Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-1

Chapter 8 Hyper-Pure Germanium Detector

8.1. Introduction
Silicon semiconductor detectors described in the previous chapter have depletion depths less than
1 mm, which are sufficient for charged particle spectroscopy or soft X-ray detection. For photon
spectroscopy in the energy region of hundred keV or several MeV, much thicker semiconductor
detectors are required. Fig. 8.1 shows the mean free path of a photon in silicon and germanium.
It is obvious that a depletion depth of at least several cm is required. Due to its higher atomic
number, Ge has a much lager linear attenuation coefficient, which leads to a shorter mean free
path. Thus, Ge is preferred for hard X-ray or gamma-ray detection to achieve higher detection
efficiency.
1
10

10
0 Si
Mean free path [cm]

-1
10
Ge

-2
10

-3
10
1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10
Photon energy [keV]

Fig. 8.1. Photon mean free paths in Si and Ge.

For a semiconductor detector, the depletion depth is given by
2 V0
d ( )1 / 2
eN
where, V0 is the reverse bias voltage and N represents the net impurity concentration in the initial
semiconductor material. If silicon or germanium of normal semiconductor purity is employed,
the maximum achievable depletion depth is a few mm even at bias voltages close to the
breakdown level. Thus, the impurity concentration should be much reduced down to 1010
atoms/cm3 in order to realize intended depletion depths of cm order. At this impurity
concentration, a reverse bias voltage of 1 kV can produce a depletion depth of 1 cm. The
required impurity concentration corresponds to levels less than 1 part in 1012, which is quite
challenging.

One way to further improve the net impurity concentration is to compensate the residual
impurities with an opposite type impurity material. In both Si and Ge, the material with highest
available purity tends to be p-type, which requires addition of donor atoms for compensation.
The alkali metals like Li, Na tend to form interstitial donors in Si and Ge. When one of these
donor materials (practically Li) is introduced into Si or Ge, the donor atoms are easily ionized
and are mobile enough to drift at elevated temperatures under the influence of a strong electric
field. This process is so-called “lithium ion drifting” and has been applied in both Si and Ge. For
convenience, Ge(Li) represents lithium drifted Ge and Si(Li) means lithium drifted Si. The
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-2

lithium mobility is much greater in germanium and remains high enough at room temperature,
which leads to an undesirable redistribution of the lithium. Therefore, the lithium profile of
Ge(Li) detectors must always be preserved at LN2 temperature while Si(Li) detectors can be
stored at room temperature for a short period due to low mobility of the Li ion in silicon.

The other way to improve the net impurity concentration is to add additional refining processes
so that the intended purity of the crystal can be met. Techniques have been developed to achieve
high purity Ge crystals in this approach and HyperPure Ge (HPGe) detectors are commercially
available. However, no equivalent technique is available for Si yet.

Ge(Li) detectors were popular in the past and served as the common type of large-volume
germanium detector for a long time. Although there is little difference in detector performance
between HPGe and Ge(Li), the maintenance of Ge(Li) is pretty inconvenient, which has made
manufacturers stop producing them.

8.2. Configurations
A. Hyper-Pure Germanium (HPGe) detector fabrication [4]
HPGe crystal were first developed in the mid 1970s. The starting material is bulk germanium
intended for the semiconductor industry. Although already of very high purity, the material is
further purified with the zone refining technique. The germanium is melted in a crucible using
radio-frequency (RF) heating coils. The underlying principle is that impurities concentrate in the
liquid phase leaving the solid purer than the original melt as a liquid freezes and solid appears.

Fig. 8.2. Three coil zone refine.

Fig. 8.3. Growing Ge crystal.

As shown in Fig. 8.2, each zone refiner coil melts a small section of the germanium in the
crucible. As the RF coils are slowly moved along the length of the crucible, the molten zone
moves with them. Thus, the germanium melts as the coil approaches and freezes as the coil
moves away. The impurities tend to remain in the molten section, which leads to a higher
concentration of impurities in the liquid than the solid. In this way, the impurities are swept to
one end. This sweeping operation is repeated many times, until the impurities are concentrated at
one end of the ingot. This end is then removed, leaving the remaining portion much purer than
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-3

the original starting material. The improvement or reduction in impurity concentration actually
realized is about a factor of 100 or more at the completion of this process.

Large single crystals of germanium are grown using the Czochralski technique. A precisely cut
seed crystal is dipped into the molten germanium and then withdrawn slowly, while maintaining
the temperature of the melt just above the freezing point as shown in Fig. 8.3. The rate of crystal
withdrawal and temperature of the melt are adjusted to control the growth of the crystal. If the
remaining extremely low-level impurities are acceptors, the property of the crystal is mildly p-
type while high purity n-type is the result in the other case.

B. Planar configuration
An example of a planar HPGe detector using a p-type crystal is shown in Fig. 8.4. In this
configuration, the electric contacts are provided on the two flat surfaces of a germanium crystal.

Photons
0.25 mm thick Be
p+ (0.3 m B)

e p-type h p-n junction

n+ contact (0.7 mm Li)

Fig. 8.4. Planar HPGe detector (p-type).

A lithium evaporation and diffusion to form the n+ contact is performed over one of the surface.
This lithium-diffused layer is about several hundred µm thick. The depletion region is formed by
reverse biasing n+-p junction. The surface of the opposite side is modified to the p+ layer by ion
implantation of boron acceptor atoms to increase the conductivity near the surface. Since both
materials are p-type, no semiconductor junction exists at this side. Instead, the p+ layer provides
the electric contact to collect the charge carriers created by the radiation. The thickness of the
implanted boron layer is so thin (a few tenths of µm) that it is a suitable entrance window for low
energy photons.

To make a reverse bias, a positive high voltage is applied to the n+ contact with respect to the p+
surface. The depletion region is formed at the region close to the n+ contact and then expanded
deeply into the p-side as the bias voltage is raised. Once the detector is fully depleted, further
increase of the bias (overvoltage) does not make any effect on the sensitive volume, however, it
makes the electric field stronger, which subsequently shortens carrier collection times and
reduces the risk of carrier losses (recombination and trapping).
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-4

Planar HPGe detectors can also be fabricated starting with high-purity n-type crystals. Similarly,
n+ and p+ contacts are provided on both sides. Reverse biasing also requires the application of a
positive voltage to the n+ side. In this case, the depletion region is expanded from the p+ contact.

When fully depleted and operated with a sufficient overvoltage, the electric field inside the
crystal is almost uniform and charge carriers drift under a constant electric field.

C. Coaxial configuration
From the photon mean free path in germanium, a detector thickness of the order of 5 cm is
required for efficient detection of MeV photons. The maximum depletion depth for the planar
detectors is limited to less than 1 or 2 cm. To produce a detector with a thicker depletion depth, a
different electrode configuration must be employed. HPGe detectors dedicated for MeV photons
are constructed in coaxial geometry as shown Fig. 8.5. In this configuration, one electrode is
fabricated at the outer surface of a cylindrical crystal and the other electrode is located at the
inner surface of the central hole. In this way, much larger active volumes can be achieved.

True coaxial Closed-ended coaxial

Fig. 8.5. Large volume coaxial HPGe detectors.

A closed-ended configuration is one in which only part of the central core is removed and the
outer electrode is extended over one flat side surface. This configuration is the most common
type of commercial HPGe detector.

depleted

p-n junction p-n junction

Fig. 8.6. Extension of the depletion region for a coaxial detector.
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-5

In principle, the p-n junction of a coaxial detector can be located either at the inner or outer
surface of the crystal as shown in Fig. 8.6. If the junction is on the outer surface, the depletion
region extends inward as the high voltage bias is increased until the crystal is fully depleted. In
the opposite case, the depletion region grows outward. The p-n junction at the outer surface
requires a much lower full depletion bias and therefore, is preferred.

The practical electrode configurations of coaxial Ge detectors are shown in Fig. 8.7. To make the
p-n junction at the outer surface, the n+ contact is performed over the outer surface for a p-type
detector while the p+ contact is applied in case of an n-type crystal. The n-type coaxial detectors
are often called reverse electrode detectors. The reverse bias requires a positive outside
potential for a p-type and a negative potential for an n-type relative to the central electric
potential.

p-type n-type

p+ n+

n+ contact p+ contact
Fig. 8.7. Electrode configurations for coaxial detectors.

Regardless of the crystal type, a coaxial detector can be used for general gamma-ray
spectroscopy purposes. For low energy gamma-rays below 100 keV, a significant portion of the
incident photons is attenuated for p-type detectors due to the relatively thick surface dead layer,
i.e. lithium n+ contact. Thus, p-type coaxial detectors are normally limited down to 50 keV. Since
the dead layer thickness of n-type detectors is much thinner, n-type detectors are still effective
for low energy photons (down to several keV) when coupled to a thin Be entrance window.
Therefore, n-type detectors cover quite a wide spectral region compared to p-type coaxial and
planer detectors.

D. Electric field and capacitance

The electric field in HPGe detectors governs the charge carrier collection process. The signal
pulse shape and the timing behavior are consequently dependent on the variation of the electric
field strength. As discussed in the general properties of semiconductor detectors, the governing
equation is Poisson’s equation:


 2V  


The charge density  is given as  = -eNA for p-type crystals and as  = eND for n-type crystals.
For convenience, p-type crystals are assumed in the following derivation.
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-6

Planar detectors

From the solution derived in the semiconductor detector chapter, the depletion depth
corresponding to a reverse bias V0 is
2 V0 1 / 2 2 V0 1 / 2
d ( ) ( )
eN eN A
where, N represents the impurity concentration in the initial semiconductor material. If the
crystal thickness is T, the high voltage bias corresponding to the depletion depth T is
eN A T 2
Vd 
2
In this case, the detector is fully depleted and Vd is defined as the depletion voltage.

In one-dimensional slab geometry as shown in Fig. 8.8, Poisson’s equation becomes

T
2
d V ( x)  eN A
  (0  x  d) n+
dx 2
  p+
p-type
For a partially depleted voltage, the equation is valid for the depleted
region. The boundary condition of the electric potential becomes

V ( x  0)  V ( x  d )  V0 x=0 x=d

Fig. 8.8. Partial depletion

of a planar detector.
where x = 0 represents the n+ contact position. The electric field is
obtained by integrating the Poisson’s equation:

V0 eN A d
E ( x)   (  x) (0  x  d)
d  2

For a given bias voltage (if V0 < Vd), this solution 1500
is limited in the depleted region and the electric 10
NA=10 cm , T=1 cm
-3

field outside the depleted region is zero. The

variation of the electric field strength for a planar 1000 100
0V
HPGe detector is shown in Fig. 8.9. The depletion
E(x) [V/cm]

voltage for NA = 1010 cm-3 and T = 1 cm is 565 V. 400

V 565
V
The capacitance per unit area is 500

  100 200
C ( )1 / 2 V V
d 2V0
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
for partial depletion conditions. Once the bias V0 X [cm]
exceeds Vd, the detector capacitance becomes Fig. 8.9. Electric field variation of a planar detector.
constant and independent of the bias voltage.
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-7

Coaxial detectors

For the true coaxial geometry, Poisson’s equation 4000

becomes 3000 V

d 2V 1 dV  eN A 3000
  
2
r dr  

E(x) [V/cm]
dr 2000 V
2000
For partial depletion conditions, solving for the
depletion depth is a little complicated, so that the Vd=1556 V
1000
bias voltage is assumed to be larger than the
depletion voltage. Then the boundary condition 10 -3
NA=10 cm , r1=4 mm, r2=2.5 cm
can be set as 0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
r [cm]
V (r2 )  V (r1 )  V0 Fig. 8.10. Electric field variation of a true coaxial
detector.
where r1 and r2 represent inner and outer radii.

The electric field can be set as E (r )  rˆE (r )
and is solved as
eN A V0  (eN A / 4 )(r22  r12 ) eN A V0  (eN A / 4 )(r22  r12 )
E (r )   r  E (r )  r
2 r ln(r2 / r1 ) 2 r ln(r2 / r1 )

The depletion voltage Vd can be calculated from the condition

eN A  r22  r12 
E (r1 )  0  Vd    r12 ln(r2 / r1 )
2  2 
Fig. 8.10 shows the variation of the electric field for a true coaxial HPGe detector.
The capacitance per unit length of a fully depleted true coaxial detector is
2
C
ln(r2 / r1 )

To make the capacitance as low as possible, the radius of the center core r1 is kept to a minimum.

For the closed-ended coaxial detectors, the

Poisson’s equation is hard to solve
analytically and therefore a numerical
method like the Finite Difference Method
must be employed. An example of the
potential variation and the electric field
direction is shown in Fig. 8.11.

Fig. 8.11. Potential and electric field distribution of a

closed-ended coaxial detector [5].
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-8

8.3. Operational characteristics

A. Cryostat and dewar

Although silicon detectors can be operated at room temperature in principle, operating

germanium detectors at room temperature is impossible due to the small bandgap energy, which
generates an intolerable leakage current. Therefore, germanium crystals must be cooled to reduce
the leakage current. HPGe detectors are allowed to warm to room temperature when they are not
in operation, however, they are always maintained at LN2 temperature practically.

Fig. 8.12. Modern arrangement of HPGe detector and preamp within the cryostat housing.

The Ge crystal is encased in a vacuum tight container (cryostat) to reduce thermal conduction
between the crystal and the air. The basic function of a cryostat is to cool the germanium detector
to LN2 temperature. The germanium detector preamp is normally included as part of the cryostat
package. Since the preamp should be located as close as possible so that the overall capacitance
can be minimized, the preamp is installed together. The input stages of the preamp are also
cooled. The entire cold assembly is maintained by the cryostat under high vacuum for both
thermal insulation and protection of the internal components from contamination.
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-9

All of the cryostat materials around the detector should be as low Z as possible to reduce photon
scatter. Hence, aluminum, magnesium, beryllium, Teflon, and Mylar are used whenever possible.

There are various types of dewars so that the detection geometry can be selected depending on
the application. For general radioactive or neutron-activated samples, the vertical type is widely
used. For in-beam spectroscopic purposes, either the horizontal or side-looking type is more
convenient. Portable dewars are also available for outside field measurements.

Vertical Horizontal Side-looking

Fig. 8.13. Various configurations of LN2 dewars and cryostats.

B. Energy resolution

The most important characteristic of HPGe detectors is their excellent energy resolution. In Fig.
8.14, two spectra from an HPGe and a NaI(Tl) are compared for a 60Co source. The great
superiority of the HPGe detector allows the separation of many closely spaced gamma lines,
which is very beneficial for measuring multi-gamma emitting radioactive sources.

2
5x10
NaI (75 keV FWHM)
2
HPGe (2.35 keV FWHM)
4x10 1173 keV
Counts/channel

2
3x10
1332 keV

2
2x10

2
1x10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Photon energy [keV]
Fig. 8.14. Comparison of NaI(Tl) and HPGe spectra for 60Co.
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-10

The energy resolution of the HPGe photon spectroscopy system is governed by the variation in
the number of charge carriers, variation in the charge carrier collection, and the contribution of
electronic noise. Hence, the FWHM of a peak in the spectrum can be represented as

WT2  WD2  W X2  WE2

where W values on the right-hand side are peak widths expected due to carrier statistics, carrier
collection and electronic noise.

The variation in the number of the charge carriers is given by

WD F N F E2
 2.355  2.355  WD2  (2.355) 2 F  (2.355) 2 FwE
E N N N
where E is the photon energy, N is the number of e-h pairs, F is the Fano factor, and w is the
energy required for creating a electron-hole pair. If the Fano factor is assumed to be 0.1, the
equation predicts the WD value of 1.3 keV at 1.33 MeV when the w value of 3 eV is used.

The contribution of the second term is due to incomplete charge collection and becomes
important for large volume or low electric field detectors.

The last term represents the broadening

effects of all electronics following the
detector. This component can be measured
with a precision pulser as discussed in the
pulse processing chapter. The pulser output is
fed to the test input of the preamp and it
undergoes exactly the same path as that of the
actual signal from the detector.

Fig. 8.15 shows the contribution of each

component as a function of the photon
energy. At low energies, electronic noise and
charge collection are relatively important
while the additional broadening due to carrier
statistics becomes significant at higher Fig. 8.15. Dependence of resolution on photon energy.
energies.

C. Pulse shape and timing properties

The detailed shape of the signal pulse is important for determining the shaping time of the pulse
height spectroscopy and for applications requiring timing information. The ultimate time
resolution obtainable from HPGe detectors depends on both the average rise time and the
variation in the pulse shape from event to event.

Two factors limit the ultimate time resolution of HPGe detectors. The first factor is the slow
process of the charge carrier collection. If the electric field is strong enough, the drift velocities
of electron and hole are saturated. The electron saturation drift velocity is ~ 105 m/s, which
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-11

makes a travel time of 100 ns/cm. Typical pulse rise times will be of this order and are much
longer than those of organic scintillation detectors. The second factor is the large variation in the
shape of the output pulses. The leading edge of the pulse changes substantially from event to
event depending on the position of electron-hole creation.

The pulse shape of planar detectors can be described from the energy balance as follows.
The infinitesimal induced charge is given by
dW  V0 dQ

where, dW is the work done on the charge carriers, V0 is the applied voltage and dQ is the
induced charge. The work done on the charge carriers with charge q0 is
dW V
dW  q0 dV ( x)   q 0 E ( x)  q0 0
dx T
where, E(x) is the electric field and T is the detector thickness. The energy absorbed by the
motion from x0 to x is
x q0V0 x q 0V0
W   dW   dx  ( x  x0 )
x0 T x0 T
which induces charge Q as
W x  x0 vt
Q   dQ   q0  q0
V0 T T
The corresponding signal voltage VR can be represented as
Q q 0 vt
V R  
C C T
There are two components of the induced charge: one from the motion of electrons, the other
from holes. Let’s suppose charge carriers were produced at a distance x from the n+ layer after a
photon interaction as shown in Fig. 8.16.
In the initial stage of the charge carrier collection, both electrons and holes are drifting, thus,
ve v
Q(t )  q0 ( t  h t)
T T
h
If electrons have been collected, but holes are still drifting,
le vh x
Q (t )  q 0 (  t) e
T T
In the opposite case (holes have been collected),
ve T  le
Q (t )  q0 ( t )
T T

After both holes and electrons are collected

Q(t )  q0

Fig. 8.16 shows typical patterns of pulse shapes depending on the production positions of e-h
pairs.
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-12

Fig. 8.16. Shape of the leading edge of the output pulse Q(t) for a planar HPGe detector.
8.4. Photon spectroscopy with HPGe detectors
A. Detector response [6]

Fig. 8.17. Pulse height spectrum of 54Mn single gamma emitter.

The response of a HPGe detector for a single gamma emitter is shown in Fig. 8.17. Interaction
events contributing the full-energy peak are more likely to consist of multiple interactions, such
as Compton scattering followed by photoelectric absorption of the scattered photon. Absorption
of the full photon energy in a single photoelectric effect is pretty rare. The table below
summarizes a Monte Carlo simulation result.
Number of interactions contributing to the 1332 keV peak for a coaxial HPGe detector

1 2 3 4 5 6
4.2 % 17.8 % 27.0 % 25.1 % 15.4 % 7.0 %
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-13

As the photon energy increases above 2mec2, the pair production interaction becomes dominant
and the escape peaks are quite important. The spectra in Fig. 8.18 show different patterns of the
full-energy, single escape, double escape peaks depending on the photon energy.

Fig. 8.18. The relative intensity of the full-energy, single escape and double escape peaks
for a coaxial detector.

Fig. 8.19. Pulse height spectrum of a HPGe detector for 56Mn

multi-gamma emitter.
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-14

Fig. 8.19 is an example of the response for a multi-gamma emitter. Thanks to the excellent
resolution, each peak is well identified, which is pretty important for analyzing a complicated
spectrum.

B. Compton suppression system

Ge Ge

Fig. 8.20. Guard detector arrangements for Compton suppression.

The Compton continuum in photon spectra from HPGe detectors is generated primarily by
photons that undergo one or more scatterings in the detector followed by escape of the scattered
photon from the active volume. If those events contributing to the continuum are rejected, the
peak-to-continuum ratio is greatly improved and accordingly, the minimum detectable
radioactivity can be reduced significantly. To realize a rejection process, the HPGe detector is
surrounded with a Guard detector (inorganic scintillation type) as shown in Fig. 8.20. Then the
pulse processing system can reject the escape events by the anticoincidence technique when
proper timing electronics are implemented. In other words, the pulse processing system accepts
each detection event from the HPGe only when there is no detection event from the guard
detector in coincidence. Figs. 8.21 and 8.22 show a standard pulse processing system for
Compton suppression and an example of the suppression effect.

Fig. 8.21. Standard pulse processing system for Compton suppression.

 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-15

Fig. 8.22. 137Cs spectrum with and without the Compton suppression.

C. Efficiency calibration

Conventionally, the relative efficiency is conveniently used for quoting the peak efficiency of a
HPGe detector. The relative efficiency is defined as

Rel. eff. = HPGe peak effi/NaI(Tl) (33) peak effi

at 1332 keV from 60Co. The source-detector distance of 25 cm is uniquely used for this definition.
The absolute peak efficiency of a 33 NaI(Tl) is 1.210-3 in this geometry.

A typical variation of the full-energy peak efficiencies for coaxial detectors is shown in Fig. 8.23.
Due to the relatively thick dead layer, the p-type efficiency starts dropping at ~ 100 keV while
the n-type efficiency is constant down to ~ 5 keV.

Fig. 8.23. Absolute efficiencies of n-type and p-type coaxial detectors.

 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-16

A practical example of the efficiency calibration for a wide dynamic range is shown in Fig. 8.24.
The experimental efficiency data points were obtained from standard calibration sources up to ~
1.5 MeV and extended up to 12 MeV with both 14N(n,) and 35Cl(n,) prompt gamma-rays. The
measured data points are converted into the log E versus the log of the efficiency and then fitted
with a polynomial so that a wide energy region is covered.

Fig. 8.24. Fitting of a HPGe detector efficiency in a wide energy region.

8.5. Medical applications

A. In vivo X-ray spectrometry [7,8]

In our department, planar HPGe and Si(Li) detectors have been used for in vivo X-ray
spectrometry to analyze both trace (Pb, Hg, As etc.) and major (Sr) elements in the body
quantitatively. The targeted elements are excited either with radiation from a radionuclide or an
X-ray generator and then the characteristic X-rays are emitted and detected. Fig. 8.25 shows a
system developed for Hg and an example phantom spectrum.

Fig. 8.25. In vivo X-ray spectrometry system for measuring mercury and a phantom spectrum [8].
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-17

B. Collimator-less Compton imaging

(a) (b)

Fig. 8.26. Concept of collimator-less Compton imaging (a) and three projected cones intersecting at one
point (b) [9,10].

Segmented (or position sensitive) semiconductor detector technology has been developing
rapidly. For medical applications, this class of semiconductor detector makes possible
collimator-less gamma-ray imaging. In principle, Compton imaging is effective even with a
single segmented detector if the scattering process inside the detector can be tracked (gamma-
ray tracking [11]) with sufficient spatial resolution. With a highly segmented structure of Ge or
Si, accurate information on both interaction position and deposited energy can be analyzed. From
this information, the interaction sequence of the photon inside the detector can be extracted with
a proper tracking algorithm using the Compton scattering formula studied in the chapter 5. Then,
the direction cone of the incident photon is obtained. Since the segmentation of the electrode is
physically limited, the pulse shape analysis technique is employed to further improve the spatial
resolution. Finally, the source position is constructed as shown in Fig. 8.26. Both planar and
coaxial configurations have been developed.

Fig. 8.27. Two-dimensionally segmented closed-ended coaxial (40-fold) and planar detectors (239-fold).
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-18

References
1. G.F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement - 3rd edition (Chapters 12 and 13), John Wiley &
Sons, 1999.
2. G. Gilmore, J.D. Hemingway, Practical Gamma-Ray Spectrometry, John Wiley & Sons, 1995.
3. K. Debertin, R.G. Helmer, Gamma- and X-ray Spectrometry with Semiconductor Detectors, North-
Holland, 1988.
4. HPGe Detector Manufacturing, ORTEC, URL: http://www.ortec-online.com/.
5. Th. Kröll et al., Nucl. Intstr. and Meth. A 371 (1996) 489.
6. Online Ge(Li)-Si(Li) Gamma Spectrum Catalog, Gamma-ray Spectrometry Center, Idaho National
Laboratory, Published 3-29-1999, URL: http://www.inl.gov/gammaray/catalogs/.
7. D.R. Chettle, X-Ray Spectrom. 34 (2005) 446.
8. J. Grinyer, M. Popovic, D.R. Chettle, X-Ray Spectrom. 36 (2007) 99.
9. L. Mihailescu et al., Nucl. Intstr. and Meth. A 570 (2007) 89.
10. K. Vetter, M. Burks, L. Mihailescu, Nucl. Intstr. and Meth. A 525 (2004) 322.
11. I.Y. Lee, Nucl. Intstr. and Meth. A 422 (1999) 195.
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-19

Problems
1. For a 2 cm thick planar HPGe detector given below:
(a) In order to use as a radiation detector, which surface must be kept p+
at zero voltage and which surface must be kept at a high voltage ?
Which polarity of a high voltage must be applied ? Briefly explain A
0.5 cm
the reason. 2 cm p-type

n+

(b) The E-field distribution for V0 = 200 V is shown. Find the 1000
depletion voltage.

E(x) [V/cm]
(c) Suppose a gamma interaction happened at the position A. Sketch 500
the expected signal shape, i.e. Vout(t) as a function of time t. Indicate
the contribution by holes and the contribution by electrons. Briefly
explain the reason.
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
X [cm]

2. An n-type HPGe coaxial detector has the following geometry:

(a) To which surface, a p-type impurity must be added ? Briefly explain the reason.

(b) Sketch equipotential lines for a full depletion condition.

(c) Sketch the drift direction of electrons and holes created at the position A. Do the
same work for the position B.

3. Suppose you aim to measure an unknown photon radiation field in the energy range of 20 keV to 5
MeV using a semiconductor detector. Write down i) a proper detector material, ii) type and iii)
configuration. Briefly justify the reason.

4. For a p-type true coaxial HPGe detector, the electric field for an applied bias voltage V0 at the full
depletion condition is given by
 eN A V  ( eN A / 4 )( r22  r12 )
E ( r )  rˆE ( r ) , E ( r )   r  0
2 r ln( r2 / r1 )
Find the depletion voltage.

5. A p-type planar HPGe detector has a depletion voltage of 1,500 V.

(a) Sketch the electric field E(x) as a function of the depth x for three bias voltages 500, 1,000 and 2,000
V. For convenience, x=0 is located on the n+ surface.

(b) For the partial depletion condition, explain how the depletion depth changes as you increase the bias
voltage.
 Med Phys 4RA3, 4RB3/6R03 Radioisotopes and Radiation Methodology 8-20

(c) For a fixed position within the depleted region, explain how the E-field strength changes when the
bias increases from 500 to 1,000 V ? How about in case of increasing from 1,500 to 2,000 V ?

6. Suppose one of your fingers is exposed to a collimated gamma-ray beam to measure the concentration
of an element in the finger bone as shown below.
(a) When an atom of interest in the bone absorbs a gamma-ray photon by the photo
electric effect, what kind of the photon radiation is emitted from the atom following
the gamma-ray absorption ?

(b) Suppose the energy of the photon emitted from the element of interest is 45 keV.
A Si detector is positioned to detect this radiation. Referring to the linear
attenuation coeff. table below, find the thickness of Si that is equivalent to the mean
free path of the photon.

(c) Based on the result obtained in (b), what kind of Si detector do you think must
be used for this measurement ? Briefly justify the reason.