays the same.
Theorem 1.8. (The Rational Root Theorem) Let P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 be an
nth-degree polynomial function with integer coefficients. If p/q is a rational zero of P , where p/q
is in lowest terms, then p is an integer factor of a0 and q is an integer factor of an .
Illustration 1.9. Let P (x) = 4x3 + x2 − 4x + 10. Then if p/q (in lowest terms) is a rational zero
of P , p should be a factor of 10 and q a factor of 4. This means that the possibilities for p are
±1, ±2, ±5, and ±10, while the possibilities for q are ±1, ±2, ±4. The possible candidates for p/q
are therefore ±1, ±2, ±5, ±10, ±1/2, ±5/2, ±1/4, and ±5/4.
This gives a list of all possible rational zeros of P ; it is possible that none of them are zeros.
There may also be other zeros of P which are not on the list; in this case, they are necessarily
irrational numbers.

Worked Examples:

Example 1.10. Find a and b such that P (x) = ax3 − bx2 + 45x + 54 has x − 3 as a factor and
yields a remainder of 12 when divided by x + 1.
Solution. Since x − 3 is a factor of P , by the factor theorem, P (3) = 0. That is,
a(3)3 − b(3)2 + 45(3) + 54 = 0 =⇒ 27a − 9b = −189
Since P (x) leaves a remainder of 12 when divided by x + 1, P (−1) = 12, and so
a(−1)3 − b(−1)2 + 45(−1) + 54 = 0 =⇒ −a − b = −9
This gives the following system of equations:
(
27a − 9b = −189
−a − b = −9
Solving the system using any method, we get a = −3 and b = 12.
Example 1.11. Let
P (x) = 3x4 − 11x3 + 10x − 4.

(a) Find all the real zeros of P .

(b) Sketch the graph of P .

(c) Solve: 3x4 − 11x3 + 10x − 4 ≥ 0. Write the solution set in interval notation.

Solution. (a) Because the degree of P (x) is 4, there are 4 zeros. The rational root theorem says
that if p/q is a zero of P (x) then p must be a factor of −4 and q must be a factor of 3.

The possibilities for p are ±1, ±2, and ±4 while the possibilities for q are ±1 and ±3. Hence
the possibilities for p/q are ±1, ±2, ±4, ±1/3, ±2/3, and ±4/3.

Observe that

This implies −1 is zero. Using the results of the synthetic division, we can express P (x) as
follows
P (x) = (x + 1)(3x3 − 14x2 + 14x − 4)
We now use 3x3 − 14x2 + 14x − 4 and check for the other possible zeros. We try 2/3. We
obtain

Hence, 2/3 is also a zero. We can thus factor P (x) further:

 
2
P (x) = (x + 1) x − (3x2 − 12x + 6) = (x + 1)(3x − 2)(x2 − 4x + 2).
3

Using the quadratic formula, we can determine the zeros of x2 − 4x + 2.

p √
2 4±
16 − 4(2) 4± 8
x − 4x + 2 = 0 ⇔ x = =
√ 2 √2
⇔ x = 2 + 2 ≈ 3.41 or 2 − 2 ≈ 0.59.

(b) The leading coefficient an = 3 > 0 and the degree of P is 4, which is even. From the table
of possible graphs in the first page of the handout, the graph of P comes down from the left
and goes up to the right. The graph intersects the y-axis at (0, −4). It intersects the x-axis
at the points (−1, 0), (2/3, 0) and approximately at the points (3.41, 0) and (0.59, 0). The
graph is given as follows:
 (c) We want the solution to P (x) ≥ 0, so we identify the intervals where the graph of the
polynomial function is above the x-axis. The solution set is
√ √
(−∞, −1] ∪ [2 − 2, 2/3] ∪ [2 + 2, ∞).
Example 1.12. Let
P (x) = −2x4 + 15x3 − 32x2 + 12x + 16.
(a) Find all the real zeros of P .
(b) Sketch the graph of P .
Solution. (a) The possibilities for p are ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8 and ±16 while the possibilities for q are
−1 and −2. The following are possible candidates for p/q: ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8, ±16 and ±1/2.
By synthetic division, we can verify that x = −1/2 is a zero of P :

Using the results of the previous synthetic division, the next zero we obtain is x = 4:

Solving the quadratic equation −2x2 + 8x − 8 = 0 we obtain

−2x2 + 8x − 8 = 0 ↔ −2(x2 − 4x + 4) = 0
↔ −2(x − 2)2 = 0 :

Thus x = 2 is a zero of multiplicity 2.

In summary, the zeros of P are −1/2, 4, and 2 of multiplicity 2.
 (b) The leading coefficient an = −2 is negative and the degree of P is 4, which is even so the
graph of P comes up from the left and goes down to the right. The graph intersects the y-axis
at (0, 16). It intersects the x-axis at the points (−1/2, 0) and (4, 0). However at x = 2 the
graph is tangent to the x-axis. The graph is given as follows:

Note: In the previous example, we have seen the graph of a polynomial function with a zero of
even multiplicity. In general, if r is a real zero of even multiplicity of a given function P , then the
sign of P does not change from one side to the other side of r, so the graph of P simply touches the
x-axis or is tangent to the x-axis at r. On the other hand, if r is a real zero of P of odd multiplicity,
then the sign of P changes from one side to the other side of r, and the graph of P crosses the
x-axis at r.

Example 1.13. The height of a rectangular block of wood is 1 cm less than the width and the
length is 1 cm more than twice the width. Find the dimensions of the block if the volume is 3 cubic
cm.

Solution. Let x be the measure (in cm) of the width of the rectangular block of wood. The height
and the length are therefore x − 1 and 2x + 1 respectively. Because, the volume of the rectangular
block is the product of the length, width and height, we have the following solution.

(2x + 1)(x)(x − 1) = 3
2x3 − x2 − x = 3
2x3 − x2 − x − 3 = 0
To solve this problem, we need to find the zeros of the function f (x) = 2x3 − x2 − x − 3. Now
suppose f has a rational zero pq . Again, we can use the rational root theorem to find the possible
values of pq . For this problem, 32 is a zero:
 We can verify by using the quadratic formula that the quotient 2x2 + 2x + 2 has no zero (both
zeros are imaginary). It follows that 23 is the only solution. Therefore, the width of the wooden
block must be 32 cm, while its length and height are 4 cm and 12 cm, respectively.

Exercises:

In Items 1 to 3, use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder in the division.

1. (x3 + 10) ÷ (x + 2)

2. (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)(x − 4) ÷ (x − 3)

3. (5x3 − 9x2 + 3x − 11) ÷ (5x + 4)

In Items 4 to 7, use the Factor Theorem to show that the first expression is a factor of the second
expression.

4. x − 1; 2x3 − x2 + 2x − 3

5. x + 5; (x + 2)(x + 1)(x − 1) + (x − 4)(x − 3)

6. 3x − 1; 3x3 + 11x2 + 8x − 4

7. x2 − 5x + 6; 2x4 − 11x3 + 14x2 + 9x − 18 Hint: What are the factors of x2 − 5x + 6?

In Items 8 to 10, use synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder.

8. (2x3 − 3x2 + 7x + 5) ÷ (x + 2)

9. (4x3 + x2 − 4x + 10) ÷ (x − 32 )

10. (4x4 − 6x2 + 2x − 3) ÷ (2x − 1)

In Items 11 to 14, find the value of k that satisfies the given conditions.

11. x + 3 is a factor of x4 − 2kx2 + 8x − 21

12. (kx2 + 5x − 2k) ÷ (x + 2) yields a remainder of 5.

13. (x3 + x2 − 6x + 3) ÷ (x + k) has remainder 3.

14. x3 + kx + 1 give the same remainder when divided by x + 2 or x − 1.

In Items 15 to 18, find the zeros of the given polynomial and make a rough sketch of the graph.

15. f (x) = (x − 1)2 (x + 1)

16. f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − x − 2

17. f (x) = 2x4 + 4x3 − 33x2 − 6x + 45

 18. f (x) = 4x4 + 4x3 − 13x2 − 7x + 6

In Items 19 and 20, factor each function completely.

19. f (x) = x4 − 10x3 + 35x2 − 50x + 24

20. f (x) = 3x4 + 7x3 − 45x2 − 19x + 30

Solve the following problems:

21. Find the values of a and b such that x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 has a remainder −1 when divided by
x − 2 and a remainder 4 when divided by x + 3.

22. For what values of a and b is (x − 2)(x2 − 1) a factor of x4 + ax3 − bx2 − 3x + b − 1?

23. Find the length of the edge of a cube if an increase of 3 cm in one dimension and of 6 cm in
another, and a decrease of 2 cm in the third, doubles the volume.

24. How long is the edge of a wooden cube if, after a slice which is 1 cm thick is cut off from one
side, the volume of the remaining solid is 100 cubic cm?

25. A rectangular box is to be made from a piece of cardboard 6 cm wide and 14 cm long by
cutting out small squares of the same size from the four corners and turning up the sides. If
the volume of the box is to be 40 cm3 , what should be the length of the side of the square to
be cut out?
1
26. Show that if b 6= 0 is a zero of P (x) = x3 + ax2 + ax + 1, then b is also a zero of P .
2 Rational Functions

Definition 2.1. A rational function is a function of the form f (x) = p(x)/q(x), where p(x) and
q(x) are polynomial functions and q(x) is not the zero polynomial.
Some properties and terms related to rational functions:
1. The domain of f is the set of all real numbers except those for which the denominator q is
zero.

2. If f (x) = p(x)/q(x) is a rational function and if p and q have no common factors, then the
rational function f is said to be in lowest terms.

3. If f is a rational function in lowest terms, the zeros of f can be obtained by finding the zeros
of the numerator. These also correspond to the x-intercepts of the graph of f .
Illustration 2.2. The rational function defined by
x−1
f (x) =
(x + 2)(x − 3)
has domain R \ {−2, 3}. The only zero of f is 1.
Illustration 2.3. The rational function defined by

x2 − 4
f (x) =
x−2
has domain R \ {2}. Provided x = 6 2, we can reduce f to lowest terms, which gives f (x) = x + 2.
This means that the only zero of f is −2.
Note: Although one can be obtained by simplifying the other, it is important to observe that the
functions
x2 − 4
f (x) = and g(x) = x + 2
x−2
are not equal, since the domain of f is R \ {2} and the domain of g is the set of all real numbers.

It is often useful to look at the behavior of a rational function f (x) close to (but not equal to)
a number x = a which is not in the domain of f . Consider, for example, the function defined by
x+2
f (x) = .
x−5
The domain of f is the set of all real numbers except 5. Suppose we look at the function values
when x is close to 5 but not equal to 5. First, let x take on the values

6, 5.1, 5.01, 5.001, 5.0001

and so on. We are taking values of x closer to and closer to 5 but greater than 5; in other words,
we are letting the variable x approach 5 from the right, denoted by x → 5+ . We show this in the
table below.
x 5.0001 5.001 5.01 5.1 6
x+2
f (x) = 70001 7001 701 71 8
x−5
 From the table, we observe that as x → 5+ , the values of f (x) become larger and f (x) increases
without bound. We can write this as

f (x) → +∞ as x → 5+

The symbol +∞ (positive infinity) is not a real number. It is used to indicate that the function
values f (x) become larger and larger positive numbers, that is, f (x) is unbounded in the positive
direction, as x approaches 5 from the right.
Now, let the variable x approach 5 through values less than 5. One way to do this is to let x
take on the values

4, 4.9, 4.99, 4.999, 4.9999,

and so on. This is denoted by x → 5− . Refer to the table below:

x 4 4.9 4.99 4.999 4.9999

x+2
f (x) = −6 −69 −699 −6999 −69999
x−5

Observe that as x → 5− , the values of f (x) decrease without bound, meaning the values of f (x)
are negative numbers whose absolute values increase without bound. We can write this as

f (x) → −∞ as x → 5− .

The symbol −∞ (negative infinity) is used to indicate that the function values f (x) become
larger and larger negative numbers, that is, f (x) is unbounded in the negative direction, as x
approaches 5 from the left.

Definition 2.4. The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function f if at least
one of the following statements is true:

1. f (x) → +∞ as x → a+

2. f (x) → −∞ as x → a+

3. f (x) → +∞ as x → a−

4. f (x) → −∞ as x → a−

Theorem 2.5. The graph of a rational function of the form p(x)/q(x) in lowest terms has the line
x = a as a vertical asymptote if q(a) = 0, where a is a real number.
x−1
Illustration 2.6. The rational function f (x) = is written in lowest terms. It has
(x + 2)(x − 3)
two vertical asymptotes: the lines x = −2 and x = 3.
x2 − 4 x+2
Illustration 2.7. The rational function f (x) = , in lowest terms, is f (x) = ,
(x − 2)(x + 5) x−5
x 6= 2. It only has one vertical asymptote: x = 5.

For many functions, the function values f (x) approach a certain value b as x increases or as
x decreases without bound, i.e., as x → ∞ or as x → ∞, respectively. Consider the function
x+2
f (x) = again.
x−5
 x 100 1000 10000 100000
x+2
f (x) = 1.073684211 1.007035176 1.000700350 1.000070004
x−5

As x increases without bound, i.e., through the values 100, 1000, 10000, 100000 and so on, we
observe that the function values become closer and closer to 1 . We can describe this behavior by
writing this: f (x) → 1 as x → ∞.

x −100000 −10000 −1000 −100

x+2
f (x) = 0.999930003 0.999300350 0.993034826 0.933333333
x−5

As x decreases without bound, i.e., through the values −100, −1000, −10000, −100000 and so
on, we observe that the function values also become closer and closer to 1 . We can describe this
behavior by writing this: f (x) → 1 as x → −∞.
Consequently, as we look at the graph of f further and further to the left and also to the
right, the y-coordinates of points become closer and closer to 1, and the graph then approaches the
horizontal line y = 1.

Definition 2.8. The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of the rational function f if
at least one of the following statements is true:

1. f (x) → b as x → +∞

2. f (x) → b as x → −∞

Theorem 2.9. The graph of a rational function of the form

an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0
f (x) =
bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 + · · · + b0

has (a) the x-axis as a horizontal asymptote if n < m; (b) the line y = an /bm as a horizontal
asymptote if n = m; (c) no horizontal asymptote if n > m.
4x2 − 5x + 13
Illustration 2.10. The function f (x) = has horizontal asymptote y = 23 .
6x2 − 3x + 2
4x2 − 5x + 13
Illustration 2.11. The function f (x) = has horizontal asymptote y = 0.
6x3 − 3x + 2
4x3 − 5x + 13
Illustration 2.12. The function f (x) = has no horizontal asymptote.
6x2 − 3x + 2
Recommended steps in sketching the graph of a rational function:

1. Find the domain.

2. Find the x- and y-intercepts.

3. Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.

4. Construct a table of signs to determine the intervals where f is positive or negative.

5. Sketch the graph of f .

Worked Examples:

Example 2.13. Sketch the graph of the function

5x
g(x) = .
x2 −4
Solution. Factoring the denominator, we obtain
5x
g(x) = .
(x − 2)(x + 2)
ˆ The domain of g is R \ {−2, 2}.
ˆ Since g(0) = 0, the graph has an intercept at the origin.
ˆ Setting the denominator equal to 0, we obtain the vertical asymptotes x = 2 and x = −2.
ˆ From Theorem 2.9, the x-axis (or y = 0) is a horizontal asymptote.
To construct the sign chart / table of signs, we use the numbers where the numerator and the
denominator of g become 0.

(−∞, −2) (−2, 0) (0, 2) (2, ∞)

x+2 − + + +
5x − − + +
x−2 − − − +
5x
g(x) = 2 − + − +
x −4

The graph of g follows:

Example 2.14. Sketch the graph of the function

2x2 − 5x + 2
h(x) = .
x2 − 4
Solution. Factoring the numerator and denominator, we have

(2x − 1)(x − 2)
h(x) = .
(x + 2)(x − 2)

In lowest terms,
2x − 1
h(x) = .
x+2
The cancelled factor of x − 2 will lead to a hole in the graph, as we will see later.

ˆ The domain of h is R \ {−2, 2}. Since h(0) = −1/2, the y−intercept is (0, −1/2).

ˆ Since h(1/2) = 0, the x−intercept is (1/2, 0).

ˆ The graph has one vertical asymptote: x = −2, since x+2 is the only factor of the denominator
of h(x) in lowest terms.

ˆ Because the degrees of the numerator and denominator are equal, it follows from Theorem 2.9
that a horizontal asymptote is the line y = 2.

To determine the position of the graph relative to the x-axis, we set up a table of signs for h over
the intervals determined by the points −2 and 1/2. These are the numbers where the numerator
and the denominator of h (in lowest terms) become 0.

(−∞, −2) (−2, 21 ) ( 12 , ∞)

x+2 − + +
2x − 1 − − +
2x − 1
h(x) = + − +
x+2

Since 2 is not in the domain, there is still no point in the graph for which x = 2. Since there is
no vertical asymptote, there would instead be a hole at x = 2. To obtain the y-coordinate of the
hole, substitute x = 2 to the lowest terms expression for h. This gives the point (2, 34 ).
The graph of g follows:
Exercises:

Do the following for each of the functions below.

(a) Find the domain.

(b) Find the x- and y-intercepts.

(c) Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.

(d) Construct a table of signs to determine the intervals where f is positive or negative.

(e) Sketch the graph of f .

5x x2 − 4
1. f (x) = 5. f (x) =
3−x x2 + x − 2
x+1
2. f (x) =
x+5 (2x − 1)(x + 3)
6. f (x) =
x x3 − 8
3. f (x) = 2
x −1
2x + 1 (x2 − 9)x
4. f (x) = 2 7. f (x) =
x −4 (x2 − 1)(x − 5)