1 21 Projects Including All Headings

Projects 1……..
Bone Ash ESTIMATION OF CONTENT OF BONE ASH

2….. Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables
3 Chemistry Project on Preparation of Pigments and Poster Paints
4 Formation Of Biodiesel
5 Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples
6 Determination of Contents of Cold Drinks
7 Variation of Conductance with Temperature in Electrolytes Name
8 Study of Diffusion of solids in Liquids
9 Project on preparation soyabean milk and its comparison with the
natural milk
10 Study the electrolysis of products of Potassium Iodide (KI)
11 Study the rates of fermentation of fruit or vegetable juices
12 Prepare cuprammonium rayon threads from filter paper
13 Study the change in E.m.f of a Daniel cell Due to various factors such
as Change in concentration, temperature And Area of electrodes.
14 To Determine which Antacid could Neutralize the most Stomach Acid
15 Extraction of Essential Oil from Aniseed (Saunf
16 PREPARATION OF POTASH ALUM FROM SCRAP ALUMINUM
17 STERILIZATION OF WATER USING BLEACHING POWDER
18 Study Of Constituents Of An Alloy CHEMISTRY PROJECT
19 19 Chemistry Project on Evaporation of Liquid
20 Measuring the Amount of Acetic Acid In Vinegar
21 Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables
22 STUDY OF QUANTITY OF CAESIN PRESENT IN DIFFERENT SAMPLES OF
MILK
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23 Adulterants in Food
GHPS KAROL BAGH

2021-22
SUBJECT CHEMISTRY
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
ON
…………………………
SUBMITTED BY:
ROLL NUMBER –
TEACHER INCHARGE : M Ms: Examiner :
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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Master …………………,A student of class XII B of

the…………………… School, Roll No: session 20….-20…., has
satisfactorily completed the required chemistry project work
on………………………………………………………………………………as per the syllabus
of Standard XII in the laboratory of the school.
Date:
Chemistry Teacher (…………………..)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT :
I selected this project as a part of my studies, titled “PREAPARATION OF
SOYABEAN MILK AND ITS COMPARISION WITH NATURAL MILK”.
As a gratitude, I convey my sincere thanks to my chemistry teacher
Ms/Mr……………. and Lab. Assistant MS/Mr. ………………………. who was the
constant guide during the period of study and without whose help it
would not have been possible for me to complete this project.
I also want to thank school Principal for providing me lab facilities .
ARYAN DEV
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CONTENT : PG. NO
AIM: 1
THEORY 2
MATERIAL REQUIRED
CHEMICAL REQUIRED
PROCEDURE
TEST/OBSERVATION TABLE:
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Result :
CONCLUSION:
PRECAUTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
AIM
Study of Diffusion of solids in liquids
INTRODUCTION When substances are brought in contact with each other
they intermix, this property is known as Diffusion. This property of
diffusion takes place very rapidly in case of gases and to a lesser extent in
case of liquids, whereas solids do not show this process of diffusion with
each other. But what we can observe in case of solids is that the diffusion
of solids in liquids takes place at a very slow rate. If a solid is kept in
contact with an excess of solvent in which it is soluble, some portion of
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the solid gets dissolved. We know that this process is known as
dissolution of a solid in liquid and this process has taken place due to the
diffusion of solid particles into liquid. Molecules of solute are in constant
random motion due to the collision between molecules of solute and that
of the solvent. OBJECTIVE Rate of diffusion depends upon:- Temperature:
As temperature increases, the kinetic
energy of the particles increases so the speed of particles also increases
which thus increases the rate of diffusion. Size of the particle: As the size
of particle increases, rate of diffusion decreases. Mass of the particle: As
the mass of the particle increases the rate of diffusion decreases.
EXPERIMENT 1 To study diffusion when copper sulphate is brought in
contact with water (liquid) REQUIREMENTS: Copper sulphate crystals,
100ml beaker. PROCEDURE: Ø Take about 2g of copper sulphate crystals
in 100ml beaker. Ø Add about 50ml of water and allow it to stand for few
minutes. Ø Note the development of blue colour in water. Ø Allow to
stand further till it is observed that all copper sulphate disappears. Ø Note
the blue colour change in water. CONCLUSION: When solids such as
copper sulphate, potassium permanganate are brought in contact with
liquids such as water, intermixing of substances, i.e. diffusion takes place.
EXPERIMENT 2 To study the effect of temperature on the rate of diffusion
of solids in liquids REQUIREMENTS: Copper sulphate crystals, 200ml
beaker, watch glass, wire gauge, burner, tripod stand, thermometer and
stop watch. PROCEDURE: Ø Take 5g of copper sulphate each in three
beakers. Ø Pour 100ml of distilled water slowly in one of the beakers. Ø
Cover this beaker with a watch glass. Ø Pour 100ml of cold water in a
second beaker slowly. Ø Place a third beaker containing 100ml of water
on a tripod stand for heating. Ø Observe the diffusion process which
begins in all the beakers. Ø Record the time taken for the dissolution of
copper sulphate in all the three cases. OBSERVATIONS: S.No. Temperature
of water Time Taken in Minutes 1. 25 0C 15 Min. 2. 10 0C 20 Min. 3. 70 0C
10 Min. CONCLUSION: The Rate of diffusion of copper sulphate in water is
in the order of Beaker 3 > Beaker 1 > Beaker 2. Thus, the rate of diffusion
varies directly with temperature. EXPERIMENT 3 To study the effect of
size of particles on the rate of diffusion of solids in liquids
REQUIREMENTS: Graduated 100ml measuring cylinders, copper sulphate
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crystals of different sizes, stop watch PROCEDURE: Ø Add 50ml of water
to each of the three cylinders. Ø Take 5g each of big size, medium size,
small size crystals of copper sulphate and add them separately in three
cylinders. Ø Allow to stand for sometime. Ø Note the time taken for blue
colour to reach any fixed mark in each of the cylinders and note the
observations. OBSERVATION: S.No. Crystal size Time Taken in Minutes 1.
Big 20 Min. 2. Medium 15 Min. 3. Small 10 Min. CONCLUSION: Small
particles undergo diffusion more quickly than bigger particles. RESULT Ø
When solids such as copper sulphate, potassium permanganate are
brought in contact with liquid such as water, intermixing of the
substances, i.e. diffusion takes place. Ø The rate of diffusion varies
directly with temperature.
Read more at: http://projects.icbse.com/chemistry-254

1 Bone Ash
ESTIMATION OF CONTENT OF BONE ASH
PROJECT SUBMITTED BY
Prashanth.G
12 D
ROLL NO:0000000000000000
Department of Chemistry
Bonafide Certificate
This is to certify that the Chemistry project __________________________
__________________________________________ in Chemistry had been
Submitted by the candidate _________________________________
With roll number __________________ for the class XII practical
examination of
the Central Board of Secondary Education in the year 20…..
It is further certified that this project is the individual work of the
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Candidate.
Signature: Date:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
I thank the staff of the Chemistry department for the help
And guidance provided to me in completing the project in
Chemistry. I also thank the principal for permitting the use of the
Resources of the school for completing the project.
Name of the Candidate:
Roll Number:
Date:
INDEX
CONTENTS PAGE NO
Bone – Introdution 6
Functions 7
Characteristics 8
Cellular Structure 10
Molecular Structure 11
Types of Bones 13
Formation 14
Re-Modelling 16
Paracrine Cell Signalling 17
Experiment Analysis 18
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Report of the project 19
Results 20
Disorders 21
Osteology 22
Terminology 23,24
Bibliography 25
Abstract
This project introduces some knowledge about the basics involved in
finding the constituents of bone. This Project deals with the principle of
qualitative analysis of cation and anion.
Skeletal system plays an integral part of most of the animals what is that it
makes it form an integral part? The solution of this can be understood
more clearly from this project.
Significance of project:
 Deals with analysis of bone ash
 Provides all basic ideas about concentration of various salts present
 Provides information about ion exchange reaction
This project indeed would be a revolution in the world where there is
increasing worry about problems of bone like osteoporosis and in this
industrial age amount of calcium content in bone is also reducing; this
project would indeed be a very good solution.
Bone
.
Bones are rigid organs that form part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates.
They function to move, support, and protect the various organs of the
body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a
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type of dense connective tissue. Because bones come in a variety of shapes
and have a complex internal and external structure they are lightweight,
yet strong and hard, in addition to fulfilling their many other functions. One
of the types of tissue that makes up bone is the mineralized osseous tissue,
also called bone tissue, that gives it rigidity and a honeycomb-like three-
dimensional internal structure. Other types of tissue found in bones
include marrow, endosteum and periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and
cartilage. There are 206 bones in the adult human body and 270 in an infant
Functions
Bones have eleven main functions:
Mechanical
 Protection — Bones can serve to protect internal organs, such as
the skull protecting the brain or the ribsheart and lungs.protecting
the
 Shape — Bones provide a frame to keep the body supported.
 Movement — Bones, skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints
function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual
body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-
dimensional space. The interaction between bone and muscle is
studied in biomechanics.
 Sound transduction — Bones are important in the mechanical aspect
of overshadowed hearing.
 Blood production — The marrow, located within the medullary cavity
of long bones and interstices of cancellous bone, produces blood
cells in a process called haematopoiesis.
Synthetic
Metabolic
 Mineral storage — Bones act as reserves of minerals important for
the body, most notably calciumphosphorus.and
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 Growth factor storage — Mineralized bone matrix stores important
growth factors such as insulin-like growth factors, transforming
growth factor, bone morphogenetic proteins and others.
 Fat Storage — The yellow bone marrow acts as a storage reserve
of fatty acids.
 Acid-base balance — Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH
changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline salts.
 Detoxification — Bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other
foreign elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their
effects on other tissues. These can later be gradually released
for excretion.
 Endocrine organ – Bone controls phosphate metabolism by
releasing fibroblast growth factor – 23 (FGF-23), which acts
on kidneys to reduce phosphate re absorption.
Characteristics
The primary tissue of bone, osseous tissue, is a relatively hard and
lightweight composite material, formed mostly of calcium phosphate in the
chemical arrangement termed calcium hydroxylapatite (this is the osseous
tissue that gives bones their rigidity). It has relatively high compressive
strength but poor tensile strength of 104-121 MPa, meaning it resists
pushing forces well, but not pulling forces. While bone is essentially brittle,
it does have a significant degree of elasticity, contributed chiefly
by collagen. All bones consist of living and dead cells embedded in the
mineralized organic matrix that makes up the osseous tissue.
Individual bone structure
Bone is not a uniformly solid material, but rather has some spaces between
its hard elements.
Compact bone or (Cortical bone)
The hard outer layer of bones is composed of compact bone tissue, so-
called due to its minimal gaps and spaces. This tissue gives bones their
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smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total
bone mass of an adult skeleton. Compact bone may also be referred to as
dense bone.
Trabecular bone
Filling the interior of the bone is the trabecular bone tissue (an open
cell porousnetwork also called cancellous or spongy bone), which is
composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements that make the
overall organ lighter and allowing room for blood vessels and marrow.
Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass but has
nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone. If for any reason there
is an alteration in the strain to which the cancellous subjected there is a
rearrangement of the trabeculae. Although adult bone exists in both
cancellous and compact forms, there is no microscopic difference between
the two.
Cellular structure
There are several types of cells constituting the bone;
 Osteoblasts are mononucleate bone-forming cells that descend
from osteoprogenitor cells. They are located on the surface of
osteoid seams and make a protein mixture known as osteoid, which
mineralizes to become bone. The osteiod seam is a narrow region of
newly formed organic matrix, not yet mineralized, located on the
surface of a bone. Osteoid is primarily composed of Type I collagen.
Osteoblasts also manufacture hormones, such as prostaglandins, to
act on the bone itself. They robustly produce alkaline phosphatase,
anenzyme that has a role in the mineralisation of bone, as well as
many matrix proteins. Osteoblasts are the immature bone cells.
 Bone lining cells are essentially inactive osteoblasts. They cover all of
the available bone surface and function as a barrier for certain ions.
 Osteocytes originate from osteoblasts that have migrated into and
become trapped and surrounded by bone matrix that they
themselves produce. The spaces they occupy are known as lacunae.
Osteocytes have many processes that reach out to meet osteoblasts
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and other osteocytes probably for the purposes of communication.
Their functions include to varying degrees: formation of bone, matrix
maintenance and calcium homeostasis. They have also been shown
to act as mechano-sensory receptors — regulating the bone’s
response to stress and mechanical load. They are mature bone cells.
 Osteoclasts are the cells responsible for bone resorption (remodeling
of bone to reduce its volume). Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated
cells located on bone surfaces in what are called Howship’s lacunae
or resorption pits. These lacunae, or resorption pits, are left behind
after the breakdown of the bone surface. Because the osteoclasts are
derived from a monocyte stem-cell lineage, they are equipped
withphagocytic-like mechanisms similar to circulating macrophages.
Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon
arrival, active enzymes, such as tartrate resistant acid phosphatase,
are secreted against the mineral substrate.
Molecular structure
Matrix
The majority of bone is made of the bone matrix. It has inorganic and
organic parts. Bone is formed by the hardening of this matrix entrapping
the cells. When these cells become entrapped from osteoblasts they
become osteocytes.
Inorganic
The inorganic is mainly crystalline mineral salts and calcium, which is
present in the form of hydroxyapatite. The matrix is initially laid down as
unmineralised osteoid (manufactured by osteoblasts). Mineralisation
involves osteoblasts secreting vesicles containing alkaline phosphatase. This
cleaves the phosphate groups and acts as the foci for calcium and
phosphate deposition. The vesicles then rupture and act as a centre for
crystals to grow on.
Organic
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The organic part of matrix is mainly composed of Type I collagen. This is
synthesised intracellularly as tropocollagen and then exported,
forming fibrils. The organic part is also composed of various growth factors,
the functions of which are not fully known. Factors present
includeglycosaminoglycans, osteocalcin, osteonectin, bone sialo
protein, osteopontin and Cell Attachment Factor. One of the main things
that distinguishes the matrix of a bone from that of another cell is that the
matrix in bone is hard.
Woven or lamellar
Two types of bone can be identified microscopically according to the
pattern of collagen forming the osteoid (collagenous support tissue of type
I collagen embedded in glycosaminoglycan gel
1) woven bone characterised by haphazard organisation of collagen fibers
and is mechanically weak, and
2) lamellar bone which has a regular parallel alignment of collagen into
sheets (lamellae) and is mechanically strong.
Woven bone is produced when osteoblasts produce osteoid rapidly which
occurs initially in all fetalbones (but is later replaced by more resilient
lamellar bone). In adults woven bone is created afterfractures or in Paget’s
disease. Woven bone is weaker, with a smaller number of randomly
oriented collagen fibers, but forms quickly; it is for this appearance of the
fibrous matrix that the bone is termedwoven. It is soon replaced by lamellar
bone, which is highly organized in concentric sheets with a much lower
proportion of osteocytes to surrounding tissue. Lamellar bone, which
makes its first appearance in the fetus during the third trimester,[3] is
stronger and filled with many collagen fibers parallel to other fibers in the
same layer (these parallel columns are called osteons). In cross-section, the
fibers run in opposite directions in alternating layers, much like in plywood,
assisting in the bone’s ability to resist torsion forces. After a fracture,
woven bone forms initially and is gradually replaced by lamellar bone
during a process known as “bony substitution.”
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These terms are histologic, in that a microscope is necessary to
differentiate between the two.
Types
There are five types of bones in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular
and sesamoid.
 Long bones are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much
greater in length than width. They are comprised mostly of compact
bone and lesser amounts of marrow, which is located within
the medullary cavity, and spongy bone. Most bones of the limbs,
including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The
exceptions are those of the wrist, ankleand kneecap.
 Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of
compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. The bones of the wrist
and ankle are short bones, as are thesesamoid bones.
 Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of
compact bones sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the
bones of the skull are flat bones, as is thesternum.
 Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories. They consist of
thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As
implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated. The
bones of the spinehips are irregular bones.and
 Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to
hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon
is increased and thus the leverage of the muscle is increased.
Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and
the pisiform.Compared to woven bone , lamellar bone formation
takes place more slowly. The orderly deposition of collagen fibers
restricts the formation of osteoid to about 1 to 2 µm per day.
Lamellar bone requires a relatively flat surface to lay the collagen fibers in
parallel or concentric layers.
Formation
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The formation of bone during the fetal stage of development occurs by two
processes: Intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.
Intramembranous ossification
Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat
bones of the skull; the bone is formed from mesenchyme tissue. The steps
in intramembranous ossification are:
1. Development of ossification center
2. Calcification
3. Formation of trabeculae
4. Development of periosteum
Endochondral ossification
Endochondral ossification, on the other hand, occurs in long bones, such as
limbs; the bone is formed from cartilage. The steps in endochondral
ossification are:
1. Development of cartilage model
2. Growth of cartilage model
3. Development of the primary ossification center
4. Development of the secondary ossification center
5. Formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate
Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called “primary
ossification centers.” They mostly appear during fetal development, though
a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are
responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones
and certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs after
birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of
irregular and flat bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone
are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). When
the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the
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cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses
together (epiphyseal closure).
Bone marrow
Bone marrow can be found in almost any bone that holds cancellous tissue.
In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow, but as
the child ages it is mostly replaced by yellow, or fatty marrow. In adults, red
marrow is mostly found in the marrow bones of the femur, the ribs, the
vertebrae and pelvic bones.
Remodeling
Remodeling or bone turnover is the process of resorption followed by
replacement of bone with little change in shape and occurs throughout a
person’s life. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts, coupled together via paracrine
cell signalling, are referred to as bone remodeling units.
Purpose
The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis,
repair micro-damaged bones (from everyday stress) but also to shape and
sculpture the skeleton during growth.
Calcium balance
The process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium
into the systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating
calcium balance. As bone formation actively fixes circulating calcium in its
mineral form, removing it from the bloodstream, resorption
actively unfixes it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. These
processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations.
Repair
Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing exercise or bone healing, results in
the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress (Wolff’s law). It has
been hypothesized that this is a result of bone’s piezoelectric properties,
which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress. [4]
Paracrine cell signalling
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The action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts are controlled by a number of
chemical factors which either promote or inhibit the activity of the bone
remodelling cells, controlling the rate at which bone is made, destroyed or
changed in shape. The cells also use paracrine signalling to control the
activity of each other.
Osteoblast stimulation
Osteoblasts can be stimulated to increase bone mass through increased
secretion of osteoid and by inhibiting the ability of osteoclasts to break
down osseous tissue.
Bone building through increased secretion of osteoid is stimulated by the
secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary, thyroid hormone and the sex
hormones (estrogens and androgens). These hormones also promote
increased secretion of osteoprotegerin.[5] Osteoblasts can also be induced
to secrete a number of cytokines that promote reabsorbtion of bone by
stimulating osteoclast activity and differentiation from progenitor
cells. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and stimulation from osteocytes
induce osteoblasts to increase secretion of RANK-ligand and interleukin 6,
which cytokines then stimulate increased reabsorbtion of bone by
osteoclasts. These same compounds also increase secretion ofmacrophage
colony-stimulating factor by osteoblasts, which promotes the
differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts, and decrease secretion
of osteoprotegerin.
Osteoclast inhibition
The rate at which osteoclasts resorb bone is inhibited by calcitonin and
osteoprotegerin. Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells in thethyroid
gland, and can bind to receptors on osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast
activity. Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts and is able to bind
RANK-L, inhibiting osteoclast stimulation.
Experimental Analysis
Materials Required
PARTICULARS QUANTITY
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Rib Bone 2 Pieces
Beaker 150 ml
Test Tube 7 nos
Evaporating Dish 1 no
Ring Stand 1 no
Bunsen Burner 1 no
Test Tube Holder 2 nos
Filter Paper -
PH Paper -
Dil. Nitric Acid 200 ml
1% Ammonium Hydroxide 100 ml
1% Silver Nitrate 25 ml
1% Ammonium Chloride 50 ml
Acetic Acid 100 ml
1% Potassium Thiocyanate 25 ml
Distilled Water As Reqd
Report of Project
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATION
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 A strip of bone was burnt in Yellowish white precipitate was
evaporating dish obtained
 2 gms of bone as was

weighed
 To it dilute nitric acid was On adding Nitric acid the ash

added sparingly dissolved
 It was diluted with water and

the ash was completely
dissolved
 The above solution was

filtered and the residue (left
on the filter paper) was
discarded
 Ammonium hydroxide was The pH was made to 8.6

added to the filtrate (left on Whitish brown precipitate
the beaker) of Magnesium ammonium
phosphate was obtained
 The solution was made basic.

The basicity was checked with
the help of pH paper
 The solution was filtered and

the residue was isolated
 The filtrate was separated White precipitate of Silver

into two test tubes chloride was obtained
 Silver nitrate was added to White residue of calcium

one of the test tubes
 To the other test tube Carbonate was obtained
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ammonium chloride and
ammonium carbonate was
added simultaneously and
boiled
 To the solution left, dilute Red colour solution marking the

HCL was added followed by presence of Iron was obtained
Potassium thiocyanate
Result
Extrapolation from the above observations
Constituents of bone ash identified were:
1. I. Calcium
2. II. Phosphate
3. III. Chloride
4. IV. Magnesium
5. V. Iron
Apart from this Calcium and Phosphate which is found maximum in bone
was estimated from the precipitate got. This was done by weighing the
precipitate
 Weight of Calcium carbonate:- 1.7 g
 Weight of Mg (NH4) PO4 :- 1.1 g
 Weight of Ca in 2g of sample:- 0.68 g
 Weight of Phosphorous:- 0.24 g
 % of Ca:- 34%
 % of Phosphorous:- 12%
Disorders
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There are many disorders of the skeleton. One of the more prominent
is osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of bone, leading to an increased risk of fracture.
In osteoporosis, the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone
microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-
collagenous proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by
the World Health Organization (WHO) in women as a bone mineral density
2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass (20-year-old sex-matched
healthy person average) as measured by DXA; the term “established
osteoporosis” includes the presence of a fragility fracture.[6] Osteoporosis is
most common in women after the menopause, when it is
called postmenopausal osteoporosis, but may develop in men and
premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders
and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications,
specifically glucocorticoids, when the disease is called steroid-
or glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP or GIOP).
Osteoporosis can be prevented with lifestyle advice and medication, and
preventing falls in people with known or suspected osteoporosis is an
established way to prevent fractures. Osteoporosis can be treated
with bisphosphonates and various other medical treatments.
Other
Other disorders of bone include:
 Bone fracture
 Osteomyelitis
 Osteosarcoma
 Osteogenesis imperfecta
 Osteochondritis Dissecans
 Bone Metastases
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 Neurofibromatosis type I
Osteology
The study of bones and teeth is referred to as osteology. It is frequently
used in anthropology, archeology and forensic science for a variety of tasks.
This can include determining the nutritional, health, age or injury status of
the individual the bones were taken from. Preparing fleshed bones for
these types of studies can involve maceration – boiling fleshed bones to
remove large particles, then hand-cleaning.
Typically anthropologists and archeologists study bone tools made
by Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis. Bones can serve a number of
uses such as projectile points or artistic pigments, and can be made from
endoskeletal or external bones such as antler or tusk.
Alternatives to bony endoskeletons
There are several evolutionary alternatives to mammillary bone; though
they have some similar functions, they are not completely functionally
analogous to bone.
 Exoskeletons offer support, protection and levers for movement
similar to endoskeletal bone. Different types of exoskeletons
include shells,carapaces (consisting of calcium compounds or silica)
and chitinous exoskeletons.
 A true endoskeleton (that is, protective tissue derived from
mesoderm) is also present in Echinoderms. Poriferaspicules and a
spongin fiber network.(sponges) possess simple endoskeletons that
consist of calcareous or siliceous
Exposed bone
Bone penetrating the skin and being exposed to the outside can be both a
natural process in some animals, and due to injury:
 A deer’s antlers are composed of bone.
 Instead of teeth, the extinct predatory fish Dunkleosteus had sharp
edges of hard exposed bone along its jaws.
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 A compound fracture occurs when the edges of a broken bone
puncture the skin.
 Though not strictly speaking exposed, a bird’s beak is primarily bone
covered in a layer of keratin over a vascular layer containing blood
vessels and nerve endings.
Terminology
Several terms are used to refer to features and components of bones
throughout the body:
Bone feature Definition
articular A projection that contacts an adjacent bone.

process
articulation The region where adjacent bones contact each other

— a joint.
canal A long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for

notable nerves or blood vessels.
condyle A large, rounded articular process.
crest A prominent ridge.
eminence A relatively small projection or bump.
epicondyle A projection near to a condyle but not part of the joint.
facet A small, flattened articular surface.
foramen An opening through a bone.
fossa A broad, shallow depressed area.
fovea A small pit on the head of a bone.
Labyrinth A cavity within a bone.
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line A long, thin projection, often with a rough surface. Also
known as a ridge.
malleolus One of two specific protuberances of bones in

the ankle.
meatus A short canal.
process A relatively large projection or prominent bump.(gen.)
ramus An arm-like branch off the body of a bone.
sinus A cavity within a cranial bone.
spine A relatively long, thin projection or bump.
suture Articulation between cranial bones.
trochanter One of two specific tuberosities located on the femur.
tubercle A projection or bump with a roughened surface,

generally smaller than a tuberosity.
tuberosity A projection or bump with a roughened surface.
Bibliography
 Biology Investigations
- Otto, Towle, Crider
 Concise Inorganic Chemistry
- J.D.Lee
 Wikipedia
 NCERT Biology and chemistry Textbook
 The Journal of Biological Chemistry
Page 24 of 98
- Anon
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2 Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables

CHEMISTRY PROJECT REPORT
2009-2010
STUDY THE PRESENCE OF INSECTICIDES
AND PESTICIDES IB FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Name :
Class :
Reg. No :
Examiner Teacher-in charge.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project was done by
Page 25 of 98
…………………………… Reg. No ………………..
Is in partial fulfillment of Chemistry Practical Examinations
AISSCE 2008. I certify that this project is done by him/ her with his/her
own effort.
Teacher in charge
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I place my sincere thanks to my chemistry teacher …………..for her
guidance and advices to complete my work successfully. I also thank our
principal Mr. ………………for providing me all the facilities to finish the
project on time.
I also take this opportunity to place on record my deep gratitude to LORD
ALMIGHTY for the countless blessings showered on me while doing the
work and to complete it.
Last but not least I thank my parents for their encouragement and
support in my humble venture.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION …………………………………
2. AIM ………………………………………….
3. MATERIALS REQUIRED………………….
4. PRECEDURE………………………………..
5. OBSERVATIONS……………………………
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………
INTRODUCTION
In the past decade there has been a tremendous increase in the yields of
various crops to meet the demand of overgrowing population, achieved by
using pesticides and insecticides. These are chemicals that are sprayed over
Page 26 of 98
crop to protect it from pests. For example, DDT, BHC, zinc phosphide,
Mercuric chloride, dinitrophenol, etc. All pesticides are poisonous
chemicals
and are used in small quantities with care. Pesticides are proven to be
effective against variety of insects, weeds and fungi and are respectively
called insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. Most of the pesticides are
non-biodegradable and remain penetrated as such into plants, fruits and
vegetables . From plants they transfer to animals , birds and human beings
who eat these polluted fruits and vegetables. Inside the body they get
accumulated and cause serious health problems. These days preference is
given to biodegradable insecticides like malathion. The presence of
Insecticides residues in even raw samples of wheat, fish, meat , butter etc.
have aroused the concern of agricultural administrators, scientists and
health officials all over the world to put a check over the use of insecticides
and to search for non insecticidal means of pest control.
AIM
To study the presence of insecticides or pesticides (nitrogen containing) in
various fruits and vegetables.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Mortar and pestle , beakers, funnel , glass rod , filter paper china dish ,
water bath, tripod stand, fusion tube, knife, test tube.
Samples of various fruits and vegetables, alcohol, sodium metal, ferric
chloride, ferrous sulphate crystals, distilled water and dil. Sulphuric acid.
PROCEDURE
Take different types of fruits and vegetables and cut them into small pieces
separately. Transfer the cut pieces of various fruits and vegetables into it
Page 27 of 98
separately and crush them . Take different kinds for each kind of fruits and
vegetables and place the crushed fruits and vegetables in these beakers
and
add 100 ml of alcohol to each of these . Stir well and filter. Collect the
filtrate in separate china dishes, Evaporate the alcohol by heating the china
dishes one by one over a water bath and let the residue dry in the oven .
Heat
a small piece of sodium in a fusion tube , till it melts. Then add one of the
above residues from the china dish to this fusion tube and heat it till red
hot.
Drop the hot fusion tube in a china dish containing about 10 ml of distilled
water. Break the tube and boil the contents of the china dish for about 5
minutes . Cool and filter the solution. Collect the filtrate . To the filtrate add
1 ml of freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution and warm the contents.
Then add 2-3 drops of ferric chloride solution and acidify with dilute HCl.
If a blue or green ppt. or colouration is obtained it indicates the presence of
nitrogen containing insecticides. Repeat the test of nitrogen for residues
obtained from other fruits and vegetables and record the observation.
OBSERVATIONS
S.n Name of the fruit Test for the Presence of

o or presence insecticide
vegetable Of nitrogen Or pesticide
residues
(positive or
negative)
1. Apple positive yes
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2. Grapes positive yes
3. Brinjal positive yes
4. tomato positive yes
BIBLIOGRAPHY
3 Chemistry Project on Preparation of Pigments and Poster Paints To
Prepare Pigments And Poster Paints Using Various Chemicals And Reagents
This is to certify that ………………..Of XII-C Has accomplished this project
entitled : To Prepare Pigments And Poster Paints Using Various Chemicals
And Reagents. Under my Supervision and Guidance. (Mr……………) Contents
S.no. Contents Page No. 1. Acknowledgement 2. Aim
3. Theory 4. Chrome Yellow 5. Efficiency Of Chrome Yellow
6. Prussian Blue 7. Efficiency Of Prussian Blue 8. Conclusion
9. BiblioGraphy
Acknowledgement I would like to show my gratitude to my Chemistry
Teachers Ms. …………………… without whose support and encouragement
this project could never have have taken the present shape . I would also
like to thank my lab incharge Mr. …………… For helping Me out During The
Practical Part Of This Project.
Aim Theory 1.Pigments-A pigment is a finely divided material which
contributes to optical and other properties of paints. Pigments may be
classified according to their composition or source which they are obtained
from. However the most common and useful classification is that color
pigments can be made using simple chemical reactions and techniques.
2.Poster Paints- Grinding a pigment or a mixture to a very fine powdered
and then suspending the powder ina very fine liquid makes poster paint so
as to a uniform suspension. For making poster paints the pigents made by
various chemical reactions are thoroughly mixed with the medium.
Sometimes the paint hardens but the addition of lukewarm water to it can
soften it. 3.Medium- Medium used for making paints is made by mixing
30ml of clear glue with 10ml of water and adding a drop of liquid detergent
to it. Chrome Yellow Chemically known as LEAD CHROMATE (PbCrO4) the
Page 29 of 98
yellow pigment is obtained as follows: Procedure- 1. Dissolve 7gm of
Potassium Chromate in 50mL water and 10gm Lead Nitrate in 100mL water
in Two Separate Beakers. 2. Pour The Potassium Chromate Solution in the
Lead Nitrate and stir continuously. 3. Lead Chromate seperates as
precipitate and is the required pigment. 4. Filter the precipitate and dry the
pigment. Reaction Involved- K2CrO4 + Pb(No3)2 PbCrO4 + 2KNO3 Efficiency
Total mass of reactants used = (Excluding the mass of water used for
dilution) Mass Of Paint/Pigment Obtained = Efficiency in formation of
yellow colour = Prussian Blue Chemically known as Complex Ferro Cyanide
(Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3) Procedure Make A solution of 5gm of Hydrated Iron(III)
Chloride in 50mL of water. 2. Make a solution of 10gm of Potassium
FerroCyanide in 75mL of water. 3. Add Iron Chloride solution into
Potassium FerroCyanide(K4[Fe(CN)6]) solution while stirring briskly. 4. A
dark blue colour very fine powdered type substance precipitates. 5.Filter
the precipitate and wash it with water. It takes along time to filter this
substance. Reaction involved 3K4[Fe(CN)6] + 4FeCl3 Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3
Efficiency Total mass of reactants used= (excluding mass of water used for
dilution) Mass of Paint/Pigment obtained= Efficiency In Formation Of Blue
Pigment Obtained is= Conclusion Fine Poster Paints Were obtained using
various Chemicals and Reactants.

To Prepare Pigments And Poster Paints Using Various Chemicals And
Reagents This is to certify that Pujit Singh Of XII-C Has accomplished this
project entitled : To Prepare Pigments And Poster Paints Using Various
Chemicals And Reagents. Under my Supervision and Guidance. (Mr. Harsh
Gupta) Contents S.no. Contents Page No. 1.
Acknowledgement 2. Aim 3. Theory 4. Chrome Yellow 5.
Efficiency Of Chrome Yellow 6. Prussian Blue 7. Efficiency Of
Prussian Blue 8. Conclusion 9. BiblioGraphy Acknowledgement I
would like to show my gratitude to my Chemistry Teachers Ms. Anita Sood
& Mr. Harsh Gupta without whose support and encouragement this project
could never have have taken the present shape . I would also like to thank
my lab incharge Mr. Vinod For helping Me out During The Practical Part Of
Page 30 of 98
This Project. Aim Theory 1.Pigments-A pigment is a finely divided material
which contributes to optical and other properties of paints. Pigments may
be classified according to their composition or source which they are
obtained from. However the most common and useful classification is that
color pigments can be made using simple chemical reactions and
techniques. 2.Poster Paints- Grinding a pigment or a mixture to a very fine
powdered and then suspending the powder ina very fine liquid makes
poster paint so as to a uniform suspension. For making poster paints the
pigents made by various chemical reactions are thoroughly mixed with the
medium. Sometimes the paint hardens but the addition of lukewarm water
to it can soften it. 3.Medium- Medium used for making paints is made by
mixing 30ml of clear glue with 10ml of water and adding a drop of liquid
detergent to it. Chrome Yellow Chemically known as LEAD CHROMATE
(PbCrO4) the yellow pigment is obtained as follows: Procedure- 1. Dissolve
7gm of Potassium Chromate in 50mL water and 10gm Lead Nitrate in
100mL water in Two Separate Beakers. 2. Pour The Potassium Chromate
Solution in the Lead Nitrate and stir continuously. 3. Lead Chromate
seperates as precipitate and is the required pigment. 4. Filter the
precipitate and dry the pigment. Reaction Involved- K2CrO4 + Pb(No3)2
PbCrO4 + 2KNO3 Efficiency Total mass of reactants used = (Excluding the
mass of water used for dilution) Mass Of Paint/Pigment Obtained =
Efficiency in formation of yellow colour = Prussian Blue Chemically known
as Complex Ferro Cyanide (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3) Procedure Make A solution of
5gm of Hydrated Iron(III) Chloride in 50mL of water. 2. Make a solution of
10gm of Potassium FerroCyanide in 75mL of water. 3. Add Iron Chloride
solution into Potassium FerroCyanide(K4[Fe(CN)6]) solution while stirring
briskly. 4. A dark blue colour very fine powdered type substance
precipitates. 5.Filter the precipitate and wash it with water. It takes along
time to filter this substance. Reaction involved 3K4[Fe(CN)6] + 4FeCl3
Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 Efficiency Total mass of reactants used= (excluding mass of
water used for dilution) Mass of Paint/Pigment obtained= Efficiency In
Formation Of Blue Pigment Obtained is= Conclusion Fine Poster Paints
Were obtained using various Chemicals and Reactants.

Page 31 of 98
4 Formation Of Biodiesel Chemistry Investigatory Project
Acknowledgement It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude
towards our chemistry teacher Mrs._______ for her guidance, support and
encouragement throughout the duration of the project. Without her
motivation and help the successful completion of this project would not
have been possible.
CERTIFICATE This is to certify that ………………of class XII has completed the
chemistry project entitled ‘FORMATION OF BIO DIESEL’ Himself and under
my guidance. The progress of the project has been continuously reported
and has been in my knowledge consistently.
SUBJECT INCHARGE:- Mrs. _________ Contents Acknowledgement
Certificate What is Biodiesel? Uses of Biodiesel Preparation of Biodiesel
Reactions involved Biodiesel fuel features Disadvantages of Biodiesel
Bibliography What is Biodiesel? Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based
diesel fuel consisting of short chain alkyl (methyl or ethyl) esters, made by
transesterification of vegetable oil or animal fat (tallow), which can be used
(alone, or blended with conventional petrol diesel) in unmodified diesel-
engine vehicles. Biodiesel is distinguished from the straight-vegetable oil
(SVO) (sometimes referred to as “waste vegetable oil” “WVO” “used
vegetable oil” “UVO” “pure plant oil”, “PPO”) used(alone, or blended) as
fuels in some converted diesel vehicles.”Biodiesel” is standardized as
mono-alkyl ester and other kinds of diesel-grade fuels of biological origin
are not included. Uses of biodiesel Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy
source that can be made from soy beans grown for fuel, or from cooking
oils recycled from restaurants. This means it is a renewable resource unlike
petroleum-based diesel. There is an excess production of soybeans in the
United States; therefore biodiesel is an economic way to utilize this surplus.
Biodiesel is less polluting than petroleum diesel. Compared to petroleum
diesel, biodiesel produces less soot (particulate matter), carbon monoxide,
unburned hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide. The absence of sulfur in 100%
biodiesel should extend the life of catalytic converters. Biodiesel fuel can
Page 32 of 98
also be used in combination with heating oil to heat residential and
industrial buildings. This can reduce dependence on non-renewable and
increasingly expensive heating oil. Biodiesel burns cleaner & is made of
non-toxic chemicals so it does not give out poisonous fumes, unlike the
ordinary fuel. Instructions to Prepare Bio Diesel Requirements: Vegetable
oil Antifreeze (Methanol) Lye (NaOH) Blender Scales Plastic containers
Funnels Plastic bottle with lid Duct tape Thermometer Steps Involved: Step
1: Measure out 200 ml of antifreeze and put it in one plastic container. Step
2: Add in lye so that the antifreeze is absorbed. Step 3: Cover container and
mix well by shaking it. It is mixed when it starts to feel warm and is foamy.
The mixture has now become sodium methoxide. Step 4: Blend 1 liter of
vegetable oil with the sodium methoxide in a blender for 20 minutes. Step
5: Pour mixture into a bottle and wait 8 hours until the byproduct, glycerin,
separates form the biodiesel. The glycerin will be on the solid on the
bottom. Step 6: Separate out the biodiesel by pouring into a glass bottle.
Step 7: Prepare a wash bottle by poking a small hole in the corner of the
bottle and covering it with duct tape. Step 8: Wash the biodiesel by pouring
it into the wash bottle and adding in ½ a liter of water. Roll the bottle
around to mix it and then remove the duct tape and drain the water. Step
9: Repeat the washing process until the biodiesel is clear. This may need to
be done numerous times over the course of a week to complete the
process. Store the biodiesel in a glass container until ready to use.
Reactions involved Transesterification: Animal & plant fats & oils are
typically made of triglycerides which are esters of free fatty acids with the
trihydric alcohol, glycerol. In the transesterification process, the alcohol is
deprotonated with a base to make it a stronger nucleophile. Commonly,
ethanol or methanol is used. As can be seen, the reaction has no other
inputs than the triglyceride & the alcohol. Normally, this reaction will
precede either exceedingly slowly or not at all. Heat, as well as an acid or
base are used to help the reaction more quickly. Biodiesel is a much cleaner
fuel than conventional fossil-fuel petroleum diesel Biodiesel burns up to
75% cleaner than petroleum diesel fuel. Biodiesel reduces unburned
hydrocarbons (93% less), carbon monoxide (50% less) & particulate matter
(30% less) in exhaust fumes, as well as cancer-causing PAH (80% less).
Sulphur dioxide emissions are eliminated (biodiesel contains no Sulphur).
Page 33 of 98
Biodiesel is a plant-based & using it adds no extra CO2 greenhouse gas to
the atmosphere. The ozone-forming (smog) potential of biodiesel emissions
is nearly 50% less than petrol-diesel emissions. Nitrogen oxide emissions
may increase or decrease with biodiesel but can be reduced to well below
petrol-diesel fuel levels. Biodiesel exhaust is not offensive & doesn’t cause
eye irritation. Biodiesel can be mixed with petrol-diesel in any proportion,
with no need for a mixing additive. With slight variations depending on the
vehicle, performance & fuel economy with biodiesel is the same as with
petrol-diesel. Biodiesel’s fuel features Power: One of the major advantages
is the fact that it can be used in exiting engines & fuel injection equipment
(no modification required) without negative impact to operating
performance. Fuel availability/economy: Virtually the same MPG rating as
petrol-diesel & the only alternative fuel for heavyweight vehicles requiring
no special dispensing & storage equipment. Production/Refining: Can be
done at home (wasted veggie oil) & farms (virgin oils from seeds), being the
only alternative fuel that can boost of a zero total emissions production
facility. By selling the simultaneously produced glycerol, the cost of BD is
basically the same cost of the oil used to make it. Storage: Readily blends &
stays blended with petrol-diesel so it can be stored & dispensed wherever
diesel is stored or sold. Combustibility/Safety: Biodiesel has a very high
flash point (300⁰F) making it one of the safest of all alternative fuels.
Lubricity: The only alternative fuel that can actually extend engine life
because of its superior lubricating & cleaning properties. The present “low
sulphur” diesel fuel is badly wearing the injection pumps of not protected
diesel engine. Usage: Biodiesel fuel can generally be used in existing oil
heating systems and diesel engines without modification, and it can be
distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps. This is an advantage over
other alternative fuels, which can be expensive to use initially due to high
cost of equipment modifications or new purchases. Biodiesel provides
almost the same energy per gallon as petroleum diesel. Environment
Impact: The only renewable alternative diesel fuel that actually reduces
major greenhouse gas components in the atmosphere. The use of biodiesel
will also reduce the following emissions: carbon monoxide, ozone-forming-
hydrocarbons, hazardous diesel particulate, acid rain-causing sulphur
dioxide, lifecycle carbon dioxide. Disadvantages of Biodiesel Biodiesel is
Page 34 of 98
currently about one and a half times more expensive than petroleum diesel
fuel. Part of this cost is because the most common source of oil is the
soybean, which only is only 20% oil. However, the costs of biodiesel can be
reduced by making biodiesel from recycled cooking oils rather than from
new soy beans, or by making it from plant matter with higher oil content. It
takes energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops, including the energy
of sowing, fertilizing and harvesting. Biodiesel fuel can damage rubber
hoses in some engines, particularly in cars built before 1994. You should
check with the manufacturer before using biodiesel to see if you need to
replace any hoses or rubber seals. Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine.
This dirt then collects in the fuel filter, which can clog it. Clogging occurs
most often when biodiesel is first used after a period of operation with
petroleum diesel, so filters should be changed after the first several hours
of biodiesel use. Bibliography All the information in the project has been
gathered from internet. Websites used: Google Free encyclopedia on
biodiesel Biodiesel uses iCBSE Transesterification chemistry for preparing
biodiesel Biodiesel features Making your own biodiesel
5 Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of

all I would like to thank my Chemistry Teacher Ms…………… in providing a
helping hand in making my project titled “Determination Of Caffeine In Tea
Samples”. Disclaimers: The errors idiocies and inconsistencies remain my
own.
………………..(Name and signature of the student) Determination of Caffeine
in Tea Samples ………………….(XII) It is hereby certify that, the original and
genuine research work is carried out to investigate abut the subject matter
and the related data collection and has been completed solely and
satisfactorily by this student regarding the Project titled “Determination Of
Caffeine In Tea Samples”. Signature (Subject Teacher) Determination of
Page 35 of 98
Caffeine in Tea Samples ………………..(XTT-A) CONTENTS 1. Introduction 2.
Theory 3. Uses of Caffeine 4. Effects of Caffeine 5. Procedure 6.
Observations 7. Result Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples ………………
(XTT-A)
INTRODUCTION Tea is the most commonly and widely used soft beverage
in the household. It acts as a stimulant for central nervous system and
skeletal muscles. That is why tea removes fatigue, tiredness and headache.
It also increases the capacity of thinking. It is also used for lowering body
temperature. The principal constituent of tea, which is responsible for all
these properties, is the alkaloid-caffeine. The amount of caffeine in tea
leavers varies from sample to sample. Originally it was thought that
caffeine is responsible for the taste and flavour of tea. But pure caffeine has
been found to be a tasteless while substance. Therefore, the taste and
flavour of tea is due to some other substance present in it. There is a little
doubt that the popularity of the xanthenes beverages depends on their
stimulant action, although most people are unaware Determination of
Caffeine in Tea Samples…………… (XTT-A) of any stimulation. The degree to
which an individual is stimulated by given amount of caffeine varies from
individual to individual. For example, some people boast their ability to
drink several cups of coffee in evening and yet sleep like a long, on the
other hand there are people who are so sensitive to caffeine that even a
single cup of coffee will cause a response boarding on the toxic. The
xanthene beverages also create a medical problem. They are dietary of a
stimulant of the CNS. Often the physicians face the question whether to
deny caffeine-containing beverages to patients or not. In fact children are
more susceptible than adults to excitation by xanthenes. For this reason,
tea and coffee should be excluded from their diet. Even cocoa is of
Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples …………………(XTT-A) doubtful
value. It has a high tannin content may be as high as 50 mg per cup. After
all our main stress is on the presence of caffeine in xanthene beverages and
so in this project we will study and observe the quantity of caffeine varying
in different samples of tea leaves. Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples
……………..(XTT-A)
Page 36 of 98
Theory The most important methylated alkaloid that occurs naturally is
caffeine. Its molecular formula is CsH10N4O2. Its IUPAC name is 1, 3, 7-
trimethylxanthene and common name is 1-methylated thiobromine. Purely
it is white, crystalline solid in the form of needles. Its melting point is 1230c.
It is the main active principle component of tea leaves. It is present in tea
leaves up to 3% and can be extracted by first boiling the tea leaves with
water which dissolves many glycoside compounds in addition to caffeine.
The clear solution is then treated with lead acetate to precipitate the
glycoside compounds in the form of lead complex. The clear filtrate is then
extracted with extracts caffeine because it is more soluble in it then water.
Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples …………..(XTT-A) Uses of Caffeine :
l.In medicine, it is used to stimulate, central nervous system and to increase
flow of urine. 2. Because of its stimulating effects, caffeine has been used
to relieve fatigue. But it is dangerous and one may collapse if not consumes
it under certain limit. 3. Caffeine is also used in analgesic tablets, as it is
believed to be a pain reliever. It is also beneficial in migraines.
Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples ……………..(XTT-A) Effects of
Caffeine l.It is psycho – stimulant. 2. It improves physical and mental
ability. 3. Its effect in learning is doubtful but intellectual performance may
improve where it has been used to reduce fatigue or boredom. 4.When
administered internally, it stimulates heart and nervous system and also
acts as diuretic. On the contrary their excessive use is harmful to digestion
and their long use leads to mental retardation. Determination of Caffeine in
Tea Samples …………………….(XTT-A)
Procedure =^> First of all, 50 grams of tea leaves were taken as sample and
150 ml of water was added to it in a beaker. =^> Then the beaker was
heated up to extreme boiling. =^> The solution was filtered and lead
acetate was added to the filtrater, leading to the formation of a curdy
brown coloured precipitate. =^> We kept on adding lead acetate till no
more precipitate has been formed. =^> Again solution was filtered. =^>
Now the filtrate so obtained was heated until it had become 50 ml. =^>
Then the solution left was allowed to cool. =^> After that, 20 ml. of
chloroform was added to it. =^> Soon after, two layers appeared in the
separating funnel. Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples …………………….
Page 37 of 98
(XTT-A) =^> We separated the lower layer. =^> The solution then exposed
to atmosphere in order to allow chloroform to get evaporated. =^> The
residue left behind was caffeine. =^> Then we weighed it and recorded the
observations. Similar procedure was performed with different samples of
tealeaves and quantity of caffeine was observed in them Determination of
Caffeine in Tea Samples …………….(XTT-A) I.Red Label Tea (Brooke Bond)
Weight of china dish 46.60gms Weight of china dish with precipitate
47.20gms. Amount of caffeine 0.60gms 2.Yellow Label Tea (Lipton) Weight
of china dish 46.60gms Weight of china dish with precipitate 47.15gms.
Amount of caffeine 0.55gms Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples
………….(XTT-A) 3.Green Label Tea (Lipton) Weight of china dish 46.60gms.
Weight of china dish with precipitate 47.05gms. Amount of caffeine
0.45gms. 1. Quantity of caffeine in Red label tea is 60mg. /sample of 50 gm.
2. Quantity of caffeine in yellow label tea is 55mg./sample of 50 gm.
Quantity of caffeine in green label tea is 45mg./sample of 50 gm.
Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples …………(XTT-A) 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2
0.1 0 Graphically plotting various tea samples in accordance with the
amount of caffeine present in them we present a stunning find: 60 mg 55
mg 45 mg RED LABEL YELLOW LABEL GREEN LABEL Order of quantities of
caffeine in different samples of tealeaves Heel Label > Yellow Label > ten
Label Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples ………………… OCTT-A)
6 Determination of Contents of Cold Drinks

*Chemistry Project* -Determination Of The Contents Of- -Cold Drinks-
Project Prepared by –………….. XII – B Session:………………. School,
Board Roll No. –
Page 38 of 98
*Certificate* This is hereby to certify that the original and genuine
investigation work has been carried out to investigate about the subject
matter and the related data collection and investigation has been
completed solely, sincerely and satisfactorily by ………………..of CLASS
XII – B………….. School, regarding his project titled
“DETERMINARION OF THE CONTENTS OF COLD DRINKS”.
Teacher’s Signature
*Acknowledgement* It would be my utmost pleasure to express my
sincere thanks to my chemistry teacher …………………in providing a
helping hand in this project. His valuable guidance, support and
supervision all through this project are responsible for attaining its
present form. I would also like to thank my parents as they encouraged
me to put forward my project. *Contents* Introduction
Theory
Aim
Apparatus
Chemicals Required
Detection of pH
Test for Carbon Dioxide
VIII. Test for Glucose
Test for Phosphate
Test for Alcohol
Test for Sucrose
Result XIII.
Precautions
XIV. Conclusion
Bibliography
Page 39 of 98
*Introduction* The era of cold drinks began in 1952 but the
industrialization in India marked its beginning with launching of Limca and
Goldspot by parley group of companies. Since, the beginning of cold
drinks was highly profitable and luring, many multinational
companies launched their brands in India like Pepsi and Coke. Now a days,
it is observed in general that majority of people viewed Sprite, Fanta and
Limca to give feeling of lightness, while Pepsi and Thumps Up to activate
pulse and brain.
*Theory* Cold drinks of different brands are composed of alcohol,
carbohydrates, carbon dioxide, phosphate ions etc.
These soft drinks give feeling of warmth, lightness and have a tangy taste
which is liked by everyone.
Carbon dioxide is responsible for the formation of froth on shaking the
bottle. The carbon dioxide gas is dissolved in water to form carbonic
acid which is also responsible for the tangy taste.
Carbohydrates are the naturally occurring organic compounds and are
major source of energy to our body. General formula of carbohydrates is
CX (H2O)Y. On the basis of their molecule size carbohydrates are classified
as:- Monosaccharide, Disaccharides and Polysaccharides.
Glucose is a monosaccharide with formula C6H12O6 .It occurs in Free State in
the ripen grapes ,and also in many sweet fruits. It is also present in human
blood to the extent of about 0.1%.
Sucrose is one of the most useful disaccharides in our daily life. It is widely
distributed in nature in juices, seeds and also in flowers of many plants.
The main source of sucrose is sugar cane juice which contain 15-20 %
sucrose and sugar beet which has about 10-17 % sucrose. The
molecular formula of sucrose is C12H22O11. It is produced by a mixture
of glucose and fructose. It is non-reducing in nature whereas glucose is
reducing.
Cold drinks are a bit acidic in nature and their acidity can be measured by
finding their pH value. The pH values also depend upon the acidic contents
such as citric acid and phosphoric acid.
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*Aim* Comparative Study and Qualitative Analysis of different brands of
Cold Drinks available in market.
*Apparatus required:
Test Tubes
Test Tube Holder
Test Tube Stand
Stop Watch Beaker
Bunsen Burner
pH Paper
Tripod Stand
China Dish
Wire Gauge
Water Bath
*Chemicals Required*
Iodine Solution
Potassium Iodide
Sodium Hydroxide
Lime Water
Fehling’s A & B Solution
Concentrated Nitric Acid
Benedict Solution
Ammonium Molybdate
*Detection Of pH*
Small samples of cold drinks of different brands were taken in a test tube
and put on the pH paper. The change in colour of pH paper was noticed and
was compared with standard pH scale.
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Observation:
Sr. No. Name Of The Colour pH Value
Drink Change
1 Coca Cola Pinkish 2–3
2 Sprite Dark Orange 3
3 Limca Light Orange 4
5 Fanta Orange 3– 4
Inference
Soft Drinks are generally acidic because of the presence of citric acid and
phosphoric acid.
pH values of cold drinks of different brands are different due to the
variation in amount of acidic content.
*Test For Carbon Dioxide*
As soon as the bottles were opened, one by one the gas from samples were
passed through lime water..
Sr. No. Name Of The Observation Time Taken Inference

Drink to turn lime
water
milky(sec)
1 Coca Cola The lime water 28 CO2 IS
turned milky PRESENT
2 Sprite The lime water 20 CO2 IS
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3 Limca The lime water 38 CO2 IS
4 Fanta 36 CO2 IS
PRESENT
Conclusion:
All the soft drinks contain dissolved carbon dioxide in water.
The carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, which is
responsible for its tangy taste.
Chemical Reaction:
Ca(OH)2 (s) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l)
*Test For Glucose*
Experiment:
Glucose is a reducing sugar acid. Its presence is detected by the following
test:-
1.Benedict’s Reagent Test:
Small samples of cold drinks of different brands were taken in a test tube
and a few drops of Benedict’s reagent were added.
S.N Experiment Observation Inference
O
The test tube was heated for few seconds. Formation of reddish color
confirmed the presence of glucose in cold drinks. Observation Sr. No. Name
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Of The Drink Observation Conclusion 1 Coca Cola Reddish Colour
Precipitate Glucose is Present 2 Sprite Reddish Colour Precipitate Glucose is
Present 3 Limca Reddish Colour Precipitate Glucose is Present 4 Fanta
Reddish Colour Precipitate Glucose is Present Inference All the samples
gave positive test for glucose with Benedict’s reagent. Hence all the drinks
contain glucose. 2. Fehling’s Solution Test Small samples of cold drinks of
different brands were taken in a test tube and a few drops of Fehling’s A
solution and Fehling’s B solution was added in equal amount. The test tube
was heated in water bath for 10 minutes. Appearance of brown precipitate
confirmed the presence of glucose in cold drinks. Observation Sr. No. Name
Of The Drink Observation Conclusion 1 Coca Cola Reddish Brown
Precipitate Glucose is Present 2 Sprite Reddish Brown Precipitate Glucose is
Present 3 Limca Reddish Brown Precipitate Glucose is Present 4 Fanta
Reddish Brown Precipitate Glucose is Present Inference All samples gave
positive test for glucose with Fehling’s (A & B) solutions. Hence all the cold
drinks contain glucose. *Test For Phosphate* Experiment Small samples of
each brand of cold drinks were taken in separate test tubes and
Ammonium Molybdate followed by concentrated Nitric Acid (HNO3) was
added to it. The solution was heated. Appearance of canary-yellow
precipitate confirmed the presence of phosphate ions in cold drinks.
Observation Sr. No. Name Of The Drink Observation Conclusion 1 Coca Cola
Canary Yellow Precipitate Phosphate is Present 2 Sprite Canary Yellow
Precipitate Phosphate is Present 3 Limca Canary Yellow Precipitate
Phosphate is Present 4 Fanta Canary Yellow Precipitate Phosphate is
Present Inference All the soft drinks samples gave positive test for
phosphate ions. Hence all the cold drinks contain phosphate. *Test For
Alcohol* Experiment Small samples of each brand of cold drinks were
taken in separate test tubes and Iodine followed by Potassium Iodide
and Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) solution was added to each test tube. Then
the test tubes were heated in hot water bath for 30 minutes. Appearance
of yellow coloured precipitate confirmed the presence of alcohol in cold
drinks. Observation Sr. No. Name Of The Drink Observation Conclusion 1
Coca Cola Yellow Precipitate Alcohol is Present 2 Sprite Yellow Precipitate
Alcohol is Present 3 Limca Yellow Precipitate Alcohol is Present 4 Fanta
Yellow Precipitate Alcohol is Present Inference All the cold drinks samples
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gave positive test for alcohol. Hence all the cold drinks contain alcohol.
Chemical Reaction CH3CH2OH + 4I2 + 6NaOH → CHI3 + HCOONa + 5NaI +
5H2O *Test for Sucrose* Experiment 5 ml samples of each brand of cold
drinks were taken in separate china dishes and were heated very strongly
until changes occur. Black coloured residue left confirmed the presence of
sucrose in cold drinks. Observation Sr. No. Name Of The Drink Observation
Conclusion 1 Coca Cola Black Residue Sucrose is Present 2 Sprite Black
Residue Sucrose is Present 3 Limca Black Residue Sucrose is Present 4 Fanta
Black Residue Sucrose is Present Inference All the brands of cold drinks
contain sucrose. But amount of sucrose varies in each brand of drink. Fanta
contains highest amount of sucrose. *Result* After conducting several
tests, it was concluded that the different brands of cold drinks namely: 1.
Coca Cola 2. Sprite 3. Limca 4. Fanta All contains glucose, alcohol, sucrose,
phosphate and carbon dioxide. All cold drinks are acidic in nature. On
comparing the pH value of different brands Coca Cola is the most acidic and
Limca is least acidic of all the four brands taken. Among the four samples of
cold drinks taken, Sprite has the maximum amount of dissolved carbon
dioxide and Fanta has the minimum amount of dissolved carbon dioxide.
*Precautions* Some of the precautions which need to be taken care of are
– Concentrated solutions should be handled with immense care. 2. Hands
should be washed thoroughly after performing each experiment. 3. If
possible, one should wear hand gloves to prevent from any possible
damage. 4. If chemicals come into contact with your skin or eyes, flush
immediately with copious amounts of water. 5. Never leave burners
unattended. Turn them off whenever you leave your workstation. 6. Never
point a test tube or any vessel that you are heating at yourself or your
neighbour. *Conclusion* DIS-ADVANTAGES OF COLD DRINKS 1. Soft drinks
are little more harmful than sugar solution. As they contain sugar in large
amount which cause problems in diabetes patients. 2. Soft drinks can cause
weight gain as they interfere with the body’s natural ability to suppress
hunger feeling. 3. Soft drinks have ability to dissolve the calcium so they are
also harmful for our bones. 4. Soft drinks contain “phosphoric acid” which
has a pH of 2.8. So they can dissolve a nail in about 4 days. 5. For
transportation of soft drinks syrup the commercial truck must use the
hazardous matter place cards reserved for highly consive material. 6. Soft
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drinks have also ability to remove blood so they are very harmful to our
body. USES OF COLD DRINKS 1. Cold drinks can be used as toilet cleaners. 2.
They can remove rust spots from chrome car humpers. 3. They clean
corrosion from car battery terminals. 4. Soft drinks are used as an excellent
‘detergent’ to remove grease from clothes. 5. They can loose a rusted bolt.
*Bibliography* Following books and websites were a source for my
project . Comprehensive Chemistry Lab Manual - Dr. N. K. Verma www.
Google.com www.Wikipedia.com www. Icbse.com
7 Variation of Conductance with Temperature in Electrolytes Name: Deen

Dayal School: Mother Divine Public School Roll No: 6229
Index
Certificate……………………………………………………………………….. 3
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………. 4
Aim………………………………………………………………………………… 5
Apparatus………………………………………………………………………… 6 Important
Terms……………………………………………………………….. 7
Conductivity…………………………………………………………………….. 8 Factors
Affecting Electrical Conductivity……………………………….. 9
Procedure……………………………………………………………………….. 10 Physical
Constants…………………………………………………………… 11 Observation Set
1……………………………………………………….. 12 11. Graph of Observation
Set 1…………………………………………. 13 12. Observation Set
2……………………………………………………….. 14 13. Graph of Observation
Set 2…………………………………………. 15 14.
Result…………………………………………………………………………… 16 15.
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….. 17 16.
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Precautions……………………………………………………………………. 18 17.
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………… 19 Certificate This
is to certify that……………….student of Class XII A, ……………….School has
completed the project titled Variation of Conductance with Temperature in
Electrolytes during the academic year 20…………. towards partial fulfillment
of credit for the Chemistry practical evaluation of AISSCE 20…., and
submitted satisfactory report, as compiled in the following pages, under my
supervision. Mrs ……………….Department of Chemistry …………………… Public
School
Acknowledgements “There are times when silence speaks so much more
loudly than words of praise to only as good as belittle a person, whose
words do not express, but only put a veneer over true feelings, which are of
gratitude at this point of time.” I would like to express my sincere gratitude
to my chemistry mentor Mrs ………………., for her vital support, guidance
and encouragement – without which this project would not have come
forth.
. Aim To find the variation of conductance with temperature in electrolytes
Apparatus Glass beaker, CuSO4 solution, Cu electrodes, ZnSO4 solution, Zn
electrodes, rheostat, battery eliminator, water, burner, thermometer, flask,
ammeter, voltmeter Important Terms * Conductance: The property of
ease of flow of electric current through a body is called conductance. *
Resistance: The obstacle offered to the flow of electric current is called
resistance. * Electrolysis: The operation in which electricity causes a
chemical reaction is called electrolysis. * Ohm’s Law: This law states that
the current flowing through a resistance is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across it’s ends, at constant temperature and
pressure. V = I x R * Faraday’s Laws: o First Law: The mass of a substance
produced or consumed in electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of charge passing through it. m (X Q or, m = Z x I x t where, Z is
electrochemical equivalent; I is current; t is time in seconds; Q is charge. o
Second Law: The mass of substance produced in electrolysis directly
proportional to its equivalent mass. W1 / E1 = W2 / E2 = W3 / E3… o Third
Law: The mass of a substance produced in electrolysis is directly
proportional to the number of electrons per mole needed to cause desired
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change in oxidation state. Conductivity When voltage is applied to the
electrodes immersed into an electrolyte solution, ions of electrolyte move,
and thus, electric current flows through the electrolytic solution. The
electrolytic solution and the metal conductors exhibit resistance to the
passage of the current; both of which obey Ohm’s law. The reciprocal of
resistance is called electrical conductance. The unit of electrical
conductance is Siemens (S) or ohm-1 or mho. If a solution is placed
between two parallel electrodes having cross sectional area A and distance
L apart then the resistance is given by R = 1 / C p (called ‘rho’) is known as
resistivity. Its reciprocal gives the conductivity of the solution, which is
denoted by k (called ‘kappa’). Its unit is Siemens/meter. K = 1 / R * L / A L/ A
is a fixed quantity for a cell and is called the ‘cell constant’. Factors
Affecting Electrical Conductivity The factors which affect the electrical
conductivity of the solutions are: * Inter-ionic attraction: It depends on
solute- solute interactions. * Solvation of ions: It depends on solute-
solvent interactions. * Viscosity of the solvent: It depends on solvent-
solvent interactions. Procedure 1. The electrolyte chosen is ZnSO4 and the
electrodes are of Zn. Readings for the measurement of conductance are
taken at intervals of 3 DC. Proper precautions are taken to avoid
evaporation and to keep other factors constant. The vessel and electrodes
are removed and the vessel is cleaned and filled with ZnSO4 solution. The
electrodes are refitted in their original place so that the distance between
them does not change. Current is passed and when the voltmeter and
ammeter show steady readings, they are noted. The current is switched off.
It is seen that while the ammeter reading returns at once to 0 position. The
voltmeter needle pauses for a while at a particular reading which is noted
down. This reading indicates the back EMF in the electrolyte. Similarly,
more sets of reading are taken, and resistance is calculated. Thus, the value
of conductance is calculated. The switched on circuit readings in voltmeter
and ammeter are taken. The current through the electrolyte is changed by
adjusting the rheostat and more sets of readings are taken. Thus, the mean
value of resistance is calculated. Above steps are repeated for CuSO4 as
electrolyte with electrodes made of Cu. Physical Constants For the purpose
of accuracy and convenience, some important aspects of the electrolyte
process are kept constant in the experiment as their variation might affect
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the conductivity of the electrolyte. They are: * Voltage * Nature of
electrodes * Size of electrodes * Separation between the electrodes *
Concentration of the electrolytes * Nature of the electrolytes *
Resistance in the circuit Observation Set 1 For ZnSO4 electrolyte with Zn
electrodes S No Temperature Reading of Ammeter Reading of Voltmeter
Resistance Conductance I V R = V /1 C = 1 / R 1 23 [ DC 100 mA 1.0 V 10 Q
0.100 Q-1 2 26 [ DC 100 mA 0.95 V 9.5 Q 0.105 Q-1 3 29 [ DC 110 mA 0.89 V
8.09 Q 0.120 Q-1 4 32 [ DC 110 mA 0.84 V 7.63 Q 0.130 Q-1 5 35 [ DC 120
mA 0.80 V 6.66 Q 0.150 Q-1 6 38 [ DC 125 mA 0.75 V 6.00 Q 0.160 Q-1 7 41
[ DC 130 mA 0.71 V 7.6 Q 0.180 Q-1 8 44 [ DC 130 mA 0.65 V 5.00 Q 0.200
Q-1 Graph of Observation Set 1 Zinc Sulphate Electrolyte 0.1 0.05
Temperature (in degree Celsius) Observation Set 2 For CuSO4 electrolyte S
No Temperature Reading of Ammeter Reading of Voltmeter Resistance
Conductance I V R = V /1 C = 1/R 1 25 □ C 75 mA 1.4 V 18.67 Q 0.053 Q-1 2
28 □ C 75 mA 1.35 V 18.00 Q 0.055 Q-1 3 31 □ C 75 mA 1.3 V 17.33 Q 0.057
Q-1 4 34 □ C 75 mA 1.25 V 16.67 Q 0.060 Q-1 5 36 □ C 80 mA 1.2 V 15.00 Q
0.066 Q-1 6 38 □ C 80 mA 1.15 V 14.38 Q 0.069 Q-1 7 42 □ C 80 mA 1.10 V
13.75 Q 0.072 Q-1 8 44 □ C 85 mA 1.10 V 12.94 Q 0.075 Q-1 9 47 □ C 85 mA
1.05 V 12.35 Q 0.080 Q-1 10 49 □ C 90 mA 1.10 V 11.11 Q 0.090 Q-1 11 53
°C 90 mA 1.90 V 10.00 Q 0.100 Q-1 Graph of Observation Set 2 0.06 o .c O
0.04 TO O 0.02 o O Result The relevant graph shows that the 1 / Resistance
of an electrolyte increases at a steady rate as the temperature increases.
Conclusion On heating a solution, it is known that viscosity gradually
decreases, with decrease in viscosity, the speed and movement of the ions
increases. In other words, the conductance of the electrolyte increases with
increases in temperature. Hence, the result of the experiment agrees with
reasoning. Precautions * Variation of resistance due to one of the factors
should be kept constant. * The electrodes used in each case should
always be kept parallel to each other. * The solution should be kept
undisturbed throughout the experiment. * For each observation, three
readings are taken and the mean value is considered. Bibliography *
Chemistry (Part I) – Textbook for Class XII; National Council of Educational
Research and Training

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9 Project on preparation soyabean milk and its comparison with the natural
milk
This is to certify that Master …………………,A student of class XII of
the…………………… School, Roll No.: session 20….-20…., has satisfactorily
completed the required chemistry project work as per the syllabus of
Standard XII in the laboratory of the school. Date:
Chemistry Teacher (…………………..)
External examiner’s Signature
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT :
I selected this project as a part of my studies, titled “PREAPARATION OF
SOYABEAN MILK AND ITS COMPARISION WITH NATURAL MILK”. As a
gratitude, I convey my sincere thanks to my chemistry teacher
Ms/Mr……………. and Lab. Assistant MS/Mr. ………………………. who was the
constant guide during the period of study and without whose help it would
not have bee n possible for us to complete this project.
I also wants to thank school Principal for providing me lab facilities .
ARYAN DEV
CLASS XII B
Project 55:
Aim: Preparation of soya bean milk and its comparison with the natural
milk with respect to curd formation, effect of temperature and taste.
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Materials required: Beakers, pestle and mortar, measuring cylinder, glass-
rod, tripod-stand, thermometer, muslin cloth, burner. Soya beans, buffalo
milk, fresh curd, distilled water
Theory: Natural milk is an opaque white fluid secreted by the mammary

glands of female mammal. The main constituents of natural milk are
proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, fats and water and are a
complete balanced diet. Fresh milk is sweetish in taste. However, when it is
kept for a long time at a temperature of 35 ± 50 C it becomes sour because
of bacteria present in air. These bacteria convert lactose of milk starts
separating out as a precipitate. When the acidity in milk is sufficient and
temperature is around 360C, it forms semi-solid mass, called curd. Soya
bean milk is made from soya beans.
FIG:
It resembles natural milk. The main constituents of soya bean milk are
proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins.
It is prepared by keeping soya beans dipped in water for sometime(8 hrs).
The swollen soya beans are then crushed to a paste which is then mixed
with water. The solution is filtered and filtrate is soya bean milk..
Procedure: Soak about 100 g of soya beans in sufficient amount of water
for 12 hours. Take out swollen soya beans and grind them to a very fine
paste with a pestle-mortar. Add about 250 ml of water to this paste and
filter it through a muslin cloth. Clear white filtrate is soya bean milk.
Compare its taste with buffalo milk. Take 50 ml of buffalo milk in three
beakers and heat the beakers to 300, 400 and 500 C respectively. Add
spoonful curd to each of the beakers and leave the beakers undisturbed for
8 hours and curd is ready. Similarly, take 50 ml of soya bean milk in three
other beakers and heat the beakers to 300,400 and 500 C respectively. Add
1 spoonful curd to each of these beakers. Leave the beakers undisturbed
for 8 hours and curd is formed.
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Type of milk Beaker no Temperature Quality of curd Taste of curd Buffalo
milk 1 300C 2 400C 3 500C 4 300C Soya bean milk 5 400C 6 500C Result: For
buffalo milk, the best temperature for the formation of good quality and
tasty curd is… oC and for soya bean milk, it is …. oC.
10 Study the electrolysis of products of Potassium Iodide (KI) 1) Basic Aim
2) Apparatus Used 3) Theory Electrolysis Mechanism of electrolysis
Quantitative aspects of electrolysis Faradays laws of electrolysis Products of
electrolysis 4) Reactions Involved 5) Procedure 6) Observations 7)
Precautions 8) Bibliography BASIC AIM:- In this project our basic aim is to
study the electrolysis of products of Potassium Iodide (KI). APPARATUS
USED:- U-Tube stand , electrodes , KI solution , battery eliminator.
THEORY:- Electrolysis- It is defined as a process of decomposition of an
electrolyte by the passage of electricity through its aqueous solution or
molten (fused) state. Mechanism Of Electrolysis- Whenever an electrolyte
is dissolved in water or is taken in the molten state, the electrolyte
dissociates to produce Positively and Negatively charged ions. On passing
electric current, the positively charged ions move towards the cathode and
hence are called cations, whereas the negatively charged ions move
towards the anode and hence are called anions. On reaching their
respective electrodes, ions lose their charge and become neutral. The
cations accept electrons from the cathode to become neutral species. Thus,
oxidation occurs at the anode while reduction reduction takes place at the
anode. The conversion of ions into neutral species at their respective
electrodes is called Primary change. The product formed as a result of
primary change may be collected as such or it may go under a
Secondary change to form the final products. Quantitative Aspects Of
Electrolysis- Michael Faraday was the first scientist who described the
quantitative aspects of electrolysis. Faraday’s Laws Of Electrolysis- First
Law:- The amount of chemical reaction which occurs at any electrode
during electrolysis by a current is proportional to the quantity of electricity
passed through the electrolyte (solution or melt). Second Law :- The
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amounts of different substances liberated by the same quantity of
electricity passing through the electrolytic solution are proportional to their
chemical equivalent weights (atomic mass of metal – number of electrons
required to reduce the cation). Products Of Electrolysis – Products of
electrolysis depend on the nature of material being and the type of
electrodes being used .If the electrode is inert, it does not participate in the
chemical reaction and acts only as source or sink for electrons. On the other
hand, if the electrode is reactive, it participates in the electrode reaction.
Thus, the products of electrolysis may be different for reactive and inert
electrodes. The products of electrolysis depend on the different oxidizing
and reducing species present in the electrolytic cell and their standard
electrode potentials. Moreover, some of the electrochemical processes
although feasible, are so slow kinetically that at lower voltages these do not
seem to take place and extra potential (called overvoltage) has to be
applied, which makes such processes more difficult to occur. Reactions
involved:- In the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of KI, I ions are oxidized
at the anode preferentially to water molecules. Possible reactions at anode
are as follows:- 2 I– (aq) à I2 (g) + 2 e– …………(1) 2 H2O (l) à 4 H+ (aq) + O2 +
4e– ………….(2) Reaction (1) occurs in preference to reaction (2) due to
standard electrode potential value of the following reaction. I2 (g) + 2 e– à
2 I– (aq) …………(3) Eo/volt = + 0.53V 4 H+ (aq) + O2 (g) + 2e–
à2 H2O (l) …………(4) Eo/volt = + 1.53V Possible cathode reactions
are: K+ (aq) + e– à K (s) …………..(5) Eo/volt = –
2.92V 2 H2O (l) + 2e– à H2 (g) + 2 OH– (aq) …………..(6) Eo/volt =
– 0.83V Eo value of reduction reaction (5) is much smaller than that of
reaction (6). Thus, reaction (6) occurs competitively over reaction (5) at
cathode .Thus, violet colour of anode is due to formation of iodine and its
subsequent reaction with starch Pink colour at cathode is due to formation
of OH- ions which also render the solution alkaline. OH-ions give pink colour
with phenolphthalein. Procedure :- Prepare 0.1M solution of potassium
iodide. Fix a U- shaped tube in a stand and insert two graphite electrodes
into both ends of the U- tube through the corks. Assemble the apparatus as
shown in the figure. Take about 30ml of 0.1M solution of potassium iodide
in a 100ml beaker add five or six drops of phenolphthalein solution and five
to six drops of freshly prepared starch solution. Stir the solution and
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transfer it into an electrolysis – tube fitted with graphite electrodes. Pass
electric current through the electrolyte and observe the appearance of
colour. A pink colour appears at the cathode and a violet colour appears at
the anode. Bubble formation also occurs on the surface of the cathode.
Observations:- TEST SOLUTIONS OBSERVATIONS INFERENCE Aqueous
solution of potassium iodide with five drops of phenolphthalein and five
drops of starch solution. At the anode, violet colour. At the cathode: (i )Pink
colour (ii)Formation of bubbles Free iodine is evolved. (i)OH- ion is formed
(ii)Hydrogen is evolved Precautions:- 1) Both the electrodes should be
loosely fixed into the U- tube so as to allow the escape of evolved gasses.
2) Electrodes should be cleaned before use. Conclusion:- In the
electrolysis of an aqueous solution of potassium iodide, I- ions are oxidized
at the anode preferentially to water molecules. Violet colour at anode is
due to iodine. Pink colour at cathode is due to formation of OH- ions which
renders the solution alkaline. OH- ions give pink colour with
phenolphthalein. Bibliogrphy: 1) Experiments on formal level topics in
chemistry. 2) Chemistry – a textbook for class XII. 3) Chemistry teacher-
Mrs. …………………….
.NAME- …………………….CLASS- XII – C SCHOOL- ………………………SCHOOL
YEAR- 20….-20…. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my
chemistry mentor Mrs. ……………….., for her vital support, guidance and
encouragement - without which this project would not have come forth. I
would also like to express my gratitude to the lab assistant Mr.
……………………. for his support during the making of this project.
CERTIFICATE This is to certify that____________________ of class
________ has successfully completed his project in_____________ . ”To
study the electrolysis of Potassium Iodide”, under my observation.
SIGNATURE: Mrs. ………………
Mrs.(H.O.D) (Mentor)
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11 Study the rates of fermentation of fruit or vegetable juices
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my
chemistry mentor Mrs……………………….., for his vital support, guidance and
encouragement -without which this project would not have come forth.
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE Certified to be the bonafide work done by Mr. /
Miss ______________________ of class________ in the _______________
during the year _____________ Date __________. …………………. Submitted
for ALL INDIA SENIOR SECONDARY EXAMINATION held in
___________________at………………. School, Kanpur. Examiner DATE-
________________ INDEX S.No.
CONTENTS Page No. 1. Objective 4 2. Introduction 5 3. Theory 6 4.
Experiment 1 8 5. Experiment 2 9 6. Observation 11 7. Result 12 8.
Bibliography 13 OBJECTIVE The Objective of this project is to study the rates
of fermentation of the following fruit or vegetable juices. i. Apple juice
ii. Carrot juice (1) INTRODUCTION Fermentation is the slow
decomposition of complex organic compound into simpler compounds by
the action of enzymes. Enzymes are complex organic compounds, generally
proteins. Examples of fermentation are: souring of milk or curd, bread
making, wine making and brewing. The word Fermentation has been
derived from Latin (Ferver which means to ‘boil’).As during fermentation
there is lot of frothing of the liquid due to the evolution of carbon dioxide,
it gives the appearance as if it is boiling. Sugars like glucose and sucrose
when fermented in the presence of yeast cells are converted to ethyl
alcohol. During fermentation of starch, starch is first hydrolysed to maltose
by the action of enzyme diastase. The enzyme diastase is obtained from
germinated barley seeds. Fermentation is carried out at a temperature of
4–16 °C (40–60 °F). This is low for most kinds of fermentation, but is
beneficial for cider as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of
delicate aromas. Apple based juices with cranberry also make fine ciders;
and many other fruit purées or flavorings can be used, such as grape,
cherry, and raspberry. The cider is ready to drink after a three month
fermentation period, though more often it is matured in the vats for up to
two or three years. THEORY Louis Pasteur in 1860 demonstrated that
fermentation is a purely physiological process carried out by living micro-
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organism like yeast. This view was abandoned in 1897 when Buchner
demonstrated that yeast extract could bring about alcoholic fermentation
in the absence of any yeast cells. He proposed that fermenting activity of
yeast is due to active catalysts of biochemical origin. These biochemical
catalyst are called enzymes. Enzymes are highly specific. A given enzyme
acts on a specific compound or a closely related group of compounds.
Fermentation has been utilized for many years in the preparation of
beverages. Materials from Egyptian tombs demonstrate the procedures
used in making beer and leavened bread. The history of fermentation,
whereby sugar is converted to ethanol by action of yeast, is also a history of
chemistry. Van Helmont coined the word iogaslt in 1610 to describe the
bubbles produced in fermentation. Leeuwenhoek observed and described
the cells of yeast with his newly invented microscope in 1680. The fruit and
vegetable juices contain sugar such as sucrose, glucose and fructose. These
sugars on fermentation in the presence of the enzymes invertase and
zymase give with the evolution of carbon dioxide. Maltose is converted to
glucose by enzyme maltose. Glucose is converted to ethanol by another
enzyme zymase Invertase C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 +
C6H12O6 Sucrose Glucose Fructose Zymase
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 Glucose Fructose
Ethanol Diastase 2(C6H1005)n + nH20 nC12H22O11
Starch Maltose Maltose C12H22O11 +
H2O 2C6H12O6 Maltose Glucose
Zymase C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 Glucose Ethyl alcohol
Glucose is a reducing sugar and gives red coloured precipitates with
Fehling’s solution, when warmed. When the fermentation is complete, the
reaction mixture stops giving any red colour or precipitate with Fehling
solution. EXPERIMENT-1
REQUIREMENTS Conical flasks (250 ml), test tubes and water bath, Apple
juice and Fehling’s solution. PROCEDURE 1. Take 5.0 ml of apple juice in a
clean 250 ml conical flask and dilute it with 50 ml of distilled water. 2. Add
2.0 gram of Baker’s yeast and 5.0 ml of solution of Pasteur’s salts to the
above conical flask. 3. Shake well the contents of the flask and maintain
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the temperature of the reaction mixture between 35-40°C. 4. After
10minutes take 5 drops of the reaction mixture from the flask and add to a
test tube containing 2 ml of Fehling reagent. Place the test tube in the
boiling water bath for about 2 minutes and note the colour of the solution
or precipitate. 5. Repeat the step 4 after every 10 minutes when the
reaction mixture stops giving any red colour or precipitate. 6. Note the
time taken for completion of fermentation EXPERIMENT-2 REQUIREMENTS
Conical flasks (250 ml), test tubes and water bath, Carrot juice and Fehling’s
solution. PROCEDURE 1. Take 5.0 ml of carrot juice in a clean 250 ml
conical flask and dilute it with 50 ml of distilled water. 2. Add 2.0 gram of
Baker’s yeast and 5.0 ml of solution of Pasteur’s salts to the above conical
flask. 3. Shake well the contents of the flask and maintain the temperature
of the reaction mixture between 35-40°C. 4. After 10minutes take 5 drops
of the reaction mixture from the flask and add to a test tube containing 2
ml of Fehling reagent. Place the test tube in the boiling water bath for
about 2 minutes and note the colour of the solution or precipitate. 5.
Repeat the step 4 after every 10 minutes when the reaction mixture stops
giving any red colour or precipitate. 6. Note the time taken for completion
of fermentation. Pasteur’s Salt Solution – Pasteur salt solution is prepared
by dissolving ammonium tartrate 10.0g; potassium phosphate 2.0 g;
calcium phosphate 0.2g, and magnesium sulphate 0.2 g dissolved in 860ml
of water OBSERVATION Volume of fruit juice taken = 5.0 ml
Volume of distilled water added = 50.0 ml Weight of Baker’s yeast
added = 2.0 g Volume of solution of Pasteur’s salts = 5.0 ml Time
(in minutes) Colour of reaction mixture on reaction with Fehling Solution in
case of 10 20 30 40 60 RESULTS The rate of fermentation of apple juice is
………… than the rate of fermentation of carrot juice.
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12 Prepare cuprammonium rayon threads from filter paper 2009-2010
Chemistry Investigatory Project …………………XllB …………………..School,
This is to certify that…………………., student of classXII B, ………………. Public
School has completed the project titled To prepare a sample of
cuprammonium rayon threads from filter paper during the academic year
20….-20…. towards partial fulfillment of credit for the chemistry practical
evaluation of AISSCE 20…., and submitted satisfactory report, as compiled
in the following pages, under my supervision. This proj’ect is absolutely
genuine and does not indulge in plagiarism of any kind. The references
taken in making this proj’ect have been declared at the end of this report.
Mr. ………………..(head of Department chemistry ……………..Public
School,“There are tinges when silence speaks so much more loudly than
words of praise to only as good as belittle a person, whose words do not
express, but only put a veneer over true feelings, which are of gratitude at
this point of time.” \ would like to express my sincere gratitude to my
chemistry men-tor Mr………………., for his vital support, guidance and
encouragement -without which this project would not have come forth.
( would also like to express my gratitude to the staff of the Department of
chemistry at………. Public School for their support during the making of this
project.
Aim To prepare a sample of cuprammonium rayon threads from filter paper
Apparatus Required a) Conical flask (preferably 250 ml) b) Funnel c)
Glass rod d) Beaker (preferably 250 ml) e) Water bath f) Filter paper
(Whatman paper or ordinary filter paper sheets. Preferably, Whatman)
Chemicals Required a) CuSO4 b) NaOH solution c) Liquor ammonia
solution d) Dilute H2SO4 e) Whatman Paper f) Distilled H2O
Background Rayon is a synthetic fiber produced from cellulose. Developed
in an attempt to produce silk chemically, it was originally called artificial silk
or wood silk. Rayon is a regenerated fiber, because cellulose is converted to
a liquid compound and then back to cellulose in the form of fiber. For
example, cuprammonium rayon is made by dissolving cellulose in an
ammoniacal copper sulphate solution. The characteristics of rayon fibers
are: s They are highly absorbent, s Soft and comfortable, s Easy to dye
& s Drape well. Introduction Cellulose is nature’s own giant molecule. It is
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the fibrous material that every plant from seaweed to the sequoia makes
by baking glucose molecules in long chains; the chains are bound together
in the fibers that give plants their shape and strength. Wood has now
become the main source of cellulose. Since it contains only 40% to 50%
cellulose, the substance must be extracted by ‘pulping’. The logs are flaked,
and then simmered in chemicals that dissolve the tarry lignin, resins and
minerals. The remaining pulp, about 93% cellulose, is dried and rolled into
sheets-raw material for paper, rayon and other products. It can be obtained
in 2 ways: Viscose Process: Cellulose is soaked in 30% caustic soda solution
for about 3 hrs. The alkali solution is removed and the product is treated
with CSi. This gives cellulose xanthate, which is dissolved in NaOH solution
to give viscous solution. This is filtered and forced through a spinneret into
a dilute H2SO4 solution, both of which harden the gumlike thread into
rayon fibers. The process of making viscose was discovered by C.F.Cross
and EJ.Bevan in 1891. Cuprammonium Rayon: Cuprammonium rayon is
obtained by dissolving pieces of filter paper in a deep blue solution
containing tetra-ammine cupric hydroxide. The latter is obtained from a
solution of copper sulphate. To it, NH)OH solution is added to precipitate
cupric hydroxide, which is then dissolved in excess of NH/. Reactions:
CUSO4+ 2NH4OH — Cu(OH)2+ (NH4)2S04 Pale blue ppt Cu(OH) 2 +
4NH4OH — [Cu(NH3) 4](0H) 2 + 4H2O [Cu(NH3) 4](0H) 2 + pieces of filter
paper left for 10-15 days give a viscous solution called VISCOSE. Procedure
A. Preparation of Schweitzer’s Solution: a) Way20gofCuSO).5H20. b)
Transfer this to a beaker having 100ml distilled water and add 15ml of
dilute H2SO4 to prevent hydrolysis of CuSO). c) Stir it with a glass rod till
a clear solution is obtained. Add 11ml of liquor ammonia drop by drop with
slow stirring. The precipitate of cupric hydroxide is separated out. d) Filter
the solution containing cupric hydroxide through a funnel with filter paper.
e) Wash the precipitate of cupric hydroxide with water until the filtrate
fails to give a positive test for sulphate ions with barium chloride solution.
f) Transfer the precipitate to a beaker that contains 50ml of liquor
ammonia or wash it down the funnel. The precipitate when dissolved in
liquor ammonia gives a deep blue solution of tetra-ammine cupric
hydroxide. This is known as SCHWEITZER’S SOLUTION. B. Preparation of
Cellulose material a) After weighing 2g of filter paper divide it into very
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fine pieces and then transfer these pieces to the tetra-ammine cupric
hydroxide solution in the beaker. b) Seal the flask and keep for 10 to 15
days, during this period the filter paper is dissolved completely. C.
Formation of Ravon Thread a) Take 50ml of distilled water in a glass
container. To this add 20ml of conc H2SO4 drop by drop. Cool the solution
under tap water. In a big glass container pour some of the solution. b) Fill
the syringe with cellulose solution prepared before. c) Place the big glass
container containing H2SO4 solution produced before in ice (the reaction
being spontaneous results in excess release of energy in the form of heat
which makes the fibers weak and breaks them). d) Immerse the tip of the
syringe in the solution and press gently. Notice the fibers getting formed in
the acid bath. Continue to move your hand and keep pressing the syringe to
extrude more fibers into the bath. e) Leave the fibers in solution till they
decolorize and become strong enough. f) Filter and wash with distilled
water. Precautions a) Addition of excess NH/ should be avoided. b)
Before taking the viscose in the syringe make sure that it does not contain
any particles of paper, otherwise, it would clog the needle of the syringe.
c) Addition of NH/ should be done in a fume cupboard and with extreme
care. The fumes if inhaled may cause giddiness. d) Use a thick needle
otherwise the fibers won’t come out. Bibliography Chemistry (Part I) -
Textbook for Class XII; National Council of Educational Research and
Training Together With Lab Manual Chemistry XII; Bharti Bhawan
(Publishers & Distributors) Comprehensive Chemistry Lab Manual XII ”
Chemistry Projects “Wikipedia The free encyclopedia” “Rayon Fiber”
13 Study the change in E.m.f of a Daniel cell Due to various factors such as
Change in concentration, temperature And Area of electrodes.
This is to certify that ………………….., student of Class XII A,
…………………….SCHOOL has completed the project titled “TO Study The
Change In E.M.F Of a ‘DANIEL CELL’ due to Various Factors Such as Change
In CONCENTRATION,TEMPERATURE & AREA OF ELECTRODE” under my
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guidance & completed it to my total satisfaction. Mrs……………………...
Date:-(Teacher’s Signature)
It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude towards our chemistry
teacher Mrs. ……………..for her guidance, support and encouragement
throughout the duration of the project. Without her motivation and help
the successful completion of this project would not have been possible.
………………XII-A
Objective The goal of this project Is to study the change in E.m.f of a Daniel
cell Due to various factors such as Change in concentration, temperature
And Area of electrodes. Materials and Equipment To do this experiment we
will need the following materials and equipment: v Two beakers. v Zinc
and Copper plate. v Filter paper. v Voltmeter. v Connecting wires. v Card
board. v KNO3 solution. v 1 M, 0.1M, 0.01 M solution of :- a. CuSO4 b.
ZnSO4 Daniel Cell When an external circuit is connected, the chemical
equation for the zinc side (anode) half cell is: Zn (s) ® Zn2+ (aq) + 2 e- For
the copper sulphate side (cathode) half cell: Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e- ® Cu (s)
Therefore, the overall reaction of the Daniel cell is: Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) ®
Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s) Introduction It is an arrangement to convert the chemical
energy of the redox reaction into electric energy. Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) ® Zn2+
(aq) + Cu (s) Features of Daniel Cell:- v Zinc rod at which oxidation occurs is
called the anode while the copper rod at which the reduction takes place is
called cathode. v The overall reaction occurring in electrochemical cell is
due to two half-cell reaction, one occurring in each beaker. v The half-cell
reaction occurring at anode is called oxidation -half cell reaction while the
occurring at cathode is called reduction. v The two half-cell reactions
always take place simultaneously i.e. . . Half cell reaction cannot take place
immediately. v Since electrons are produced at zinc electrode, it is rich in
electrons and pulls these electrons into the external circuit and hence acts
as negative pole. The copper electrode on the other hand is deficient in
electrons and thus pulls the electrons from the external circuit and act as
positive pole. v The electrons flow from negative pole to positive pole in
the external circuit. However, conventionally the current is said to flow in
opposite direction i.e. from positive pole to negative pole in the external
circuit. v The concentration of copper sulphate solution decreases with
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passage of time as the cell operates, consequently the current fall with
passage of time. v Salt Bridge :- It consists of a tube filled with semi-solid
paste obtained by adding gelative or agar to the solution of strong
electrolyte such as Nacl , NH4NO3.KNO3 etc, which does not change
chemically during the process. v Function of salt bridge:- To complete the
electrical circuit by allowing the solution to flow from one solution to
another without mixing the two solutions. To maintain electrical neutrality
of solution in two half-cells. v EMF of Cells:- When a current flows through
two points a potential difference generated by a cell when the cell draws
no current is called EMF. Procedure I. Take two beakers and pour the
required chemicals in respective beaker and mark them for identification. II.
Take two square to slide in and connecting wire to their screw. III. Connect
negative of the voltmeter to the anode and its positive to the cathode IV.
Take filter paper long enough to dip into both the solution. Dip the filter
paper in KNo3 solution and put it as a salt bridge. V. Put on the electrode
voltmeter set up. Note the reading quickly and then put of the electrode
voltmeter set up. VI. For measuring variation with temperature with change
in area of electrode use the different size of electrode and then do step 5
again. VII. For measuring variation with temperature heat the solution and
then do step 5 again. VIII. For measuring variations with change in
concentration of electrolyte ,use the electrolytes of different molarity and
then do step 5 again. Observations:- v Electrode Potential of Zinc
=…………….V v Electrode Potential of Copper=…………V v Variation with
Concentration:- Molarity of CuSO4(M) Molarity of ZnSO4(M) Voltmeter
Reading (V) v Variation with change in area of electrodes:- With increase
in area or decrease in area of electrode EMF of cell remains same. v
Variation with temperature:- Cuso4(.c) ZnSo4(.c) Voltmeter Reading(V)
Conclusions:- v The EMF varies non-linearly with change in concentration of
reactants. v Increase in concentration of ions in anode half-cell decreases
EMF and vice-verse. v The EMF is independent of area of electrode. v The
EMF increases with increase in temperature.
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14 To Determine which Antacid could Neutralize the most Stomach Acid. .:
AIM :. To Determine which Antacid could Neutralize the most Stomach
Acid. INDEX > Objective > Introduction > Acids > Stomach Acid > Some
foods containing acids > Antacid > Action mechanism > Indication ^ Side
Effects > Problems with reduced stomach acidity > Experiment Design >
Material Required > Procedure > Observation And Calculation > Result
> Precautions > Bibliography
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this experiment was to determine which antacid
could neutralize the most stomach acid. I became interested in this idea
when I saw some experiments on medicines and wanted to find out some
scientific facts about medicines. The information gained from this
experiment will help people know which antacid they should look for in the
stores. It will also let them know which antacid will give them the most
comfort. This could also save consumers money and provide better health.
INTRODUCTION Digestion in the stomach results from the action of gastric
fluid, which includes secretions of digestive enzymes, mucous, and
hydrochloric acid. The acidic environment of the stomach makes it possible
for inactive forms of digestive enzymes to be converted into active forms
(i.e. pepsinogen into pepsin), and acid is also needed to dissolve minerals
and kill bacteria that may enter the stomach along with food. However,
excessive acid production (hyperacidity) results in the unpleasant
symptoms of heartburn and may contribute to ulcer formation in the
stomach lining. Antacids are weak bases (most commonly bicarbonates,
hydroxides, and carbonates) that neutralize excess stomach acid and thus
alleviate symptoms of heartburn. The general neutralization reaction is:
Antacid (weak base) + HCl (stomach acid) —> salts + H20 + C02 The
hydrochloric acid solution used in this experiment (0.1 M) approximates the
acid conditions of the human stomach, which is typically 0.4 to 0.5% HQ by
mass (pH ~ 1).Antacids help people who have or get heartburn. The
following information will help people understand how stomach acid works
and what antacid will help those most. ACIDS Acids are a group of
chemicals, usually in liquid form. They can be recognized by their sour taste
and their ability to react with other substances. Acids are confirmed as an
acid by their pH. The pH of acids ranges from 0-6.9 (below 7). The two main
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acids are: mineral acid and organic acid. The three well known acids that
are sulphuric acid (H2S04), nitric acid (HN03), and hydrochloric acid (HCl).
STOMACH ACID Stomach acid is very dangerous. If a person was to have an
ulcer and the stomach acid was to escape it would irritate their other
organs. Stomach acid is highly acidic and has a pH of 1.6. Stomach acid is
hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach. If there is too much stomach
acid it can cause heartburn. Heartburn is when stomach acid is produced in
abnormal amounts or location. One of the symptoms of heartburn is a
burning feeling in the chest or abdomen. SOME FOODS CONTAINING ACIDS
Almost all foods and drinks and even medicines have ingredients that are
different acids. Here are some examples: Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid),
Orangejuice (ascorbic acid/Vitamin C), Sour Milk (lactic acid), Soda Water
(carbonic acid), Vinegar (acetic acid), Apples (malic acid), and Spinach
(oxalic acid). ANTACID An antacid is any substance that can neutralize an
acid. All antacids are bases. A base is any substance that can neutralize an
acid. The pH of a base is 7.1-14(above 7). All antacids have chemical in
them called a buffer. When an antacid is mixed with an acid the buffer tries
to even out the acidity and that is how stomach acid gets neutralized. In an
antacid it is not the name brand that tells how well it works it is something
called an active ingredient. Not all antacids have a different active
ingredient. Some have one of the same active ingredients and some have
all of the same active ingredients. Almost all the antacids that have the
same active ingredient work the same amount as the other. The active
ingredient of most of the antacids is bases of calcium, magnesium,
aluminium. ACTION MECHANISM Antacids perform neutralization reaction,
i.e. they buffer gastric acid, raising the pH to reduce acidity in the stomach.
When gastric hydrochloric acid reaches the nerves in the gastrointestinal
mucosa, they signal pain to the central nervous system. This happens when
these nerves are exposed, as in peptic ulcers. The gastric acid may also
reach ulcers in the esophagus or the duodenum. Other mechanisms may
contribute, such as the effect of aluminium ions inhibiting smooth muscle
cell contraction and delaying gastric emptying. Antacids are commonly used
to help neutralize stomach acid. Antacids are bases with a pH above 7.0
that chemically react with acids to neutralize them. The action of antacids is
based on the fact that a base reacts with acid to form salt and water.
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INDICATIONS Antacids are taken by mouth to relieve heartburn, the major
symptom of gastro esophageal reflux disease, or acid indigestion.
Treatment with antacids alone is symptotic and only justified for minor
symptoms. Peptic ulcers may require H2- receptor antagonists or proton
pump inhibitors. The usefulness of many combinations of antacids is not
clear, although the combination of magnesium and aluminium salts may
prevent alteration of bowel habits. SIDE EFFECTS Aluminium hydroxide:
may lead to the formation of insoluble aluminium phosphate complexes,
with a risk for hypophosphate and osteomalacia. Although aluminium has a
low gastrointestinal absorption, accumulation may occur in the presence of
renal insufficiency. Aluminium containing drugs may cause constipation.
Magnesium hydroxide: has a laxative property. Magnesium may
accumulate in patients with renal failure leading to hypo magnesia, with
cardiovascular and neurological complications. Calcium: compounds
containing calcium may increase calcium output in the urine, which might
be associated to renal stones. Calcium salts may cause constipation.
Carbonate: regular high doses may cause alkalosis, which in turn may result
in altered excretion of other drugs, and kidney stones. PROBLEMS WITH
REDUCED STOMACH ACIDITY Reduced stomach acidity may result in an
impaired ability to digest and absorb certain nutrients, such as iron and the
B vitamins. Since the low pH of the stomach normally kills ingested
bacteria, antacids increase the vulnerability to infection. It could also result
in the reduced bioavailability of some drugs. For example, the
bioavailability of ketocanazole (antifungal), is reduced at high intragastric
pH (low acid content). EXPERIMENT DESIGN The constants in this study
were: - Type of acid - Consistency of procedures The variables in the
study were: -Different types of antacid used The responding variable was: -
The amount of stomach acid each antacid could neutralize measured in ml..
MATERIAL REQUIRED Burette, pipette, titration flask, measuring flask,
beaker, weighing machine, concentrated sulphuric acid, methyl orange,
antacid samples. PROCEDURE Prepare half litre of N/10 HCl solution by
diluting 10 ml of the concentrated acid to 1 litre. Prepare N/10 sodium
carbonate solution by weighing exactly 1.325 g of anhydrous sodium
carbonate and then dissolving it in water to prepare exactly 0.25 litre of
solution. Standardize the HCl solution by titrating it against the standard
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sodium carbonate solution using methyl orange as indicator. Take 20 ml of
standardized HCl in the conical flask, use methyl orange as indicator and
see the amount of base used for neutralization. Powder the various sample
of antacids tablets and weigh 10 mg of each. Take 20 ml of standardized
HCl solution in the conical flask; add the weighed samples to it. Add two
drops of methyl orange and warm the flask till most of the powder
dissolves. Filter off the insoluble material. Titrate the solution against the
standardized Na2C03 solution till a permanent red tinge appears. Note the
amount of base used for titration and note the reduction in the amount of
base used. Repeat the experiment with different antacids. OBSERVATIONS
AND CALCULATIONS 1. Standardization of HCl solution Volume of N/10
sodium carbonate solution taken—20.0 ml S. No. Initial burette Final
burette Volume of acid readings readings used (in ml) 1 0.0 ml 15 ml 15.0 2
0.0 ml 14 ml 14.0 3 0.0 ml 15 ml 15.0 Concordant reading—15.0 ml
Applying normality equation N1V1(acid) — N2V2(base) N (15) — (1/10) 20
Normality of HCl solution, N1 — 0.133 N 2. Neutralization of standardized
HCl solution used 3. Analysis of antacid tablets Weight of the antacid tablet
powder— 10 mg Volume of HCl solution added— 20.0 ml S. No. Antacid
Initial reading of burette Final reading of burette Volume of Na2C03 1
Gelusil 0.0 ml 15.0 ml 15 ml 2 Aciloc 150 0.0 ml 22.0 ml 22 ml 3 Fantac 20
0.0 ml 25.0 ml 25 ml 4 Pantop 20 0.0 ml 20.0 ml 20 ml 5 Ocid 10 0.0 ml 7.0
ml 7 ml RESULT The most effective antacid out of the taken samples is acid
10. PRECAUTIONS All apparatus should be clean and washed properly.
Burette and pipette must be rinsed with the respective solution to be put in
them. Air bubbles must be removed from the burette and jet. Last drop
from the pipette should not be removed by blowing. The flask should not
be rinsed with any of the solution, which are being titrated. Bibliography
Wikipedia -the free encyclopedia Website : http:/ /www.icbse.com
Foundation Chemistry-12 Comprehensive Practical Chemistry -12
15 Extraction of Essential Oil from Aniseed (Saunf) CHEMISTRY

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT TOPIC:- Extraction of Essential Oil from Aniseed
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(Saunf). NAME:- …………..Roll no:- CLASS:- XII SESSION:- 20…..-20…. Faculty:-
MR. ……………..CERTIFICATE This is to certify that Mr. ……………..a bonafide
student of Class XII has successfully completed the project on “ Extraction
of Essential oil from aniseed (Saunf)” in the academic year 20……-20…….
Principal (Mr……………….) Incharge Teacher…………………….)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I hereby express my gratitude to my Principal Sri
……………………….and Sri ……………….for their guidance throughout my studies.
I also thank my parents who supported me in all my endeavors. I also thank
my classmates who have equally worked hard to make my project a
success. I also thank my partner ……………….for helping me during the
project. And last but not the least I thank the almighty for whatever I have
achieved till now.
INDEX
S.No
Topic Page Number 1. Certificate 2 2. Acknowledgement 3 3. Index 4 4.
Aim 5 5. Introduction 6 6. Aniseed Essential Oil 8 7. Uses of Aniseed
Essential Oil 10 8. Requirements & Procedure 11 9. Observations 13 10.
Experimental Setup 15 11. Project Pictures 16 12. Bibliography 17 AIM:- To
extract essential oil present in Saunf (aniseed). INTRODUCTION We are all
familiar with the pleasant odours coming out from flowers, spices and
many trees. The essence or aromas of plants are due to volatile oils present
in them. These smelling volatile oils present in plants are called essential
oils. Cinnamon, clove, cumin, eucalyptus, garlic, jasmine, peppermint, rose,
sandalwood, spearmint, thyme, wintergreen are a few familiar examples of
valuable essential oils. The term “essential oils” literally means “oils derived
from the essence” of plants. Essential oils are mainly used for their pleasant
odours and flavors in perfumes and as flavoring agents in foods. Some are
used in medicines (e.g., camphor, wintergreen, eucalyptus) others as insect
repellants (e.g., citronella). Chemically essential oils are composed of
complex mixtures of ester, alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, ketones and
hydrocarbons. They are essentially non-polar compounds and are thus
soluble in non-polar solvents such as petroleum ether, benzene etc.
Essential oils may occur in all parts of the plant, but they are often
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concentrated in the seeds or flowers. They are obtained from the plants by
the process of steam distillation and extraction. The technique of steam
distillation permits the separation of volatile components from non-volatile
materials without raising the temperature of the distillation above 100° C.
Thus steam distillation reduces the risk of decomposition of essential oils.
ANISEED ESSENTIAL OIL Aniseed Plant v Aniseed, on steam distillation,
yields an essential oil, known as Òil of Aniseed`, which has now replaced
the fruits for medicinal and flavoring purposes. Aniseed oil is a colorless or
pale-yellow liquid having the characteristic odor and taste of the fruit. The
yield of oil generally varies from 1.9 to 3.1 per cent. Higher values up to 6
per cent have been reported from Syrian aniseed. Crushing of fruits prior to
distillation gives better yields of oil. The material should be distilled soon
after the crushing to prevent any loss of oil due to evaporation. Aniseed oil
is a highly refractive liquid, which solidifies on cooling. The congealing point
depends much on the anethole content and is a valuable criterion for
evaluating the oil. Exposure of the oil to air causes polymerization, and
some oxidation also takes place with the formation of anisaldehyde and
anisic acid. v The chief constituent of aniseed oil is anethole, which is
present to the extent of 80 to 90 per cent and is mainly responsible for the
characteristic flavor of the oil. The oil also contains methyl chavicol, p-
methoxyphenyl acetone, and small amount of terpenes and sulfur
containing compounds of disagreeable odour. Aniseed Essential Oil
vCommon Method of Extraction:- Steam Distillation vColor:- Clear
vBotanical Name:- Pimpinella anisum vAromatic Description:- Distinctive
scent of licorice. Rich and sweet. vConstituents:- a-pinene, camphene, B-
pinene, linalool, cis-anethole, trans-anethole, safrole, anisaldehyde,
acetoanisole. Uses of Aniseed Oil:- Ø In aromatherapy, aniseed essential oil
is used to treat colds and flu. Ø Aniseed oil can be made into a liquid scent
and is used for both hunting and fishing. It is put on fishing lures to attract
fish. Ø Anethole, the principal component of anise oil, is a precursor that
can eventually produce 2,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde which is can be used in
the clandestine synthesis of psychedelic drugs such as 2C-B, 2C-I and DOB.
Ø Oil of aniseed is also reported to be used as an aromatic carminative to
relieve flatulence, and as an ingredient of cough lozenges in combination
with liquorice. Ø Essential oil is also used externally as an insecticide against
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small insects such as head lice, mites and vermin. It also has fungicidal
properties. REQUIREMENTS:- Steam generator (Copper Vessel), round
bottom flask (500 ml), conical flask, condenser, glass tubes, iron stand, sand
bath, separatory funnel, tripod stands, burners, Ajwain(Carum), Petroleum
ether(60-80°C),Saunf(Aniseed) . PROCEDURE:- Set the apparatus as shown
in the picture of Experimental Setup. The apparatus consists of a steam
generator connected to the round bottom flask through a glass inlet tube.
The flask is connected to a water condenser through a glass outlet tube.
Condenser is further attached to a receiver through an adaptor. Take about
750 ml of water in the steam generator and start heating to produce steam.
In the round bottom flask take about 75 gm of crushed saunf. A vigorous
current of steam from steam generator is passed through the round bottom
flask. A part of the steam condenses in the round bottom flask. As more
and more steam is passed, the steam volatile components of saunf pass
through the condenser along with steam. These contents on condensation
are collected in the receiver. The contents in the round bottom flask may
be heated by a bunsen burner to prevent excessive condensation of steam.
The process of steam distillation is continued for about half an hour.
Transfer the distillate to a separating funnel and extract with 20 ml portions
of petroleum ether 3 times. Combine the petroleum ether extracts in a 250
ml conical flask and dry it with the help of anhydrous sodium sulphate.
Remove the solvent from the dried filtrate by careful distillation in a water
bath. The essential oil is left behind in the distillation flask. Find the weight
of the extracted essential oil. Note the colour, odour and weight of the
essential oil. OBSERVATIONS:- 1.) Saunf (Aniseed):- Weight of Saunf
taken = 100 gm Initial Weight of the bottle = 10gm(x) Weight of bottle +
essential oil = 11.25 gm(y) Weight of essential oil extracted =(y-x) =1.25 gm
Percentage of essential oil = (y/100)*100=1.25 % Colour of the oil =
Colourless Odour of the oil = Saunf like smell. 2.) Ajwain (Carum):- Weight
of Saunf taken = 75 gm Initial Weight of the bottle = 10 gm(x) Weight of
bottle + essential oil = 11 gm(y) Weight of essential oil extracted =(y-x) =1
gm Percentage of essential oil = (y/75)*100=1.33% Colour of the oil =
Colourless Odour of the oil = Ajwain like smell. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ø
Comprehensive Chemistry Practical Class-XII. Ø
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anise Ø
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http://www.essentialoils.co.za/essential-oils/aniseed.htm
16 PREPARATION OF POTASH ALUM FROM SCRAP ALUMINUM Chemistry

Project Name of Institute: ………………………This is to certify that
Mr………………. of class twelve, …………………School, has satisfactorily
completed the project in Chemistry for the AISSCE as prescribed by CBSE in
the year 20…-20…. Date : Registration No. : Signature of Internal Examiner
Signature of External Examiner Chemistry Project
Acknowledgement I thank my chemistry teacher Mrs. ………….i and Mrs.
…………..for their guidance and support. I also thank my Principal
Mrs……………………….. I would also like to thank my parents and my sister for
encouraging me during this course of this project. Finally I would like to
thank CBSE for giving me this opportunity to undertake this project.
Chemistry Project k A\ Introduction Aluminium because of its low density,
high tensile strength and resistance and resistance to corrosion is widely
used for the manufacture of aeroplanes, automobiles lawn furniture as well
as for aluminium cans. Being good conductor of electricity it is used for
transmission of electricity. Aluminium is also used for making utensils. The
recycling of aluminium cans and other aluminium products is a very positive
contribution to saving our natural resources. Most of the recycled
aluminium is melted and recast into other aluminium metal products or
used in the production of various aluminium compounds, the most
common of which are the alums. Alums are double sulphates having
general formula X2SO4.M2(SO4)3.24H2O Chemistry Project k A\
Introduction Some important alums and their names are given below:
K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O - Potash Alum Na2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O - Soda
Alum K2SO4.Cr2(SO4)3.24H2O - Chrome Alum (NH)2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O
- Ferric Alum Potash alum is used in papermaking, in fire extinguishers in
food stuffs and in purification of water soda alum used in baking powders
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and chrome alum is used in tanning leather and water proofing fabrics.
Chemistry Project k A\ In addition Lo these primary uses, alum is also used
as (i) on mirin^m A substance or preparation, that draws together or
constricts body tissues and is effective in stopping the How of blood or
other secretions Alum has also been used by conventional hairdressers for
treating shaving cuts, (ii) a mordant Substances used in dyeing lo fix certain
dyes on cloth. Hilher lhe mordant (If it is colloidal) or a colloid produced by
the mordant adheres to the fiber, attracting and fixing the colloidal
mordant dye. The insoluble, colored precipitate that is formed is called a
lake! Alum is a basic mordant used for Fixing acid dyesh (i ii) for the
removal of phosphate from natural and waste waters The alumi num ions
of alum combine with the orihophosphaic around pH 6 to form Ihc solid
aluminum hydroxy phosphate which is precipitated and {}V}forfJFeprnnfing
fabrics, The major uses of alums are based on [wo important properties,
namely precipitation of AI(OH)j and those related to the acidity created by
the production of hydrogen ions, Al(HjO)/J -*■ Al(OH), J + 3HjO + 3H* The
H* ions generated arc used for reacting with sodium bicarbonate to release
CO]+ This property is made use of in baking powder and CO fire
extinguishers, Chemistry Project k A\ r Preparation of Potash Alum
Requirements ❖ 250 ml flask ❖ Funnel ❖ Beaker ❖ Scrap aluminium or
cola can ❖ Potassium hydroxide solution (KOH) ❖ 6 M Sulphuric Acid
(H2SO4) ❖ Water Bath ❖ Ethanol Chemistry Project A Theory Aluminum
metal is treated with hot aqueous KOH solution. Aluminium dissolves as
potassium aluminate, KAl(OH)4, salt. Potassium aluminate solution on
treatment with dil. Sulphuric acid first gives precipitate Al(OH)3, which
dissolves on addition of small excess of H2SO4and heating. 2KOH(aq) +
H2SO4(aq)————- > 2Al(OH)s (s) + ^SOâq) + 2H2O(l) 2Al(OH)3 (S) + 3
H2SO4(aq)—————- > Ah(SO4)3(aq) +6H2O(l) The resulting solution is
concentrated to near saturation and cooled. On cooling crystals of potash
alum crystallize out. K2SO4(aq) + ^2^4)3^) + 24H2O(l)——————— >
K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3. 24Ô(s) Chemistry Project k A\ Reactions Reactions 2Al(s)
+ 2KOH(aq) + 6H2O(l) ————– > 2KAl(OH)4 (aq) + 3H2 K2SO4(aq) +
A^^âq) + 24H2O(l)————————– > K2SO4.Al2 Al2(SO4)3(aq) +6H2O(l)
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)————- > 2Al(OH)3 (s) + K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
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K2SO4(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 24H2O(l)————— > K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.
24Ô(s) Chemistry Project k Procedure ■ Clean a small piece of scrap
aluminium with steel wool and cut it into very small pieces. Aluminium foil
may be taken instead of scrap aluminium. ■ Put the small pieces of scrap
aluminium or aluminium foil(about 1.00g) into a conical flask and add about
50 ml of 4 M KOH solution to dissolve the aluminium. ■ The flask may be
heated gently in order to facilitate dissolution. Since during this step
hydrogen gas is evolved this step must be done in a well ventilated area. ■
Continue heating until all of the aluminium reacts. ■ Filter the solution to
remove any insoluble impurities and reduce the volume to about 25 ml by
heating. Chemistry Project k A\ Procedure ■ Allow the filtrate to cool. Now
add slowly 6 M H2SO4 until insoluble Al(OH)3 just forms in the solution. ■
Gently heat the mixture until the Al(OH)3 precipitate dissolves. ■ Cool the
resulting solution in an ice-bath for about 30 minutes whereby alum
crystals should separate out. For better results the solution may be left
overnight for crystallization to continue. ■ In case crystals do not form the
solution may be further concentrated and cooled again. ■ Filter the crystals
from the solution using vacuum pump, wash the crystals with 50/50
ethanol-water mixture. Chemistry Project k A\ Procedure ■ Continue
applying the vacuum until the crystals appear dry. ■ Determine the mass of
alum crystals. Chemistry Project k A\ Observations Mass of aluminium
metal =………………………… g Mass of potash
alum =…………………. g Theoretical yield of potash
alum =…………………… g Percent
yield =………………… % Chemistry
Project k A\ Result Potash alum was prepared from aluminium scrap.
Chemistry Project k A\ r Preparation of Potash Alum Bibliography ❖
iCBSE.com ❖ Wikipedia ❖ Chemicalland.com ❖ books.google.co.in
Chemistry Project
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17 STERILIZATION OF WATER USING BLEACHING POWDER A
CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROGECT ……………….XII B PTHIS
PROJECT LOOKS AT THE TECHNIQUE CALLED STERILIZATION OF
WATER USING BLEACHING POWDER WHICH IS USED TO
PURIFY WATER AND MAKES IT FIT FOR DRINKING.]
INDEX Certificate of Authenticity Acknowledgement
Introduction -Need of Water -Purification of Water -Need for a
stable purification technique 4. Theory -History of Water
purification -Bleaching powder and its preparation -Use of
Bleaching powder in Sterilization of water 5. Experiment -Aim
-Pre-Requisite Knowledge -Requirements -Procedure Result
Bibliography
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHENTICITY This is to certify
that…………………, a student of class XII has successfully
completed the research project on the topic “Sterilization of
Water by using Bleaching Powder” under the guidance of Mrs.
…………………….(Subject Teacher). This project is absolutely
genuine and does not indulge in plagiarism of any kind. The
references taken in making this project have been declared at
the end of this report.
Signature(SubjectTeacher) ……………….
Signature ( Examiner) ……………..
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I feel proud to present my Investigatory
project in Chemistry on the topic “Sterilization of Water using
Bleaching powder” which aims at using Bleaching powder as a
disinfectant and purifier to make water fit for drinking. This
project wouldn’t have been feasible without the proper and
rigorous guidance of my Chemistry teacher Mrs. ………….who
guided me throughout this project in every possible way. An
investigatory project involves various difficult lab experiments
which have to be carried out by the student to obtain the
observations and conclude the report on a meaningful note.
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These experiments are very critical and in the case of failure,
may result in disastrous consequences. Thereby, I would like to
thank both Mrs………. and Lab Ass Mr………………… for guiding
me on a step by step basis and ensuring that I completed all
my experiments with ease. Rigorous hard work has been put in
this project to ensure that it proves to be the best. I hope that
this project will prove to be a breeding ground for the next
generation of students and will guide them in every possible
way.
Need of water Water is an important and essential ingredient
in our quest for survival on this planet. It is very essential for
carrying out various metabolic processes in our body and also
to carry out Hemoglobin throughout the body. A daily average
of 1 gallon per man is sufficient for drinking and cooking
purposes. A horse, bullock, or mule drinks about 11 gallons at a
time. standing up, an average allowance of 5 gallons should be
given for a man, and 10 gallons for a horse or a camel. An
elephant drinks 25 gallons, each mule or ox drinks 6 to 8
gallons, each sheep or pig 6 to 8 pints. These are minimum
quantities. One cubic foot of water = 6 gallons (a gallon = 10
lbs.). In order to fulfill such a huge demand of water, it needs
to be purified and supplied in a orderly and systematic way.
But with the increasing world population, the demand for
drinking water has also increased dramatically and therefore it
is very essential to identify resources of water from which we
can use water for drinking purposes. Many available resources
of water do not have it in drinkable form. Either the water
contains excess of Calcium or Magnesium salts or any other
organic impurity or it simply contains foreign particles which
make it unfit and unsafe for Drinking. Purification of Water
There are many methods for the purification of water. Some of
them are Boiling Filtration Bleaching powder treatment SODIS
(Solar Water Disinfection) And the list goes on…. Boiling is
perhaps the most commonly used water purification technique
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in use today. While in normal households it is an efficient
technique; it cannot be used for industrial and large scale
purposes. It is because in normal households, the water to be
purified is very small in quantity and hence the water loss due
to evaporation is almost negligible. But in Industrial or large
scale purification of water the water loss due to evaporation
will be quite high and the amount of purified water obtained
will be very less. Filtration is also used for removing foreign
particles from water. One major drawback of this purification
process is that it cannot be used for removing foreign
chemicals and impurities that are miscible with water. SODIS
or Solar Water Disinfection is recommended by the United
Nations for disinfection of water using soft drink bottles,
sunlight, and a black surface– at least in hot nations with
regularly intense sunlight. Water-filled transparent bottles
placed in a horizontal position atop a flat surface in strong
sunlight for around five hours will kill microbes in the water.
The process is made even more safe and effective if the
bottom half of the bottle or the surface it’s lying on is
blackened, and/or the flat surface is made of plastic or metal.
It’s the combination of heat and ultraviolet light which kills the
organisms. The major drawback of this purification technique
is that it cannot be used in countries with cold weather. Also,
the time consumed for Purification process is more and it also
needs a ‘blackened’ surface, much like solar cookers. Need for
a stable purification technique Therefore we need a
purification technique which can be used anytime and
anywhere, does not require the use of any third party content
and which is also economically feasible on both normal scale
and large scale. Hence we look at the method of purification of
water using the technique of treatment by bleaching powder
commonly known as “Chlorination”. THEORY History of water
purification in different parts of the world. In 1854 it was
discovered that a cholera epidemic spread through water. The
outbreak seemed less severe in areas where sand filters were
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installed. British scientist John Snow found that the direct
cause of the outbreak was water pump contamination by
sewage water. He applied chlorine to purify the water, and this
paved the way for water disinfection. Since the water in the
pump had tasted and smelled normal, the conclusion was
finally drawn that good taste and smell alone do not guarantee
safe drinking water. This discovery led to governments starting
to install municipal water filters (sand filters and chlorination),
and hence the first government regulation of public water. In
the 1890s America started building large sand filters to protect
public health. These turned out to be a success. Instead of slow
sand filtration, rapid sand filtration was now applied. Filter
capacity was improved by cleaning it with powerful jet steam.
Subsequently, Dr. Fuller found that rapid sand filtration
worked much better when it was preceded by coagulation and
sedimentation techniques. Meanwhile, such waterborne
illnesses as cholera and typhoid became less and less common
as water chlorination won terrain throughout the world. But
the victory obtained by the invention of chlorination did not
last long. After some time the negative effects of this element
were discovered. Chlorine vaporizes much faster than water,
and it was linked to the aggravation and cause of respiratory
disease. Water experts started looking for alternative water
disinfectants. In 1902 calcium hypo chlorite and ferric chloride
were mixed in a drinking water supply in Belgium, resulting in
both coagulation and disinfection. The treatment and
distribution of water for safe use is one of the greatest
achievements of the twentieth century. Before cities began
routinely treating drinking water with chlorine (starting with
Chicago and Jersey City in US in 1908), cholera, typhoid fever,
dysentery and hepatitis A killed thousands of U.S. residents
annually. Drinking water chlorination and filtration have
helped to virtually eliminate these diseases in the U.S. and
other developed countries. Meeting the goal of clean, safe
drinking water requires a multi-barrier approach that includes:
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protecting source water from contamination, appropriately
treating raw water, and ensuring safe distribution of treated
water to consumers’ taps. During the treatment process,
chlorine is added to drinking water as elemental chlorine
(chlorine gas), sodium hypochlorite solution or dry calcium
hypochlorite. When applied to water, each of these forms
“free chlorine,” which destroys pathogenic (disease-causing)
organisms. Almost all systems that disinfect their water use
some type of chlorine-based process, either alone or in
combination with other disinfectants. In addition to controlling
disease-causing organisms, chlorination offers a number of
benefits including: Reduces many disagreeable tastes and
odors; Eliminates slime bacteria, molds and algae that
commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on the walls of
water mains and in storage tanks; Removes chemical
compounds that have unpleasant tastes and hinder
disinfection; and Helps remove iron and manganese from raw
water. As importantly, only chlorine-based chemicals provide
“residual disinfectant” levels that prevent microbial re-growth
and help protect treated water throughout the distribution
system. For more than a century, the safety of drinking water
supplies has been greatly improved by the addition of
bleaching powder. Disinfecting our drinking water ensures it is
free of the microorganisms that can cause serious and life-
threatening diseases, such as cholera and typhoid fever. To
this day, bleaching powder remains the most commonly used
drinking water disinfectant, and the disinfectant for which we
have the most scientific information. Bleaching powder is
added as part of the drinking water treatment process.
However, bleaching powder also reacts with the organic
matter, naturally present in water, such as decaying leaves.
This chemical reaction forms a group of chemicals known as
disinfection by-products. Current scientific data shows that the
benefits of bleaching our drinking water (less disease) are
much greater than any health risks from THMs and other by-
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products. Although other disinfectants are available, bleaching
powder remains the choice of water treatment experts. When
used with modern water filtration methods, chlorine is
effective against virtually all microorganisms. Bleaching
powder is easy to apply and small amounts of the chemical
remain in the water as it travels in the distribution system from
the treatment plant to the consumer’s tap, this level of
effectiveness ensures that microorganisms cannot
recontaminate the water after it leaves the treatment. But
what is bleaching powder and how is it prepared? Bleaching
powder or Calcium hypochlorite is a chemical compound with
formula Ca(ClO) 2. It is widely used for water treatment and as
a bleaching agent bleaching powder). This chemical is
considered to be relatively stable and has greater available
chlorine than sodium hypochlorite (liquid bleach). It is
prepared by either calcium process or sodium process. Calcium
Process 2 Ca(OH)2 + 2 Cl2 Ca(ClO)2 + CaCl2 + 2 H2O Sodium
Process 2 Ca(OH)2 + 3 Cl2 + 2 NaOH Ca(ClO)2 + CaCl2 + 2 H2O
+ 2 NaCl But how can this chemical be used to sterilize water?
This chemical can be used for sterilizing water by Using 5 drops
of bleach per each half gallon of water to be purified, and
allowing it to sit undisturbed for half an hour to make it safe
for drinking. Letting it sit several hours more will help reduce
the chlorine taste, as the chlorine will slowly evaporate out. A
different reference advises when using household bleach for
purification; add a single drop of bleach per quart of water
which is visibly clear, or three drops per quart of water where
the water is NOT visibly clear. Then allow the water to sit
undisturbed for half an hour. What are the actual processes
involved in disinfecting and purifying water? The combination
of following processes is used for municipal drinking water
treatment worldwide: Pre-chlorination – for algae control and
arresting any biological growth Aeration – along with pre-
chlorination for removal of dissolved iron and manganese
Coagulation – for flocculation Coagulant aids also known as
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polyelectrolyte’s – to improve coagulation and for thicker floc
formation Sedimentation – for solids separation, that is,
removal of suspended solids trapped in the floc Filtration – for
removal of carried over floc Disinfection – for killing bacteria
Out of these processes, the role of Bleaching powder is only in
the last step i.e. for Disinfection of water. EXPERIMENT Aim: To
Determine the dosage of bleaching powder required for
sterilization or disinfection of different samples of water.
Requirements: Burette, titration flask, 100ml graduated
cylinder, 250ml measuring flask, weight box, glazed tile, glass
wool. Bleaching Powder, Glass wool, 0.1 N Na2S2O3 solution,
10% KI solution, different samples of water, starch solution.
Pre-Requisite Knowledge: 1. A known mass of the given
sample of bleaching powder is dissolved in water to prepare a
solution of known concentration. This solution contains
dissolved chlorine, liberated by the action of bleaching powder
with water. CaOCl2+H20 I >> Ca(OH)2+Cl2 2. The
amount of Chlorine present in the above solution is
determined by treating a known volume of the above solution
with excess of 10% potassium iodide solution, when equivalent
amount of Iodine is liberated. The Iodine, thus liberated is then
estimated by titrating it against a standard solution of Sodium
thiosulphate, using starch solution as indicator. Cl2+2KI
i > 2KCl+I2 I2+2Na2S2O3 i >
Na2S4O6+2NaI A known Volume of one of the given samples
of water is treated with a known volume of bleaching powder
solution. The amount of residual chlorine is determined by
adding excess potassium iodide solution and then titrating
against standard sodium thiosulphate solution. From the
readings in 2 and 3, the amount of chlorine and hence
bleaching powder required for the disinfection of a given
volume of the given sample of water can be calculated.
Procedure: Preparation of bleaching powder solution. Weigh
accurately 2.5g of the given sample of bleaching powder and
transfer it to a 250ml conical flask. Add about 100-150ml of
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distilled water. Stopper the flask and shake it vigorously. The
suspension thus obtained is filtered through glass wool and the
filtrate is diluted with water (in a measuring flask) to make the
volume 250ml. The solution obtained is 1% bleaching powder
solution. Take 20ml of bleaching powder solution in a
stoppered conical flask and add it to 20ml of 10% KI solution.
Stopper the flask and shake it vigorously. Titrate this solution
against 0.1N Na2S2O3 solution taken in the burette. When the
solution in the conical flask becomes light yellow in color, add
about 2ml starch solution. The solution now becomes blue in
color. Continue titrating till the blue color just disappears.
Repeat the titration to get a set of three concordant readings.
Take 100ml of the water sample in a 250ml stoppered conical
flask and add it to 10ml of bleching powder solution. Then add
20ml of KI solution and stopper the flask. Shake vigorously and
titrate against 0.1N Na2S2O3 solution using starch solution as
indicator as described in step 2. Repeat the step 3 with other
samples of water and record the observations. RESULT Amount
of the given sample of bleaching powder required to disinfect
one litre of water Sample I =……….. g Sample II=……….. g Sample
III=……….. g BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.The Medical front-”Water Supply”
http://www.vlib.us/medical/sancamp/water.htm 2.
“Chemistry Projects” http://www.icbse.com 3.How to live on
Very,Very Little-”Clean drinking water: How to develop low
cost sources of drinking water just about anywhere”
http://www.jmooneyham.com/watp.html 4.Calcium
Hypochloride http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleaching_powder
5.Water Treatment
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment 6.Bleach
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleach 7.Drinking Water
Treatment:Continuous Chlorination
http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/pages/publicationD.jsp?
publicationId=358 8.Chlorination of Drinking Water
http://www.water-research.net/watertreatment/chlorination.
htm 9.Chlorination Of Drinking Water (2)
Page 80 of 98
www.edstrom.com/doclib/mi4174.pdf 10.Wagenet, L, K.
Mancl, and M. Sailus, 1995. “Home Water Treatment,”
Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service,
Cooperative Extension, Ithaca, N.Y. 11.”Treatment Systems for
Household Water Supplies: Chlorination,” North Dakota State
University Extension Service 12.”Water Treatment Notes:
Chlorination of Drinking Water,” Cornell Cooperative
Extension, New York State College of Human Ecology,USA
13.”Drinking Water Standards,”
www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html 14.”Understanding the New
Consumer Confidence Report,”
www.awwa.org/Advocacy/bluethumb98/consumer.cfm
15.”Testing for Drinking Water Quality,” NebGuide G89-907
Cooperative Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln,USA
16.DISINFECTING YOUR WELL WATER: SHOCK CHLORINATION
http://www.fcs.uga.edu/pubs/PDF/HACE-858-4.pdf
18Study Of Constituents Of An Alloy CHEMISTRY PROJECT AIM- Study

Of Constituents Of An Alloy N3m0 —……………….Board roll no- ……………
Contents PAGE NO
Acknowledgement 3/13
Introduction
4/13 Aim of the experiment 5/13 a- General
objective b- Specific objective Materials
Required 6/13
Theory
7/13 Details of procedure and 9/13 Observations
Conclusion 12/13
Bibliography 13/13
Page 81 of 98
Signature
13/13 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I, ………………….of class XLL -C express my
gratitude to my school authorities for allowing me to undertake the project
titled Alloy Analysis I naturally could not have done justice to my delicate
assignment, had I not been privileged to get the animate guidance from
Mr…………………., Chemistry teacher of ……………..School. I also express
sincere thanks to my family who extended helping hand in completing this
project.
………………..Internal External
Examiner Examiner
Introduction An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or a
metal and non-metal. They are generally harder than their components
with reduced malleability and ductility. Alloys are prepared to enhance
certain characteristics of the constituent metals, as per requirement. In this
project, we shall qualitatively anayze the chemical composition of two
alloys: J$rass and J$ronze Aim of the Experiment General objective: This
project is being carried out with a view to increase the appreciation of
alloy-analysis as an important branch of chemistry. The hands-on
laboratory experience gained is highly beneficial in understanding the
general procedure of qualitative analysis of an unknown sample. Specific
objective: In this project, we shall be analyzing the constituents of Brass
and Bronze. MATERIALS REQUIRED 1) BRASS AND BRONZE PIECES 2) china
dishes 3)) FILTRATION APPARATUS 4) NITRIC ACID 5) HYDROGEN
SULPHIDE GAS 7)) AMMONIUM CHLORIDE 8)) POTASSIUM
FERROCYANIIDE 9) AMMONIUM SULPHIDE 10) DIL HYDROCHLORIC ACID
Theory Brass Brass contains Cu and Zn . Both dissolve in nitric acid. 4Zn+ 10
HNO3= 4Zn{NO)i + N2O + 5HO 3Cu + 8 HNO3= 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4HO+2NO
Further analysis is carried out for respective ions. Cu dissolves in H2S to
give black ppt. of CuS. It is filtered to get the soln of Zinc Sulphide. It
precipitates out in the form of ZnCl2 in an ammoniacal soln. of Ammonium
chloride. The precipitate is dissolved in dilute HCl and then treated with
Potassium ferrocyanide to get a bluish-white ppt. of Zn2[Fe(CN)6]. Bronze
Bronze contains Cu and Sn. Their nitrates are obtained by dissolving the
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sample in conc. Nitric acid. The nitrates are precipitated as sulphides by
passing H2S through their solution in dil. HCl. The CuS is insoluble in yellow
ammonium sulphide, while SnS is soluble. The ppt. is separated by
filtration. The ppt. is dissolved in cone HNO3 and then Ammonium
hydroxide solution is passed through it.Blue colouration confirms the
presense of Cu. The filtrate is treated with conc. HCl followed by Zinc dust
to obtain SnCl2 . Then HgCl2 solution is added. Formation of slate-coloured
ppt. indicates the presence of Sn. SnS2 +HCl(conc)= SnCh + H2S SnCl4 +Fe=
SnCh+FeCh SnCl2 + HgCl2 = Hg2Cl2 + SnCh Detail of
Procedure/Observations Brass,: 1. A small piece of brass was placed in a
china dish and dissolved in minimum quantity of 50%conc.1¥UOs. 2. The
soln. was heated to obtain a dry residue. The residue was dissolved in
Dilute H(?l. gas was passed and a black.ppt. was (observed. The soln. was
filtered and the ppt. was dissolved in NH4OH soln. A blue coloration
observed indicates the presence of Cu. 4. The filtrate was tested for
presence of Zn. Ammonium hydroxide and chloride solutions were added
and then H2S gas was passed. A dull grey ppt. was separated and dissolved
in dil. H(£l followed by addition of Potassium ferrocyanide. A bluish white
ppt. confirms the presense of Zn. Bronfe: 1. The sample was dissolved in
50% HNO3 and then heated to obtain nitrates. 2. The nitrates were
dissolved in dil. H(£l and then precipitated as sulphides by passing H2S gas.
3. The precipitates were treated with yellow amm.sulphide when a part of
it dissolves. The soln. was filtered. 4. The ppt. was tested for Cu as in the
case of brass. 5. The filtrate was treated with conc. HCl followed by Fe dust.
6. Then HgCl2 soln. was added. Formation of a slate-coloured ppt.
confirmed the presence of Sn. Conclusion Brass contains Copper and
Bronze contains Copper and Tin. Bibliography 1. Comprehensive practical
Chemistry- Class 12. 2. Inorganic Chemistry by 3. www.niton.com 4.
VMw.alloyanalyzer.niit.edu Signatures: fitudeni Internal External
18 Chemistry Project on Evaporation of Liquid Evaporation

Acknowledgment I am are greatly thankful for the cooperation
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and help from …………………………and the Chemistry lab staff for
the successful completion of this investigatory project.
Without their help and proper guidance my project might not
have completed.
Index 1. Introduction 2. Theory 3. Objectives of project 4.
Experiment No.1 Theory Evaporation is the process whereby
atoms or molecules in a liquid state (or solid state if the
substance sublimes) gain sufficient energy to enter the
gaseous state. The thermal motion of a molecule must be
sufficient to overcome the surface tension of the liquid in
order for it to evaporate, that is, its kinetic energy must exceed
the work function of cohesion at the surface. Evaporation
therefore proceeds more quickly at higher temperature and in
liquids with lower surface tension. Since only a small
proportion of the molecules are located near the surface and
are moving in the proper direction to escape at any given
instant, the rate of evaporation is limited. Also, as the faster-
moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower
average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid thus
decreases. If the evaporation takes place in a closed vessel, the
escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid.
Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning
molecules becoming more frequent as the density and
pressure of the vapor increases. When the process of escape
and return reaches equilibrium, the vapor is said to be
“saturated,” and no further change in either vapor pressure
and density or liquid temperature will occur. Factors
influencing rate of evaporation:- 1. Concentration of the
substance evaporating in the air. If the air already has a high
concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given
substance will evaporate more slowly. 2. Concentration of
other substances in the air. If the air is already saturated with
other substances, it can have a lower capacity for the
substance evaporating. 3. Temperature of the substance. If the
substance is hotter, then evaporation will be faster. 4. Flow
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rate of air. This is in part related to the concentration points
above. If fresh air is moving over the substance all the time,
then the concentration of the substance in the air is less likely
to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. In
addition, molecules in motion have more energy than those at
rest, and so the stronger the flow of air, the greater the
evaporating power of the air molecules. 5. Inter-molecular
forces. The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together
in the liquid or solid state the more energy that must be input
in order to evaporate them. 6. Surface area and temperature: -
Because molecules or atoms evaporate from a liquid’S surface,
a larger surface area allows more molecules or atoms to leave
the liquid, and evaporation occurs more quickly. For example,
the same amount of water will evaporate faster if spilled on a
table than if it is left in a cup. Higher temperatures also
increase the rate of evaporation. At higher temperatures,
molecules or atoms have a higher average speed, and more
particles are able to break free of the liquid’S surface. For
example, a wet street will dry faster in the hot sun than in the
shade. Intermolecular forces: – Most liquids are made up of
molecules, and the levels of mutual attraction among different
molecules help explain why some liquids evaporate faster than
others. Attractions between molecules arise because
molecules typically have regions that carry a slight negative
charge, and other regions that carry a slight positive charge.
These regions of electric charge are created because some
atoms in the molecule are often more electronegative
(electron-attracting) than others. The oxygen atom in a water
(H2O) molecule is more electronegative than the hydrogen
atoms, for example, enabling the oxygen atom to pull
electrons away from both hydrogen atoms. As a result, the
oxygen atom in the water molecule carries a partial negative
charge, while the hydrogen atoms carry a partial positive
charge. Water molecules share a mutual attraction—positively
charged hydrogen atoms in one water molecule attract
Page 85 of 98
negatively charged oxygen atoms in nearby water molecules.
Intermolecular attractions affect the rate of evaporation of a
liquid because strong intermolecular attractions hold the
molecules in a liquid together more tightly. As a result, liquids
with strong intermolecular attractions evaporate more slowly
than liquids with weak intermolecular attractions. For
example, because water molecules have stronger mutual
attractions than gasoline molecules (the electric charges are
more evenly distributed in gasoline molecules), gasoline
evaporates more quickly than water. Objective of project In
this project,we shall investigate various factors that have
already been discussed such as nature of liquid ,surface of
liquid and temperature and find their correlation with the rate
of evaporation of different liquids. Experiment no.1 Aim: To
compare the rate of evaporation of water, acetone and diethyl
ether. Materials required: China dish, Pipette, Beaker,
Weighing balance Measuring flask, Acetone, Distilled water,
Diethyl ether, Watch PROCEDURE: 1. Take three china dishes.
2. Pipette out 10 ml of each sample. 3. Dish A-Acetone Dish B-
Water Dish C-Diethyl ether 4. Record the weights before
beginning the experiment. 5. Leave the three dishes
undisturbed for ½ an hr and
wait patiently. 6. Record the weights of the samples after the
given time. 7. Compare the prior and present observations.
OBSERVATION: Water (gm) Acetone (gm) Diethyl Ether (gm)
Weight of dish 50 50 50 Weight of (dish + substance) before
evaporation 60 57.85 57 Weight of (dish + substance) after
evaporation 59.8 55.55 54.33 Weight of substance evaporated
0.2 2.30 2.67 Inference and conclusion: - The rate of
evaporation of the given three liquids is in order :- Diethyl
Ether>Acetone>Water Reason: - Water has extensive hydrogen
bonding in between oxygen atom of one molecule and
hydrogen atom of another molecule. But this is absent in the
case of acetone. Experiment no.2 Aim:-To study the effect of
surface area on the rate of evaporation of Diethyl ether.
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Requirements Three Petridishes of diameter 2.5 cm,5 cm, and
10 cm with covers ,10 ml pipette and stopwatch. Procedure 1.
Clean and dry the petridishes and mark them as A,B,C. 2.
Pipette out 10 ml of Diethyl ether in each of the petridishes
a,band C cover them immediately. 3. Uncover all the three
petridishes simultaneously and start the stopwatch. 4. Note
the time when diethyl ether evaporates completely from each
petridish. Observation Table Petridish Mark Diameter of
petridish Time taken for complete evaporation A 2.5 cm 11min
45sec B 5.0 cm 8min 45sec C 7.5 cm 6min 30sec Result It will
be observed that maximum evaporation occurs in petridish
with largest diameter followed by smaller and the smallest
petridish. It is therefore , concluded that rate of evaporation
increases with increase in surface area.
19 Measuring the Amount of Acetic Acid In Vinegar AIM

Measuring the Amount of Acetic Acid In Vinegar by Titration
with an Indicator Solution Certificate This is to certify that
…………………..of class XII has completed the chemistry project
entitled ‘DETERMINATION OF AMOUNT OF ACETIC ACID IN
VINEGAR’ himself and under my guidance. The progress of the
project has been continuously reported and has been in my
knowledge consistently. Mrs. ………………..(P.G.T CHEMISTRY)
…………………..PUBLIC SCHOOL Acknowledgement It gives me
great pleasure to express my gratitude towards our chemistry
teacher Mrs. ……………….for her guidance, support and
encouragement throughout the duration of the project.
Without her motivation and help the successful completion of
this project would not have been possible. …………………..
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Index 1 Certificate 2 Acknowledgement
3 Aim 4 Objective 5 Introduction
6 Materials and Equipment 7 Theory 8
Experimental Procedure > Experiment 1 > Experiment 2
> Experiment 3 9 Result 10 Precautions 1 1
Bibliography Objective The goal of this project is to determine
the amount of Acetic Acid in different types of vinegar using
titration with a coloured pH indicator to determine the
endpoint. Introduction Vinegar is a solution made from the
fermentation of ethanol (CH3CH2OH), which in turn was
previously fermented from sugar. The fermentation of ethanol
results in the production of acetic acid (CH3COOH). There are
many different types of vinegar, each starting from a different
original sugar source (e.g., rice, wine, malt, etc.). The amount
of acetic acid in vinegar can vary, typically between 4 to 6% for
table vinegar, but up to three times higher (18%) for pickling
vinegar. In this project, we will determine the amount of acid
in different vinegars using titration, a common technique in
chemistry. Titration is a way to measure the unknown amount
of a chemical in a solution (the titrant) by adding a measured
amount of a chemical with a known concentration (the
titrating solution). The titrating solution reacts with the titrant,
and the endpoint of the reaction is monitored in some way.
The concentration of the titrant can now be calculated from
the amount of titrating solution added, and the ratio of the
two chemicals in the chemical equation for the reaction. To
measure the acidity of a vinegar solution, we can add enough
hydroxyl ions to balance out the added hydrogen ions from the
acid. The hydroxyl ions will react with the hydrogen ions to
produce water. In order for a titration to work, we need three
things: a titration solution (contains hydroxyl ions with a
precisely known concentration), a method for delivering a
precisely measured volume of the titrating solution, and a
means of indicating when the endpoint has been reached. For
the titrating solution, we’ll use a dilute solution of sodium
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hydroxide (NaOH). Sodium hydroxide is a strong base, which
means that it dissociates almost completely in water. So for
every NaOH molecule that we add to the solution,we can
expect to produce a hydroxyl ion. To dispense an accurately
measured volume of the titrating solution, we will use a
burette. A burette is a long tube with a valve at the bottom and
graduated markings on the outside to measure the volume
contained in the burette. The burette is mounted on a ring
stand, directly above the titrant solution (as shown in the
picture). Solutions in the burette tend to creep up the sides of
the glass at the surface of the liquid. This is due to the surface
tension of water. The surface of the liquid thus forms a curve,
called a meniscus. To measure the volume of the liquid in the
burette, always read from the bottom of the meniscus. In this
experiment, we will use an indicator solution called
phenolphthalein. Phenolphthalein is colourless when the
solution is acidic or neutral. When the solution becomes
slightly basic, phenolphthalein turns pinkish, and then light
purple as the solution becomes more basic. So when the
vinegar solution starts to turn pink, we know that the titration
is complete. Materials and Equipment To do this experiment
we will need the following materials and equipment: .
Vinegar, three different types. . Distilled water . Small
funnel . 0.5% Phenolphthalein solution in alcohol (pH
indicator solution) . 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution . 125
mL Conical flask . 25 or 50 mL burette . 10 mL graduated
cylinder . Ring stand . Burette clamp Theory Required
amount of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) can be calculated using
the following formula: W _ Molarity x Molarmass x Volume(cm
) _ 1000 Molar mass of NaOH = 40 g/mol = 0.5 x 40 x 500
~ 1000 = 10 g ♦♦♦ The acetic acid content of a vinegar
may be determined by titrating a vinegar sample with a
solution of sodium hydroxide of known molar concentration
(molarity). CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) +
H2O(l) (acid) + (base) — > (salt) + (water) At the end point in
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the titration stoichiometry between the both solution lies in a
1:1 ratio. MCH3COOHVCH3COOH 1
MNaOHVNaOH 1 Strength of acid in vinegar can
be determined by the following formula: Strength of acetic
acid = MCH COOH x 60 Indicator:- Phenolphthalein End Point:-
Colourless to pink Experimental Procedure Performing the
Titration Pour 1.5 ml of vinegar in an Conical flask. Add distilled
water to dissolve the vinegar so that the volume of the
solution becomes 20 mL. Add 3 drops of 0.5% phenolphthalein
solution. Use the burette clamp to attach the burette to the
ring stand. The opening at the bottom of the burette should be
just above the height of the Conical flask we use for the
vinegar and phenolphthalein solution. Use a funnel to fill the
burette with a 0.1 M solution of sodium hydroxide. Note the
starting level of the sodium hydroxide solution in the burette.
Put the vinegar solution to be titrated under the burette.
Slowly drip the solution of sodium hydroxide into the vinegar
solution. Swirl the flask gently to mix the solution, while
keeping the opening underneath the burette. At some point
we will see a pink colour in the vinegar solution when the
sodium hydroxide is added, but the colour will quickly
disappear as the solution is mixed. When this happens, slow
the burette to drop-by-drop addition. When the vinegar
solution turns pink and remains that colour even with mixing,
the titration is complete. Close the tap (or pinch valve) of the
burette. Note the remaining level of the sodium hydroxide
solution in the burette. Remember to read from the bottom of
the meniscus. Subtract the initial level from the remaining
level to figure out how much titrating solution we have used.
For each vinegar that we test, repeat the titration at least
three times. EXPERIMENT – 1 I. Take the household vinegar in
the conical flask and do the titration with sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) as mentioned. OBSERVATIONS S.no Volume of vinegar
solution Burette Reading Volume of NaOH solution used Initial
(in mL) Final (in mL) 1. 20 0 27 27 2. 20 0 27 27 3. 20 0 27 27
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Concordant volume = 27 mL CALCULATIONS We know that, M
CH 3 COOH VCH 3 COOH _ M NaOH VNaOH => MCH3 COOH V
M NaOH VNaOH CH3COOH COOH 0.5 x 27 => MCH 20 = 0.675
mol/L Strength of acetic acid=0.675 x 60 =40.5 g/L
EXPERIMENT – 2 I. Take the wine vinegar in the conical flask
and do the titration with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as
mentioned. OBSERVATIONS S.no Volume of vinegar solution
Burette Reading Volume of NaOH solution used Initial (in mL)
Final (in mL) 1. 20 0 48 48 2. 20 0 48 48 3. 20 0 48 48
Concordant volume = 48mL CALCULATIONS We know that,
MCH3COOHVCH3COOH _ MNaOHVNaOH => MCH3 COOH V M
NaOH VNaOH CH3COOH COOH 0.5 x 48 => MCH 20 = 1.2 mol/L
Strength of acetic acid=1.2 x 60 =72 g/L EXPERIMENT – 3 I.
Take the fruit(Persimmon) vinegar in the conical flask and do
the titration with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) as mentioned.
OBSERVATIONS S.no Volume of vinegar solution Burette
Reading Volume of NaOH solution used Initial (in mL) Final (in
mL) 1. 20 0 32 32 2. 20 0 32 32 3. 20 0 32 32 Concordant
volume = 32 mL CALCULATIONS We know that,
MCH3COOHVCH3COOH _ MNaOHVNaOH => MCH3 COOH V M
NaOH VNaOH CH3COOH COOH 0.5 x 32 => MCH 20 = 0.8 mol/L
Strength of acetic acid=0.8 x 60 =48 g/L Result > Strength of
acetic acid in household vinegar = 40.5 g/L. > Strength of
acetic acid in wine vinegar = 72 g/L. > Strength of acetic acid
in fruit vinegar = 48 g/L. Graphically plotting various vinegar
samples in accordance with the amount of acetic acid present
in them we present a stunning find: Household
Vinegar Wine Fruit Vinegar Order of
amount of acetic acid in different samples of vinegar is: Wine >
Fruit vinegar > Household vinegar Precautions > Transference
of measured vinegar into a measuring flask should be done
very carefully. > Measuring must be performed carefully. >
Look at the meniscus of solution at eye level to avoid parallax.
> Look at the lower meniscus in the light coloured solution
and upper meniscus in the dark coloured solution because of
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visibility. > Do not forget to add distilled water to the vinegar.
Bibliography Downloaded From: http://www.icbse.com
21 Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables CONTENTS 1.

INTRODUCTION ………………………………… 2. AIM ………………………………………….
3. MATERIALS REQUIRED…………………. 4. PRECEDURE………………………………..
5. OBSERVATIONS…………………………… 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………
INTRODUCTION In the past decade there has been a tremendous increase
in the yields of various crops to meet the demand of overgrowing
population, achieved by using pesticides and insecticides. These are
chemicals that are sprayed over crop to protect it from pests. For example,
DDT, BHC, zinc phosphide, Mercuric chloride, dinitrophenol, etc. All
pesticides are poisonous chemicals and are used in small quantities with
care. Pesticides are proven to be effective against variety of insects, weeds
and fungi and are respectively called insecticides, herbicides and fungicides.
Most of the pesticides are non-biodegradable and remain penetrated as
such into plants, fruits and vegetables . From plants they transfer to
animals , birds and human beings who eat these polluted fruits and
vegetables. Inside the body they get accumulated and cause serious health
problems. These days preference is given to biodegradable insecticides like
malathion. The presence of Insecticides residues in even raw samples of
wheat, fish, meat , butter etc. have aroused the concern of agricultural
administrators, scientists and health officials all over the world to put a
check over the use of insecticides and to search for non insecticidal means
of pest control. AIM To study the presence of insecticides or pesticides
(nitrogen containing) in various fruits and vegetables. MATERIALS
REQUIRED Mortar and pestle , beakers, funnel , glass rod , filter paper china
dish , water bath, tripod stand, fusion tube, knife, test tube. Samples of
various fruits and vegetables, alcohol, sodium metal, ferric chloride, ferrous
sulphate crystals, distilled water and dil. Sulphuric acid. PROCEDURE Take
different types of fruits and vegetables and cut them into small pieces
separately. Transfer the cut pieces of various fruits and vegetables into it
Page 92 of 98
separately and crush them . Take different kinds for each kind of fruits and
vegetables and place the crushed fruits and vegetables in these beakers
and add 100 ml of alcohol to each of these . Stir well and filter. Collect the
filtrate in separate china dishes, Evaporate the alcohol by heating the china
dishes one by one over a water bath and let the residue dry in the oven .
Heat a small piece of sodium in a fusion tube , till it melts. Then add one of
the above residues from the china dish to this fusion tube and heat it till
red hot. Drop the hot fusion tube in a china dish containing about 10 ml of
distilled water. Break the tube and boil the contents of the china dish for
about 5 minutes . Cool and filter the solution. Collect the filtrate . To the
filtrate add 1 ml of freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution and warm the
contents. Then add 2-3 drops of ferric chloride solution and acidify with
dilute HCl. If a blue or green ppt. or colouration is obtained it indicates the
presence of nitrogen containing insecticides. Repeat the test of nitrogen for
residues obtained from other fruits and vegetables and record the
observation. OBSERVATIONS S.no Name of the fruit or vegetable Test for
the presence Of nitrogen (positive or negative) Presence of insecticide Or
pesticide residues 1. Apple positive yes 2. Grapes positive yes 3. Brinjal
positive yes 4. tomato positive yes BIBLIOGRAPHY Modern’s abc of practical
chemistry-XII Comprehensive practical chemistry – XII NCERT
chemistry -XII
22 STUDY OF QUANTITY OF CAESIN PRESENT IN DIFFERENT SAMPLES OF

MILK
INDEX 1. Introduction………………… 1 2. Aim……………………………………… 3 3.
Requirements……………………. 4 4. Theory……………………………….. 5 5.
Procedure………………………….. 7 6. Observations…………………. 8 7.
Conclusions …………………….. 9 8. References …………………….. 15
Introduction Milk is a complete diet as it contains in its Minerals, Vitamins
Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats And Water. Average composition of milk from
different sources is given below: Source Water Mineral Protei Fats
Page 93 of 98
Carbohydra of milk (%) s (%) ns(%) (%) tes (%) Cow 87.1 0.7 3.4 3.9 4.9
Human 87.4 0.2 1.4 4.0 4.9 Goat 87.0 0.7 3.3 4.2 4.8 Sheep 82.6 0.9 5.5 6.5
4.5 Caesin is a major protein constituent in milk & is a mixed phosphor-
protein. Casein has isoelectric pH of about 4.7 and can be easily separated
around this isoelectric pH. It readily dissolves in dilute acids and alkalies.
Casein is present in milk as calcium caseinate in the form of micelles. These
micelles have negative charge and on adding acid to milk the negative
charges are neutralized. Ca2+-Caesinate + 2CH3COOH(aq)^Caesin+
(CH3COO)2Ca AIM To study the quantity of Casein in different samples of
milk. REQUIREMENTS > Beakers (250 ml) > Filter-paper
> Glass rod > Weight box > Filtration flask
> Buchner funnel > Test tubes > Porcelain dish
> Different samples of milk > 1 % acetic acid solution
> Ammonium sulphate solution Theory Natural milk is an opaque
white fluid Secreted by the mammary glands of Female mammal . The main
constituents of natural milk are Protein, Carbohydrate, Mineral
Vitamins,Fats and Water and is a complete balanced diet . Fresh milk is
sweetish in taste. However , when it is kept for long time at a temperature
of 5 degree it become sour because of bacteria present in air . These
bacteria convert lactose of milk into lactic acid which is sour in taste.
In acidic condition casein of milk starts separating out as a precipitate.
When the acidity in milk is sufficient and temperature is around 36 degree,
it forms semi-solid mass, called curd. PROCEDURE Urn- 1. A clean dry
beaker has been taken, followed by putting 20 ml of cow’s milk into it and
adding 20 ml of saturated ammonium sulphate solution slowly and with
stirring. Fat along with Caesin was precipitate out. 2. The solution was
filtered and transferred the precipitates in another beaker. Added about 30
ml of water to the precipitate. Only Caesin dissolves in water forming milky
solution leaving fat undissolved. 3. The milky solution was heated to about
40oC and add 1% acetic acid solution drop-wise, when casein got
precipitated. 4. Filtered the precipitate, washed with water and the
precipitate was allowed to dry. 5. Weighed the dry solid mass in a
previously weighed watch glass. 6. The experiment was repeated with
other samples of milk. Visit www.icbse.com for more projects
OBSERVATIONS CONCLUSION Different samples of milk contain different
Page 94 of 98
percentage of Caesin. REFERENCES >Comprehensive Practical Chemistry;
Laxmi Publications. WEBSITES:
23 Adulterants in Food Name:

Class: XII-B School: ………………School Year: 2009-2010 Certified to be the
bonafide work done by Mr. / Miss …………………of class______________ XII
– B____________ in the________ CHEMISTRY LAB_____________ during
the year 20….-20…. Date____________________________________
P.G.T. in CHEMISTRT……………. PUBLIC SCHOOL …………………Submitted
for ALL INDIA SENIOR SCHOOL CERTIFICATE PRACTICAL Examination held
in CHEMISTRY LAB___________________ at …………….PUBLIC SCHOOL
……………….
Examiner
Date__________________
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chemistry mentor
M.rs._..............., for her vital support, guidance and encouragement -
without which this project would not have come forth. I would also like to
express my gratitude to the lab assistant Mrs………………… for her support
during the making of this project.
S.No. Contents II Page No. I. Objective 6 II. Introduction 8 III. Theory IV.
Experiment 1 10 V. Experiment 2 11 VI. Experiment 3 12 VII. Result 13 VIII.
Conclusion 14 IX. Bibliography 15
The Objective of this project is to study some of the c.ommon…
food..adulterants present in different food stuffs. Adulteration in food is
normally present in its most crude form; prohibited substances are either
added or partly or wholly substituted. Normally the
contamination/adulteration in food is done either for financial gain or due
to carelessness and lack in proper hygienic condition of processing, storing,
transportation and marketing. This ultimately results that the consumer is
Page 95 of 98
either cheated or often become victim of diseases. Such types of
adulteration are quite common in developing countries or backward
countries. It is equally important for the consumer to know the common
adulterants and their effect on health. TfflDRy The increasing number of
food producers and the outstanding amount of import foodstuffs enables
the producers to mislead and cheat consumers. To differentiate those who
take advantage of legal rules from the ones who commit food adulteration
is very difficult. The consciousness of consumers would be crucial.
Ignorance and unfair market behavior may endanger consumer health and
misleading can lead to poisoning. So we need simple screening, tests for
their detection. In the past few decades, adulteration of food has become
one of the serious problems. Consumption of adulterated food causes
serious diseases like cancer, .diarrhoea., , .asthma., .ulcers., etc. Majority of
fats, oils and butter are paraffin wax, castor oil and hydrocarbons. Red chilli
powder is mixed with brick powder and pepper is mixed with dried papaya
seeds. These adulterants can be easily identified by simple chemical tests.
Several agencies .have been set up by the Government of India to remove
adulterants from food stuffs. AGMARK – acronym for agricultural
marketing….this organization certifies food products for their quality. Its
objective is to promote the Grading and Standardization of agricultural and
allied commodities. To detect the presence of adulterants in fat, oil and
butter. REQUIREMENTS Test-tube, acetic anhydride, conc. H2SO4, acetic
acid, conc. HNO3. PROCEDURE Common adulterants present in ghee and oil
are paraffin wax, hydrocarbons, dyes and argemone oil. These are detected
as follows : (i) Adulteration of paraffin wax and hydrocarbon in
vegetable ghee Heat small amount of vegetable ghee with acetic anhydride.
Droplets of oil floating on the surface of unused acetic anhydride indicates
the presence of wax or hydrocarbons. (ii) Adulteration of dyes in fat
Heat 1mL of fat with a mixture of 1mL of conc. sulphuric acid and 4mL of
acetic acid. Appearance of pink or red colour indicates presence of dye in
fat. (iii) Adulteration of argemone oil in edible oils To small amount of
oil in a test-tube, add few drops of conc. HNO3 and shake. Appearance of
red colour in the acid layer indicates presence of argemone oil. To detect
the presence of adulterants in sugar REQUIREMENTS Test-tubes, dil. HCl.
PROCEDURE Sugar is usually contaminated with washing soda and other
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insoluble substances which are detected as follows : (i) Adulteration
of various insoluble substances in sugar Take small amount of sugar in a
test-tube and shake it with little water. Pure sugar dissolves in water but
insoluble impurities do not dissolve. (ii) Adulteration of chalk powder,
washing soda in sugar To small amount of sugar in a test-tube, add few
drops of dil. HCl. Brisk effervescence of CO2 shows the presence of chalk
powder or washing soda in the given sample of sugar. To detect the
presence of adulterants in samples of chilli powder, turmeric powder and
pepper REQUIREMENTS Test-tubes, conc. HCl, dil. HNO3, KI solution
PROCEDURE Common adulterants present in chilli powder, turmeric
powder and pepper are red coloured lead salts, yellow lead salts and dried
papaya seeds respectively. They are detected as follows : (i)
Adulteration of red lead salts in chilli powder To a sample of chilli powder,
add dil. HNO3. Filter the solution and add 2 drops of potassium iodide
solution to the filtrate. Yellow ppt. indicates the presence of lead salts in
chilli powder. (ii) Adulteration of yellow lead salts to turmeric powder
To a sample of turmeric powder add conc. HCl. Appearance of magenta
colour shows the presence of yellow oxides of lead in turmeric powder.
(iii) Adulteration of brick powder in red chilli powder Add small amount
of given red chilli powder in beaker containing water. Brick powder settles
at the bottom while pure chilli powder floats over water. (iv)
Adulteration of dried papaya seeds in pepper Add small amount of sample
of pepper to a beaker containing water and stir with a glass rod. Dried
papaya seeds being lighter float over water while pure pepper settles at the
bottom. EXPERIMENT II PROCEDURE OBSERVATION Adulteration of Heat
small amount of Appearance of oil paraffin wax and vegetable ghee with
acetic floating on the hydrocarbon in anhydride. Droplets of oil surface.
vegetable ghee floating on the surface of unused acetic anhydride indicate
the presence of wax or hydrocarbon. Adulteration of dyes Heat 1mL of fat
with a Appearance of pink in fat mixture of 1mL of conc. colour. H2SO4 and
4mL of acetic acid. Adulteration of To small amount of oil in a No red colour
argemone oil in edible test tube, add few drops of observed oils conc.
HNO3 & shake. Adulteration of Take small amount of sugar Pure sugar
various insoluble in a test tube and shake it dissolves in water substances in
sugar with little water. but insoluble impurities do not dissolve.
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Adulteration of chalk To small amount of sugar in a No brisk powder,
washing soda test tube, add a few drops of effervescence in sugar dil. HCl.
observed. Adeulteration of To sample of turmeric Appearance of yellow
lead salts to powder, add conc. HCl. magenta colour turmeric powder
Adulteration of red To a sample of chilli powder, No yellow ppt. lead salts in
chilli add dil. HNO3. Filter the powder solution and add 2 drops of KI
solution to the filtrate. Adulteration of brick Add small amount of given
Brick powder settles powder in chilli red chilli powder in a beaker at the
bottom while powder containing water. pure chilli powder floats over
water. Adulteration of dried Add small amount of sample Dried papaya
seeds papaya seeds in of pepper to beaker being lighter float pepper
containing water and stir over water while with a glass rod. pure pepper
settles at the bottom. Selection of wholesome and non-adulterated food is
essential for daily life to make sure that such foods do not cause any health
hazard. It is not possible to ensure wholesome food only on visual
examination when the toxic contaminants are present in ppm level.
However, visual examination of the food before purchase makes sure to
ensure absence of insects, visual fungus, foreign matters, etc. Therefore,
due care taken by the consumer at the time of purchase of food after
thoroughly examining can be of great help. Secondly, label declaration on
packed food is very important for knowing the ingredients and nutritional
value. It also helps in checking the freshness of the food and the period of
best before use. The consumer should avoid taking food from an
unhygienic place and food being prepared under unhygienic conditions.
Such types of food may cause various diseases. Consumption of cut fruits
being sold in unhygienic conditions should be avoided. It is always better to
buy certified food from reputed shop. a ENCARTA ENCYCLOPEDIA 2009 a
www.wikipedia.com a www.answers.com a www.icbse.com a
www.google.com
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1 21 Projects Including All Headings

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Projects 1……..

Bone Ash ESTIMATION OF CONTENT OF BONE ASH

GHPS KAROL BAGH

This is to certify that Master …………………,A student of class XII B of

Read more at: http://projects.icbse.com/chemistry-254

Paracrine Cell Signalling 17

Test Tube 7 nos

Test Tube Holder 2 nos

Dil. Nitric Acid 200 ml

1% Ammonium Hydroxide 100 ml

Acetic Acid 100 ml

Distilled Water As Reqd

 2 gms of bone as was

 To it dilute nitric acid was On adding Nitric acid the ash

 It was diluted with water and

 The above solution was

 Ammonium hydroxide was The pH was made to 8.6

 The solution was made basic.

 The solution was filtered and

 The filtrate was separated White precipitate of Silver

 Silver nitrate was added to White residue of calcium

 To the other test tube Carbonate was obtained

 To the solution left, dilute Red colour solution marking the

Bone feature Definition

articular A projection that contacts an adjacent bone.

articulation The region where adjacent bones contact each other

canal A long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for

condyle A large, rounded articular process.

crest A prominent ridge.

eminence A relatively small projection or bump.

epicondyle A projection near to a condyle but not part of the joint.

facet A small, flattened articular surface.

foramen An opening through a bone.

fossa A broad, shallow depressed area.

fovea A small pit on the head of a bone.

Labyrinth A cavity within a bone.

malleolus One of two specific protuberances of bones in

meatus A short canal.

process A relatively large projection or prominent bump.(gen.)

ramus An arm-like branch off the body of a bone.

sinus A cavity within a cranial bone.

spine A relatively long, thin projection or bump.

suture Articulation between cranial bones.

trochanter One of two specific tuberosities located on the femur.

tubercle A projection or bump with a roughened surface,

tuberosity A projection or bump with a roughened surface.

2 Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables

S.n Name of the fruit Test for the Presence of

1. Apple positive yes

3. Brinjal positive yes

4. tomato positive yes

Read more at: http://projects.icbse.com/chemistry-266

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5 Determination of Caffeine in Tea Samples ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of

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6 Determination of Contents of Cold Drinks

Sr. No. Name Of The Observation Time Taken Inference

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