Case Studies in Construction Materials 8 (2018) 409–422

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case study

Properties of nano-silica modified pervious concrete

T
a,⁎ a a
Bashar S. Mohammed , Mohd Shahir Liew , Wesam S. Alaloul ,
⁎⁎
Veerendrakumar C. Kheda, Cheah Yit Hoonga, Musa Adamua,b,
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Bayero University Kano, PMB 3011, Kano, Nigeria

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: The aim of this study is to evaluate the effects of inclusion nano-silica (also known as nano-SiO2)
Fly ash on the properties of pervious concrete containing fly ash (FA) as a partial replacement to cement.
Final setting time It has been found, for cementitious paste, that incorporating NS leads to reduce the cumulative
Infiltration rate pore volume by 13.4%. While the compressive strength of NS modified pervious concrete has
Pervious concrete
been improved without adversely affecting its void ratio and permeability. The workability has
Nano-silica
been adversely affected by the inclusion of NS, which can be enhanced by incorporating the fly
ash and superplasticizer. The porosity of cementitious paste has increased as the FA content is
increased. These results are in good agreement with SEM results. For the pervious concrete voids
ratio, permeability and infiltration rate were decreased against the increase of paste to the ag-
gregate ratio Response surface methodology (RSM) has also been used to develop a model for
navigating the design space of NS modified pervious concrete. Models revealed 95% significance
of confidence level with difference less than 0.2 between Pred R-Squared value of 0.9515 and Adj
R-Squared. The general expression has been developed for all the responses with the different
coefficients using the RSM.

1. Introduction

Urbanization activities have resulted in changing the natural permeable surface of the land to impermeable through using im-
pervious concrete and pavements in paving roads, car parks, walkways, etc. [1,2]. These changes are associated with hydrological
and environmental problems including the exceeded discharge capacity of the existing drainage due to the accumulation of the runoff
stormwater rapidly causing flash floods [2]. In addition, lack of exchange heat and moisture between impervious surface and the
surrounding air, causes the impervious surface to entrap heat during daytime and release it in the night-time. This phenomenon is
known as the hot island in the city (HIC). HIC increases the discomfort of the urban dwellers and lead to increase in the electricity
consumption for air conditioning. This is, in turn, causes an increase in the emission of CO2 and contributes to greenhouse effect
[3,4]. Improper discharge of runoff stormwater on impervious pavement is reducing friction with the vehicles’ tires and adversely
affecting safety [5]. Impervious surface is also preventing stormwater from percolating in soil and reaching down to the aquifer,
which is limiting the groundwater supplies [6]. Difficulties in plantation growing up normally could occur due to lack of constant
wetting of soil [7]. In addition, impermeable covering could cause legal problems for developers and owners as there will be a need
for providing detention and retention basins and providing suitable stormwater treatment before discharging to rivers [6]. Therefore,
to minimize the impact of urbanization effects, it is necessary to introduce pervious system such as pervious concrete.

⁎
Corresponding author.
⁎⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bashar.mohammed@utp.edu.my (B.S. Mohammed).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2018.03.009
Received 3 January 2018; Received in revised form 21 March 2018; Accepted 27 March 2018
2214-5095/ © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
B.S. Mohammed et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 8 (2018) 409–422

Pervious concrete is a special type of concrete which also known as porous concrete or high permeable concrete. It is a zero slump
concrete, contains continuously interconnected voids and requires special design mix and compaction to produce high voids ratio
concrete with reasonable strength and durability [8]. The main ingredients of the pervious concrete are the single size of coarse
aggregate, little to no fine aggregate, cementing materials, water, and admixtures [9]. The void ratio of the hardened pervious
concrete is within the range of 15%–30%, while it has compressive strength less than 20 MPa [10]. Pervious concrete also has a high
water flow rate about 0.34 cm/s [11]. Using pervious concrete lead to multiple advantages such as: curbing flash floods by controlling
runoff amount, recharge water table, purify water through filtration in soil before charging water table, eliminate HCI effects,
preventing downstream floods and bank area erosion, reducing tire-pavement interaction noise, slope stabilization system [12],
alternative solution to installing rainfall detention ponds or soak ways, reducing the amount of sediments, and provide anti-skid
resistance. However, due to the porous structure, the integrity and strength of porous concrete depend mainly on the bonding
between the coarse aggregate and the thin cover layer of the cement matrix [13]. Due to high porosity, pervious concrete has a
significantly lower strength compared to conventional concrete [14].
To maintain its integrity, and due to the very thin layer of cement past between coarse aggregate particles, pervious concrete
transfers applied load through the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between cement paste and coarse aggregate [7]. Therefore, the
more porous and thin of ITZ, the lower is the compressive strength. Using the smaller size of coarse aggregate lead to increase in the
total bonding area and result in higher compressive strength of the pervious concrete [15]. Although adding fine aggregate improves
the compressive strength for mixtures containing the same size of coarse aggregate [7]. Nevertheless, adding fine aggregate will
decrease the void ratio and eventually reducing the amount of water infiltration. Therefore, the best alternative solution to obtaining
higher compressive strength without adversely affecting the void ratio and permeability is to improve and densify the ITZ. Mo-
hammed, et al. [16] have reported that adding nano-silica (NS) will lead to improving the microstructure of the ITZ (densify) and
eventually increasing the strength of rubbercrete. To produce sustainable pervious concrete, pozzolanic materials such as fly ash (FA)
have been used in preparing of these mixtures.
Sustainable pervious concrete has been studied by several researchers. Chen, et al. [11] have studied the strength of pervious
concrete mixtures containing silica fume up to 8% and FA up to 16% of the cement. They reported improvement in the strength of
pervious concrete, however, there is no evidence provided that the FA has a major contribution to this improvement. Chandrappa and
Biligiri [1] have stated that the usage of pozzolanic materials such as FA as a partial replacement to cement in pervious concrete
mixtures will have adversely affected the strength of pervious concrete after a certain threshold of replacement. Shabalala, et al. [17]
have investigated the possibility of using pervious concrete containing 30% of FA as a reactive barrier for removing heavy metals. The
SEM images show non-reactive FA particles in the hardened paste of pervious concrete, which in turn lead to a reduction in its
compressive strength. Zhong and Wille [18] have stated that pervious concrete mixtures containing pozzolanic materials such as FA
are very sensitive to mold pressure. They reported about 45% reduction in strength when the mold pressure decreased to 1 MPa
instead of 2 MPa. Mohammed, et al. [14] have studied the effects of different types of pozzolanic materials including FA on properties
of pervious concrete. They have reported that using FA will yield lowest compressive and bond strengths of pervious concrete in
comparison to other types of pozzolanic materials such as silica fume, paper mill ash, palm oil ash and rice husk ash. With introducing
nano-sized materials in the production of concrete mixtures, the addition of NS leads to improving the concrete properties [19–21].
The superiority of concrete is largely controlled by the quality of the cement paste and the interfacial transitional zone (ITZ) between
the aggregates and the hardened cement paste. Numerous studies conducted revealed that the incorporation of NS enhanced the
cement paste quality due to its high pozzolanic properties, which resulted in finer hydrated phases (C-S-H) and denser microstructure
(nano-filler), which results in concrete with enhanced durability. These special properties of NS could improve the properties of
pervious concrete mixtures [22,23].
The coarse aggregate fractions (in the form of sharp grain edges) played a major role in developing the mechanical and hydraulic
properties of pervious concrete [24]. The pervious concrete prepared with pre-wetted lightweight aggregate had provided the better
workability and also internally cured hardened concrete delivered the enhanced compressive strength along with the improved
durability properties in terms of freeze-thaw effect [25]. The coarse aggregate replaced up to 50% by pumice in pervious concrete
produced the improved water permeability and abrasion resistance on the surface but had a negative effect on compressive, flexural
and split tensile strength [26]. The performance of pervious concrete in terms of high strength and permeability properties was
optimized by familiarising the reactive powder concrete [27]. The pervious concrete with a high strength of up to 174 MPa was
prepared besides satisfying the porosity of concrete also developed various experimentally validated equations [13].
The main aim of the research work reported in this paper is to enhance the compressive strength by improving the ITZ properties
of the fly ash-induced pervious concrete by using the additive NS. Therefore, the sustainable pervious concrete (using FA as a partial
replacement to cement) can be produced without adversely affecting the properties such as compressive strength, voids ratio, per-
meability, and infiltration. Also, the pervious concrete properties were evaluated based on the paste to the aggregate ratio.

2. Materials and experimental program

2.1. Materials

In this study, Type I ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with properties shown in Table 1 was used, fly ash (FA) classified as class F
with more than 70% total amount of silicon dioxide (SiO2), Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), and iron oxide (Fe2O3) and less than 6% loss of
ignition according to ASTM C618 as shown in Table 1 was used as supplementary cementitious material (SCM). Superplasticizer (SP)
which conforms to the requirements of ASTM C494 was used as water reducing admixture. Coarse aggregate with the maximum

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Table 1
Chemical composition and properties of cement and fly ash.
Chemical Composition (%) Cement Fly Ash

SiO2 12.1 36.4

Al2O3 1.93 14.1
Fe2O3 4.18 22.4
CaO 75.9 17.5
MgO 1.03 2.55
Na2O – 0.231
K2O 0.486 2.09
SO3 3.44 1.04
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 18.21 72.9
Specific Gravity 3.0883 2.7767
Loss of ignition 1.1 1.49

nominal size of 10 mm, specific gravity of 2.56 and water absorption of 0.46% was used. Commercially available NS (also known as
nano-SiO2) in powder form with main features and properties as shown in Table 2 was used as an additive to cementitious materials.
To avoid agglomeration and to improve the performance of pyrogenic NS particles, a mixing procedure suggested by Khaloo, et al.
[28] has been adopted in this study to prepare the cementitious paste for pervious concrete.

2.2. Mix proportions

For pervious concrete, pores size and their interconnectivity are affected by aggregate properties, cementitious paste volume, and
compaction energy. Therefore, the mix design approach of pervious concrete is based firstly on cementitious paste properties and
secondly on the cementitious paste to the aggregate ratio (pervious concrete).

2.2.1. Mix proportions of cementitious paste

To investigate the fresh and hardened properties of cementitious paste, total of 17 mixtures have been prepared and tested as
shown in Table 3. Two variables have been considered, which are eight levels (0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70%) of fly
ash (FA) as partial replacement to cement by volume and four levels (0%, 1%, 2%, and 3%) of NS as additives. The amount of NS has
only been added to mixtures containing 30%, 50% and 70% of FA (most practical percentages found in literature used in preparing of
pervious concrete). Percentage of NS has been calculated based on the total amount of binder (OPC + FA). As suggested by John T.
Kevern and Vernon [29], the water-binder ratio used in this study has been kept as 0.3.
Based on compressive strength results of the hardened cementitious paste (Fig. 2) and also the amount of FA used (30%, 50%, and
70%), three mixtures were selected for further investigation. For these selected cementitious paste mixtures, nine mixtures of per-
vious concrete have been prepared to utilize three ratios of paste/aggregate: a) 0.297, b) 0.382, and c) 0.466 as suggested by
Chandrappa and Biligiri [1]. Mixtures proportions for pervious concrete are shown in Table 4. In which the mixture ID 5503b, for
instance, refer to: 5 for 50% cement, 50 for 50% FA 3 for 3% NS and b for paste/aggregate of 0.382.

2.2.2. Experimental methods

Flow value test was carried out to determine the workability of the cementitious paste in accordance with the requirements of
ASTM C230-03. Setting time test was carried out in accordance with the requirements of ASTM C191-04. Compressive strength test
was carried out in accordance with the requirements of ASTM C39-03 using 150 mm diameter by 300 mm height cylinders. For each
mixture, three cylinders were prepared and cured for 28 days in water prior to testing.

Table 2
Properties of nano-silica.
Item Features
Appearance High-dispersive white powder

Heat reduction (%) (105 °C 2 h)≤ 3

Loss of ignition (%) (950 °C 2 h)≤ 6
SiO2 content (dry base) (%)≥ 92
SiO2 content (%) (950 °C 2 h)≥ 99.8
Carbon content (%)≥ 0.3
Specific surface area (m2/g) (BET law) 100 ± 25
PH value 6.5–7.5
Surface density (g/ml)≤ 0.15
Dispensability (%) (%) (CCl4)≥ 80
Oil-absorbed value (ml/100 g)≥ 250
Average particle size (nm) 10–25

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Table 3
Mixture proportions of cementitious paste.
Mixture ID Cement % Fly ash % Nano-silica %

1000 100 0 0
9010 90 10 0
8020 80 20 0
7030 70 30 0
7031 70 30 1
7032 70 30 2
7033 70 30 3
6040 60 40 0
5050 50 50 0
5051 50 50 1
5052 50 50 2
5053 50 50 3
4060 40 60 0
3070 30 70 0
3071 30 70 1
3072 30 70 2
3073 30 70 3

Table 4
Mixtures proportions for pervious concrete.
Mixture ID Paste/Aggregate Ratio FA (kg/m3) Cement (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Coarse Aggregate (kg/m3) NS (kg/m3) SP (kg/m3)

7303a 0.297 314.69 150 139.41 2597 11.416 –

7303b 0.382 314.69 150 139.41 2019 11.416 –
7303c 0.466 314.69 150 139.41 1655 11.416 –
5503a 0.297 224.78 250 142.43 2623 11.416 6
5503b 0.382 224.78 250 142.43 2040 11.416 6
5504c 0.466 224.78 250 142.43 1672 11.416 6
3703a 0.297 134.87 350 145.46 2649 11.416 6.25
3703b 0.382 134.87 350 145.46 2060 11.416 6.25
3703c 0.466 134.87 350 145.46 1689 11.416 6.25

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Cementitious paste properties

The mixture proportions for the cementitious product and the test results for fresh properties such as flow value and setting time
are illustrated in Table 5.

Table 5
Mix proportions, Flow value and setting time for the cementitious paste.
Cement % Fly Ash(FA) % Nano- silica (NS) % SP % Flow Value(mm) Setting Time (min)

100 0 0 0 155 180

90 10 0 0 162.5 195
80 20 0 0 177.5 210
70 30 0 0 180 240
70 30 1 0 155 180
70 30 2 0 152.5 150
70 30 3 1.25 152.5 180
60 40 0 0 195 255
50 50 0 0 200 285
50 50 1 0 161.5 195
50 50 2 0.3 150 210
50 50 3 1.2 180 240
40 60 0 0 210 345
30 70 0 0 220 420
30 70 1 0 197.5 345
30 70 2 0 177.5 285
30 70 3 0 150 255

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Fig. 1. 3D Surface diagram for Compressive strength.

3.1.1. Flow value

According to Chindaprasirt, et al. [8], the flow value of 150 mm to 230 mm is the optimum workability for the cementitious paste
of pervious concrete. High FA replacement resulted in a higher flow value as depicted in Table 5. This is due to the spherical shape of
FA particles which enable them acting like a tiny ball bearing within the mixtures leading to increasing the lubricant effect. However,
due to the interaction between NS and liquid phase of the cement paste, the addition of NS causes a reduction in the flow values.
Therefore, superplasticizer was added to some mixtures to ensure the flow value falls within the optimum range. This indicates that
the workability is directly proportional to the increment in the fly ash and inversely proportional to the NS addition.

3.1.2. Final setting time

Final setting time refer to the time period between the time water is added to cement and the time where the needle fails to
penetrate the cementitious paste that is placed in the Vicat’s mold for 5 mm. It is crucial to determine and control the setting time of
the fresh cementitious paste so that should remain in plastic condition for a sufficient period of time. This is essential to permit
satisfactory compaction and finishing of pervious concrete after transporting and placing. It is not advisable for the setting process to
take too long time as it may cause excessive bleeding and may prolong the early strength development of the pervious concrete. The
setting time of cement paste is directly proportional to the workability. The more workable the cementitious paste, the higher is the
setting time. From Table 5, it can be noted that mixtures with superplasticizer have exhibited an increase in setting time. The results
are in a good agreement with the outcome of research done by Webster et al. [30].

3.1.3. Compressive strength

The effect of partial replacement of FA and NS additives on the development of the compressive strength of the cementitious paste
was investigated, and the results are plotted in form for 3D response surface plot as shown in Fig. 1. It has been noticed that as the
percentage of FA increases, the compressive strength decreases. The reduction in the compressive strength of the hardened ce-
mentitious paste is due to the low cement content. Cement hydration will produce calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2, which will later be

Fig. 2. CCD design module.

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Fig. 3. 2D Contour diagram for Compressive strength.

converted to calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) by reacting with FA. C-S-H is one of the elements that are responsible for the strength of
the hardened cementitious paste. Thus, lower cement content resulting in less amount of C-S-H being produced. While the extra
amount of FA particles will be acting as micro-aggregate in the hardened cementitious paste which will adversely affect the com-
patibility of the microstructure and consequently causes compressive strength reduction. However, the compressive strength of the
hardened cementitious paste has marginally increased with the addition of NS into the cementitious mixture. This can be attributed to
two main reasons, firstly the physical effect of the NS particles and their ability in filling up the nanovoids in the hardened ce-
mentitious paste leading to densify the microstructure and resulting in high compressive strength. Secondly, the chemical effects as
the NS have the ability to activate FA and producing more C-S-H gel consequently improving the strength.

3.1.3.1. Response surface methodology (RSM) analysis. Response surface methodology (RSM) has been used to develop a model for
predicting the compressive strength of pervious concrete. Design-Experts version 10 software was used for the RSM analysis. The
central composite design (CCD) method was used for the model design. In this experimental design, the CCD involves 17
experimental runs for the variables FA and NS. Fig. 2 shows the characteristics of the typical CCD for two factors: Fig. 1(a) indicates
that the design points are represented by the factorials (−/+) at the four corner, Fig. 1(b) represents the axial design points at the
center (+/− alpha) and the Fig. 1(c) is the superposition of Fig. 1(a) and (b) which designates the limits for the field of interest in
which the optimum is said to be exist, thus the axial points will typically be outside this limit, and alphas to define the area of
operability, the area of interest will be within the area of operability. Fig. 3 describes the 2D contour diagram for the response model.
From the contour diagram, the contour lines are oriented in one direction that indicates the high fall of compressive strength when FA
volume increases. As seen the compressive strength increased with increment in NS content. However, this increment is more
pronounced when lower FA content is used. The best compressive strength was achieved using combinations of 0% to 20% FA with
up to 3% NS which is shown from the contour diagram as the reddish area.

3.1.3.2. Analysis of variance. The summary for Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the developed RSM model is given in Table 6. It can
be seen that the established response model was significant on 95% of confidence level, this indicates that only 0.01% chance the size
of F-value will follow due to noise. Furthermore, using the 95% confidence interval, only the model terms A and B were significant
with P-significance less than 0.05, and the other model terms have P-significance greater than 0.05. The developed response model in
terms of the actual factors with all the model terms is given in Eq. (1), and it can be used to predict the compression strength (MPa)
for any values of FA (%) and NS (%) within the described limit. Therefore the effects of FA and NS are to be defined.

Table 6
Results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) for a response model.
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square ‘F’ Value p-value Prob > F Significance

Model 8683.252 5 1736.65 157.2415 7.6E-10 Yes

A-Fly ash 5042.232 1 5042.232 456.5388 2.63E-10 Yes
B-NS 139.1331 1 139.1331 12.59753 0.004558 Yes
AB 1.632967 1 1.632967 0.147854 0.707925 No
A^2 19.81677 1 19.81677 1.79427 0.207425 No
B^2 11.16179 1 11.16179 1.010622 0.336356 No
Residual 121.4892 11 11.04448 – – –
Cor Total 8804.742 16 – – – –

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Table 7
ANOVA for model validation.
Statistical terms Values

Std. Dev. 3.323323

Mean 67.70294
C.V. % 4.908684
PRESS 426.6272
R-Squared 0.986
Adj R-Squared 0.97993
Pred R-Squared 0.951546
Adeq Precision 37.43305

FC = 108.719 − 0.8497*FA + 0.86567*NS − 0.017678*(FA*NS )−

0.0029443*(FA)2 + 0.9045*(NS )2 (1)
2
The validity of the model can further be explained from Table 7. The high degree of correlation R shows that the model can be
used to predict the compressive strength of pervious concrete with higher correlation degree with only about 1.4% of the data cannot
be fully correlated. Furthermore, the Predicted R-Squared value of 0.952 is in reasonable agreement with the adjusted R-Squared of
0.98; i.e. the difference is less than 0.3. Adequate precision measures the signal to noise ratio, whereas a ratio greater than 4 is
desirable, therefore, the model in Eq. (1) can be used to navigate the design space.

3.1.4. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) was carried out to study the microstructure of the hardened cementitious paste for
selected mixtures as shown in Figs. 4–8. Fig. 4 shows that the cementitious matrix of 100% cement mixture is the denser and most
compacted comparing to other mixtures, this indicated higher calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gel which fills up the pores in the
cement matrix and consequently yielding the highest compressive strength. On the other hand, the higher the fly ash content, the
higher the porosity of the cementitious matrix. For example, a mixture containing 30% cement, 70% fly ash and 30% NS have the
most porous cementitious matrix as shown in Fig. 8. This is due to the slower pozzolanic reaction of fly ash at an early age, thereby
reducing the amount of C-S-H gel formation and increasing Ca(OH)2 content. This Ca(OH)2 is very soluble and forms a weak bond in
the hardened cement paste, which eventually leached out in the presence of moisture thereby increasing porosity and decreases
strength. The addition of NS also densified the cementitious matrix of the mixtures. For instance, by comparing Fig. 5 with Fig. 6, it
can be seen that the cementitious matrix of the latter (mixture with 70% cement, 30% FA and 3% NS) is more compact and denser.
This is due to the finer size of NS which fills up the voids in the cementitious matrix [31]. Another reason is due to the higher
pozzolanic reactivity of NS, where it reacts with the excess Ca(OH)2 and produces a more C-S-H gel which fills up the pores in the
cement matrix, and consequently increases strength [32,33].

3.1.5. Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP)

MIP test was conducted to study the effect of FA and NS on the pore distribution of hardened cementitious paste as shown in
Figs. 9–13. It can be seen that the higher the percentage replacement of cement with fly ash the higher the cumulative pore volume
and the larger the pore diameters as presented in Table 8. This is due to the slower pozzolanic reaction of fly ash at early ages, which
leads to lower C-S-H gel formation and more Ca(OH)2, which leached out in the presence of moisture and thereby increasing porosity
in the cementitious matrix. By comparing Fig. 10 with Fig. 11, it can be observed that the addition of NS silica leads to reduction in
cumulative pore volume and pore diameters. This is due to the pozzolanic reaction of NS with the excess Ca(OH)2 to produce more C-

Fig. 4. Hardened cementitious paste of 100% cement.

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Fig. 5. Hardened cementitious paste of 70% cement and 30% FA.

Fig. 6. Hardened cementitious paste of 70% cement, 30% FA and 3% NS.

Fig. 7. Hardened cementitious paste of 50% cement, 50% FA and 3% NS.

S-H, which fills up the pores in the cementitious matrix up to nano size, and consequently leading to more compacted and denser
matrix [32].
The summary of cumulative pore volume and accessible porosity were as extracted from the MIP results from Figs. 9–13 is shown
in Table 9. The porosity of cementitious paste has increased as the FA content is increased. These results are in good agreement with
SEM results. This is because less C-S-H gel is being produced in mixtures with less cement content.

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Fig. 8. Hardened cementitious paste of 30% cement, 70% FA and 3% NS.

Fig. 9. Pore size distribution of hardened cementitious paste of 100% cement.

Fig. 10. Pore size distribution of hardened cementitious paste of 70% cement and 30% FA.

3.2. Pervious concrete properties

Based on compressive strength results (from Section 3.1.3), three cementitious pastes have been selected. As has been suggested
Chindaprasirt et al. [8], three paste/aggregate ratios (0.297, 0.382, and 0.466) are utilized to produce pervious concrete mixtures as
shown in Table 9. For methods of preparation of pervious concrete for testing, cross-reference can refer to Chindaprasirt et al. [8].

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Fig. 11. Pore size distribution of hardened cementitious paste of 70% cement, 30% FA and 3% NS.

Fig. 12. Pore size distribution of hardened cementitious paste of 50% cement, 50% FA and NS 3%.

Fig. 13. Pore size distribution of hardened cementitious paste of 30% cement, 70% FA and 3% NS.

3.2.1. Compressive strength

The result of compressive strength of the pervious samples is given in Table 9. This results show a good agreement with ex-
perimental results reported by Chindaprasirt et al. [8], whereas p/a of 0.466 ha s exhibited the highest compressive strength. As
percentage of FA replacement to cement increases, the compressive strength of pervious concrete decrease. These results reveal
similar trend to the compressive strength of hardened cementitious paste.

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Table 8
Summary of pore distribution of cementitious paste.
Mixture Accessible Porosity (%) Cumulative Pore Volume (mm3/g)

C 100% 0.38 12.2

C 70%; FA 30% 0.64 33.9
C 70%; FA 30%; NS 3% 0.6 20.5
C 50%; FA 50%; NS 3% 4.07 213
C 30%; FA 70%; NS 3% 7.42 250

Table 9
Compressive strength, voids ratio, permeability and infiltration rate for hardened pervious concrete.
Cement % Fly Ash % Nano- silica % p/a ratio Compressive Strength (MPa) Void Ratio % Permeability (mm/s) Infiltration Rate (mm/h)

70 30 3 0.297 9.10 25.47 6.8 6.93E + 06

70 30 3 0.382 14.40 20.81 4.87 6.58E + 06
70 30 3 0.466 19.90 14.30 3.44 5.54E + 06
50 50 3 0.297 5.40 26.61 7.86 6.67E + 06
50 50 3 0.382 9.80 21.20 5.87 6.32E + 06
50 50 3 0.466 13.50 15.96 4.35 5.27E + 06
30 70 3 0.297 2.50 28.75 9.82 6.05E + 06
30 70 3 0.382 5.80 23.91 7.49 5.92E + 06
30 70 3 0.466 8.20 20.59 4.62 4.58E + 06

Table 10
Results of ANOVA for response predictive model.
Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square ‘F’ Value p-value Prob > F Significance

Model 13.51 1 13.51 248.9 0.043 Yes

C-P/A 13.51 1 13.51 248.9 0.043 Yes
Residual 0.054 1 0.054 – – –
Cor Total 13.57 2 – – – –

Table 11
ANOVA for predictive model validation.
Statistical terms Values

Std. Dev. 0.23

Mean 7.31
C.V. % 3.19
PRESS 0.73
R-Squared 0.9960
Adj R-Squared 0.9920
Pred R-Squared 0.9460
Adeq Precision 27.326

Table 12
Constant and coefficient terms of Eq. (2).
Mixture (cement: fly ash) Response Unit Constant "α" Co-efficient of p/a "β"

70:30 Compressive strength MPa −9.94 63.84

Permeability mm/s 12.63 −19.89
Voids ratio % 45.41 −66.07
Infiltration rate mm/h 9.48E + 06 −8.19E + 06

50:50 Compressive strength MPa −8.81 48.06

Permeability mm/s 13.96 −20.77
Voids ratio % 45.32 −63.05
Infiltration rate mm/h 9.24E + 06 −8.27E + 06
30:70 Compressive strength MPa −7.44 33.98
Permeability mm/s 19.05 −30.76
Voids ratio % 42.84 −48.28
Infiltration rate mm/h 8.84E + 06 −8.71E + 06

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B.S. Mohammed et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 8 (2018) 409–422

Fig. 14. Responses against p/a for 70:30 of cement to FA mix.

Fig. 15. Responses against p/a for 50:50 of cement to FA mix.

Fig. 16. Responses against p/a for 30:70 of cement to FA mix.

3.2.2. Void ratio

Void ratio is the ratio of voids’ volume to the total volume of hardened pervious concrete. Void ratio test was conducted with
reference to method described by Park [34]. As shown in Table 9, p/a ratio of 0.297 ha s the highest void ratio, while the lowest void
ratio attained by mixture with p/a of 0.466. Results show that as the p/a ratio increases, the void ratio of pervious concrete decreases.
This is due to the higher amount of cementitious paste requires to coat the aggregate evenly and more compactly, thus filling the
voids between the aggregates. Increasing of FA content resulting in higher void ratios due to less compactly (more loosely) ce-
mentitious paste

3.2.3. Permeability
Permeability is the property that determines the flow rate of water by its own weight into the porous of pervious concrete. The
water penetration coefficients of the pervious concrete samples have been measured using apparatus and guidelines developed by
Yang and Jiang [7]. The permeability of pervious concrete with different paste/aggregate ratios decrease with increasing paste/
aggregate ratio as shown in Table 9. This is due to increasing the availability of cementitious paste amount for filling in the gaps
between coarse aggregate. However, increasing the amount of FA replacement to cement also has led to increasing permeability. This
is expected as the hardened cementitious paste has become more pours with increasing FA amount, in which consequently

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Fig. 17. Infiltration rate (response) against p/a for hardened pervious concrete.

contributing to increasing the permeability of the pervious concrete.

3.2.4. Infiltration rate

Infiltration is the process by which run off percolating the surface of the pervious concrete through the voids. Therefore, the
higher infiltration rate of pervious concrete is the better. Infiltration rate test has been carried out in accordance with the require-
ments of ASTM C1701-09 and the results are shown in Table 9. It has been noticed that infiltrations rate are decreased with increasing
p/a ratio. And, in addition, infiltration rate are decreased with increasing the amount of FA replacement. This is due to increasing the
roughness of the internal surface of the voids due to the higher porosity which is caused by higher amount of FA.

4. Predictive performance

The expressions using central composite design of RSM have been established using experimental results to characterize the
performance of the NS modified pervious concrete mixtures by varying the amount of FA replacement. Based on the experimental
results for the three values of p/a ratios, Eq. (2) has been developed using RSM. From the ANOVA results in Table 10, it can be
observed that the p-values are below 0.05, which clearly indicates that the model terms are significant and in Table 11, the difference
between “Pred R-squared and “Adj R-squared” is less than 0.2, thus the model can be used to navigate the prediction. As Eq. (2)
indicates, outputs (responses), which are compressive strength, permeability, voids ratio or infiltration ratio can be predicted with the
varying paste to aggregate (p/a) ratios, while NS amount is kept constant at 3%. For specific mixture content (cement: FA), to predict
the desired response for hardened pervious concrete: equation constant (α) and coefficient of p/a (β) to be extracted from Table 12
and inserted in Eq. (2) with the desired amount of p/a ratio.

Response = α + β* (p/a) (2)

For instance, at p/a = 0.34 and cement: FA ratio = 70:30

Compressive strength = −9.94 + 63.84 * 0.34 = 11.77 MPa
Permeability = 12.63 + (−19.89) * 0.34 = 5.86 mm/s
Voids ratio = 45.41 + (−66.07) * 0.34 = 22.95%
Infiltration ratio = 9.48E + 06 + (−8.19E + 06) * 0.34 = 6.69E + 06 mm/h
Using Eq. (2), the effects of p/a ratios on the compressive strength, permeability, voids ratio and infiltration rate for the three
levels of FA replacement are plotted as shown in Figs. 14–17. The optimum mixture of pervious concrete based on four responses
(compressive strength, void ratio, and permeability and infiltration rate) can be figured out graphically from Figs. 14–17. Thus,
reduction in void ratio and permeability has to be minimized for acceptable compressive strength. For instance, from Fig. 14, an
optimum mixture can be figured out using p/a ratio of 0.425 with the expected compressive strength of 17.5 MPa, a void ratio of
17.5%, the permeability of 4.2 mm/s and infiltration of 6E + 06 mm/h from Fig. 17.

5. Conclusions

In this study, fresh and hardened properties of NS modified pervious concrete were experimentally investigated. The following
conclusions can be drawn:

• Effects of adding NS on the fresh properties of the cementitious paste of pervious concrete is marginal and can be fully offset using
a small dosage of superplasticizer.
• The compressive strength of pervious concrete is effected by the compressive strength of its hardened cementitious paste. In
which, pervious concrete produces higher compressive strength if the compressive strength of the cementitious paste is enhanced.
Adding NS will enhance the compressive strength by modifying the microstructure of the hardened cementitious paste.

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• NS has the advantage of activating reaction of FA. This will lead to decrease the internal surface roughness of voids and improve
the infiltration.
• NS modified pervious concrete can be produced with acceptable values of compressive strength, void ratio, and permeability.
Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank the Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS Malaysia for granting the project under code YUTP 0153AA
– H30.

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