Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • 56 views

    CIRIA PG3 (The Use and Infuence of Bentonite in Bored Pile Construction)

    Uploaded by

    Rana Majid Naeem

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content

    You might also like

    CIRIA PG3 (The Use and Infuence of Bentonite in Bored Pile Construction)

    Uploaded by

    Rana Majid Naeem
    56 views94 pages

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pdf
    56 views94 pages

    CIRIA PG3 (The Use and Infuence of Bentonite in Bored Pile Construction)

    Uploaded by

    Rana Majid Naeem

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pdf
    of 94
    DOE AND CIRIA PILING DEVELOPMENT GROUP September 1977 REPORT PG3 (Reprinted 1986, 1991) PSA CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNICAL GUIDE No8 The use and influence of bentonite in bored pile construction W.K. FLEMING PhD BSc MICE Z.J. SLIWINSKI Diping MICE ISBN: 0 86017 031 4 ISSN: 0308 924x Directorate of Civil Engineering Services PRA Property series Ageney Department of the Environment CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY RESEARCH AND INFORMATION ASSOCIATION SSTOREY'S GATE, LONDON, SWIP3AU TELEPHONE 071-222 8891 ‘This Report forms one of a series prepared by the DOE and CIRIA Piling Development Group under a contract for piling information and development awarded in October 1974 by the Property Services Agency of the Department of the Environment, Dr Fleming is the Technical Project Manager with Cementation Piling and Foundations Ltd, Mr Shwinski is Company Consultant with the same organization. The Report was edited by J.A. Little and A.J. Weltman of the DOE and CIRIA Piling Development Group. ‘The Piling Development Group Working Party is as follows: K.0. Pook BSc(Eng) MICE (Chaieman) (Property Services Agency) W.K. Fleming PhD BSc MICE (Cementation Piling and Foundations Ltd) LH. MeFarlane BSc(Eng) FICE FlStructE FGS MConsé (Mitchell McFarlane & Partners) D.J. Palmer MA FICE FGS (Lind Piting Ltd) S. Thorburn FICE FiStruct FASCE FIHE FGSMConsE. (Thorburn & Partners) LS. Blake PhD BSo(Eng) FICE FiStructE FIHE (CIRIA) is the Construction Industry Research and Information Association. It is a non-profit-distributing organisation carrying out research and providing information for its members who include all types of firms and organisa- tions which have an involvement with construction, including clients, designs, ‘professional practices, contractors, suppliers and educational establishments, ‘Members collaborate in research and information projects aimed at improving the efficiency of design, construction and management, and the performance land serviceability of buildings and civil engineering, works. Members initiate land take part in the research programme and have preferential access to the results CIRIA obtains cost effectiveness by contracting out the detailed and specialist aspects of research to the most suitable external bodies. The cost of projects is ‘met from member subscriptions and special contributions, supplemented in some eases by public funds ‘Through CIRIA, members both promote research and information dissemina- tion and are kept up-to-date with developments in the industry. They receive copies of reports of CIRIA’s projects and have access to the professional staff ‘and many experts contracted to CIRIA for advice and information. For further details and subscription rates apply (0 the Membership Manager. CIRIA. 6 Storey's Gate, Westminster, London SWIP 3AU. Telephone (071-223 891 Foreword A review of the use of bentonite suspension in piling and the construction of load bearing diaphragm wall elements was undertaken by Cementation Piling and Foundations Ltd, at the ‘end of 1974, The work was part of the general programme on piling, promoted through CIRIA, for the Property Services Agency of the Department of the Environment. The primary objec- tive was to collect and examine the relevant information available from tests on piles constructed by the bentonite technique, and to see whether there was sufficient data to allow reasonable conclusions to be drawn about the effects of the use of bentonite on pile performance. ‘The review could also indicate areas for further research, Contents LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF TABLES ‘SUMMARY INTRODUCTION BENTONITE: ITS USE AND BEHAVIOUR IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF BORED PILES 2.1. Bentonite material 2.2 Bentonite suspension 2.3. Specification for bentonite material 2.4 Extraction and processing of bentonite THE STABILIZING ACTION OF BENTONITE SUSPENSION IN A BOREHOLE 3.1. Caving of an open unsupported borehole 3.2. The stabilizing action of bentonite 3.3. Filter cake formation 3.4. Effect of suspension composition on filter cake formation 3.5. The capacity of bentonite suspension to keep detritus in suspension DISPLACEMENT OF BENTONITE SUSPENSION BY CONCRETE 4.1. Pile formation 4.2 Displacement of bentonite suspension from the face of the borehole 4.3 Displacement of bentonite suspension and detritus from the base of the pile bore 4.4 Displacement of bentonite suspension from reinforcing bars 4.5 Specification for bentonite suspension 4.6 Concrete mix design 4.7 Concreting (tremie operation) LABORATORY TESTS ON THE INFLUENCE OF BENTONITE ON ‘SKIN FRICTION 5.1. The contribution of various researchers 5.2 Summary EFFECT OF BENTONITE ON ULTIMATE SHAFT FRICTION 6.1 Factors affecting the shaft friction of piles 6.2 Analysis of the results of pile tests 6.3. Results of pile load tests EFFECT OF BENTONITE ON BASE RESISTANCE 7.1 The displacement of bentonite suspension from a pile base 7.2. Case histories 7.3. Summary e©arva 2 12 4 4 8 ANALYSIS OF OTHER PILE LOAD TESTS. 8.1 Results of tests subjected to further analysis 8.2 Results of tests not subjected to further analysis 8.3 Summary 9 CONTRACT WORK CARRIED OUT IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF PILES AND DIAPHRAGM WALL ELEMENTS USING BENTONITE ‘SUSPENSION 9.1 Record of work carried out 9.2 Views expressed on the process of forming piles under bentonite 10 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES, APPENDIX1 TABLES OF OTHER PILE LOAD TESTS List of illustrations Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Aeon o Figure Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 : Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12, Figure 13, Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23, Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Diagrammatic illustration of the montmorillonite structure Surface filtration Deep filtration Schematic diagram of colloid mill Displacement of bentonite suspension by tremied concrete from bottom of pile Mud sampler Pull-out test on reinforcing bars at a London diaphragm wall site Flow diagram of bentonite circulation system used in pile construction Various stages of concreting by tremie Defects in tremie placing Results of triaxial cell loading tests: concrete-sand and concrete- bentonite-sand interface Tensile tests on model concrete pile Friction development on cylindrical and irregular pile shatts Suggested types of frictional load/settlement relationships for cylindrical and irregular pile shafts Effect of by-pass on the flow velocity of bentonite suspension past the bucket Load/settlement curves — after Burland Maintained load tests — Silver Street, Edmonton Constant rate of penetration tests — Silver Street, Edmonton Load test on instrumented pile — Bidston Moss Load test on a diaphragm wall panel — Kensington and Chelsea Town Hall Comparative test: bentonite suspension and temporary casing ‘methods — after Chadeisson Comparative test: bentonite suspension and temporary casing methods — Multan, Pakistan Ground conditions — Houston, Texas Load/settlement curves and load transfer profiles — Houston, Texas Maintained load tests with strain gauge instrumentation on pier panels — University of Bratislava research project Instrumented pile test — Erith, Kent Instrumental pile test in weak rock (chalk) — Littlebrook Maintained load test — Altrincham Comparative test: normal and voided toe piles — Clarence Bridge, Cardiff Instrumented load test — Euston Square development Maintained load test — Porto Tolle, Italy List of tables Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Pile construction comparison ‘A comparison of the flow properties of bentonite suspension with wet concrete Bentonite suspension properties: defir jons and current test methods Tentative recommendations for the properties of bentonite suspension Specification for cast-in-place diaphragm walling Suggested concrete mix for bored piles cast under bentonite Analysis of test results from Kensington and Chelsea Town Hall diaphragm wall panel Summary ‘The Report explains what bentonite is, how it works, and indicates how construction techniques could, in practice, have significant influence over the final behaviour of a load bearing unit. ‘The introduction of the Report also deals with a variety of subjects; the extraction of bentonite from natural earth deposits, its structure, the stabilizing action of the slurry, the effects of suspension contamination, filter cake formation, the displacement of suspension from a borehole by concrete, the technique of placing concrete by tremie, the selection of appropriate concrete ‘mixes for this type of work, and the effects of bentonite on the bond between steel and concrete. Several published papers were availabe, setting out experience on particular sites, but it was felt that since a number of major companies were involved in constructing both piles and load-bearing diaphragm wall elements by the bentonite method, there must exist a body of unpublished knowledge which could usefully add to the scope of such a review. Arreview is made of the work of several researchers who have considered the question of the development of skin friction, based on model tests under laboratory conditions. Although tests in such circumstances at best serve to demonstrate principles rather than provide ‘quantitative information, their results have indicated that in cohesionless soil the effect of Using the suspension might lead to some loss of friction, up to about 20%, Attention must be drawn to the difference between laboratory experiments and piles cast inthe field, especially in terms of the precise regularity of the contact surface between conerete and the ground. It could be expected that irregularity of the surface of a load bearing unit cast in site conditions would markedly influence the friction mobilized. Factors influencing shaft irregularity in practice are discussed. The question of a chemical reaction between the setting concrete and the bentonite filter cake is considered, Fullscale loading tests covering about 50 sites, have been analysed. These tests were carried out in several countries and represent performance in a wide range of ground conditions. For the purpose of considering the results, the cases are divided into groups as follows: 1, Comparative tests — in which two piles or load-bearing diaphragm wall units of similar dimensions were formed on the same site, one being constructed using the bentonite ‘method, and the other by a more conventional cased/dry boring technique. 2, Instrumented tests — in which piles formed using the bentonite technique were cast with 4 series of strain gauges embedded along their length. The results allow some reasonable deductions to be made about the transfer of load to the ground for comparison with calculated capacities of pile shafts and bases. 3. Individual pile tests of the normal type used on most contracts in which no special instrumentation was included. The results of these are compared with routine pile design. ‘The conclusions reached are that in cohesive soils the behaviour of piles seems to be unaffected by the presence of bentonite. The evidence from cohesionless soils suggests that shaft friction is not significantly different from normal expectations, based on usual calculation methods. In weak rocks it appears that the levels of friction which are currently permitted are similarly realized in practice. There are cases in which caution is urged; for example, it appears that in granular soils, delays before placing concrete in bentonite-filled excavations may be detrimental, due to excessive build-up of filter cake thickness, and this in turn may lead to reductions in available shaft friction. No information was obtained on piles constructed in normally consolidated clays, but the use of this ground to accept significant loadings is not usual practice in the UK. The evidence in some of the more difficult ground conditions (for example, cohesionless soils under high piezometric pressures) is limited and further study may be required ‘The Report examines the extent to which piles and load-bearing diaphragm walls have been used both in the UK and overseas, and it is clearly shown that the technique of construction using bentonite has been widely adopted with considerable success. 1 Introduction ‘The use of bentonite in suspension for the construction of bored castin-place piles is fairly recent, dating from about 1952. Initially, these piles were constructed by direct or reverse circulation methods. In these methods, which followed the experience of the oil drilling industry, 2 rotary or percussive bit loosened or cut the strata and the flow of circulating suspension brought up the cuttings. The use of the suspension had a double purpose: to stabilize the hole and to bring the spoil above the working level, The method was successful and is still being used for small diameter piles or in such special circumstances as very deep piles used for maritime structures, and some forms of diaphragm wall. About 15 years ago it was found that a satisfactory pile could be constructed by direct excavation under bentonite with a rotary kelly operated bucket. Powerful machines were used and large diameter piles were constructed using the bentonite suspension for the stabili- zation of the borehole. In most cases casing was used only in the upper part of the bore as a ‘temporary collar, or exceptionally, as a permanent collar to confine concrete in very soft soils. The economy of the method was soon proven and is used to an increasing extent in the UK and overseas. Where temporary casing passes through granular material, bentonite is sometimes used to facilitate its installation. This may be done by stirring the soil with the auger and the addition of bentonite powder and water, and then driving in the casing (this is known as ‘mudding.in’). Once the casing has reached an impermeable soil, forming a water seal it may bbe emptied of spoil and construction may proceed in dry conditions. Table 1 gives @ comparison between the relative advantages and disadvantages of con- structing piles under bentonite suspension as ground support or using temporary casing. It may be noted that the advantages of using bentonite ate many. Some doubts have been expressed about the method, which some consider may offer less safety than there would be when a temporary casing is used. The main issue raised is the influence of bentonite on the load bearing capacity of the pile; in particular, attention has been drawn to a possible reduction of shaft friction and of end bearing, ‘The object of the present study is to gather the evidence on the performance of the bentonite method — and draw practical conclusions which may influence the direction of some future research. There are several approaches to the problem. The main areas presented in this Report are listed below: 1. An analysis of how bentonite behaves in the construction process, including the results from laboratory tests. 2. Amanalyss of data from load tests on: Comparative piles Instrumented ples Nomvinstrumented piles, ‘These classifications are discussed in more detail it Section 6.2.1, 10 Table 1 Pile construction comparison Operation Pile formed under bentonite suspension Pile formed using temporary casing Excavation The stability of the excavated bore- hole can be assured in most practical cases, but there are some limiting conditions: 1, Ground water level (piezometric level) must be below the bentonite level in the borehole to allow for a net effective bentonite pressure hhead on the bore wall. In practice, the bentonite suspension level should be more than 1.5m above the standing water level, 2. Highly permeable strata are not suitable because they allow loss of bentonite and prevent mainte- nance of the suspension at the desired level ‘The elimination of casing from the construction procedure (except for & short collar casing) allows for un- hindered use of rotary boring rigs with high speed of excavation and consequent economy. The length of piles is restricted only by the boring depth. Kelly igs have been used toa depth of about 60m and reverse circulation equipment may be used for longer piles. ‘The sides of the boreholes are often innegular. The excavating tools may (particularly when rotary buckets arg used) cause ‘overbreak’ in less compact strata. This may lead to an excess of concrete being placed, but it has no adverse effect on the pile performance. The pressure of bentonite suspension acting on the bottom of a pile inhibits disturbance of the founding stratum during excavation. Because of the properties of the suspension, the sett- ling of sediment onto the finally prepared pile base is reduced, The stability of pile borings can be positively assured using casing. However, itis essential to arrange the construction procedure so as to avoid the formation of cavities behind the casing, particularly in water bearing strata of low permeability. Severe dis- turbance or ‘blowing’ of the strata around and beneath the pile must also bbe prevented. For these reasons, casings are often driven or vibrated to the full depth of a pile in unstable ground, before boring is carried out using a rotary machine. This procedure ensures 1 sound and economical pile. The above method is often limited to situ- ations where casing is up to about 20m long. For longer piles in unstable ground, sectional casing systems may be used and this, in practice, leads to the replacement of rotary boring by exea- vation with a clamshell grab. The process is therefore slower. The sides of the boreholes are even. If cone full length of casing is inserted before excavation the overbreak is negligible, Boring below the bottom of casing in unstable soil may lead to the formation of large cavities which are concealed by the casing. These become a source of risk at the subsequent con- creting stage. (Reference may be made to CIRIA Report PG2) In waterlogged soil any lowering of water inside the casing may induce piping conditions at the ple base, which in granular soil can easly affect the strata and diminish the original bearing capacity. Deposition of sediment in water is generally rapid and it will not readily be displaced by concrete flowing from a tremie pipe. Itis only when ‘casing extends into an impermeable stratum, that water can be removed, and a sound contact with the founding stratum can be ensured. Table 1 Pile construction comparison (cont) Pile formed under bentonite suspension Pile formed using temporary casing General ‘The concreting operation is done using a tremie pipe. The technique is sufficiently developed and can produce excellent results, ‘The displacement of sediment from the bottom is greatly facilitated by the capacity of bentonite to keep ‘sand and other particles in suspension, ‘The concreting procedure i ela tively simple inthe absence of casing. In very soft clay soils, permanent ‘casing may be required to ensure a satisfactory and uniform pile section. Rotary boring tools may be deflected from the required pile posi- tions by boulders and other obstructions. ‘The normally accepted specification for verticality allows for deviations of about 1:75 Piles constructed under bentonite need not be of a circular section. The use of suitable grabs for excavation allows rectangular or cruciform sections to be provided. These have important uses in cases where line loads orlateral loadsare tobe resisted. Conereting with use of temporary casing is always complicated, Even in the simplest case where one whole length of casing is used a vibrator is. often employed to extract it, to ‘expedite the process, and avoid damage to the pile section through arching and loss of workability. The risks associ- ated with cavities outside of casing have been referred to above. ‘The withdrawal of sectional casings is especially complicated when used incon- junetion with the process of eancreting by tremie, and leads to undesirable delays. In very soft clay soils, permanent casing may be required to ensure a satisfactory and uniform pile section. ‘The use of sectional casing combined ‘with oscillation and a robust guiding frame may provide a better verticality than rotary equipment. It is claimed that verticality may be achieved with- in a tolerance of 1:200, but the process slow. ‘The use of temporary casing limits the cross section of piles to a circular shape. u 2 Bentonite: its use and behaviour in the construction of bored piles 2.1.1 Terminology 2.1.2 Constitution 12 and structure 2.1 BENTONITE MATERIAL The term ‘bentonite’ was first applied to a specific mineral deposit found in Wyoming, USA, which was essentially sodium montmorillonite (sodium being the exchangeable cation attached to the basic molecule). By virtue of its ability to swell during wetting, this material can absorb very large quantities of water and it has also been called swelling Western or ‘Wyoming bentonite. A second type of bentonite was also found which exhibited a lower degree of swelling; it was termed non-swelling, Southern or sub-bentonite. The latter material is very closely related to fullers' earth, which is produced in the UK. Both materials are essentially calcium montmorillonite. Current practice is to refer to the materials as sodium and calcium bentonite respectively. In the context of its civil engineering application, the term bentonite refers to the sodium montmorillonite form. Sodium bentonite is the more valuable in spplica- tion to the construction of piles and diaphragm walls, but the occurrence of large deposits is quite rare. The calcium form is common and, fortunately, quite simply converted to the sodium form, ‘The structure of montmorillonite is derived from that of pyrophyllite (SisAlsOzo(OHs) by substitution of certain atoms. The generally accepted structure is based on that proposed by Hofmann, Endell and Wilm®), Marshall) and Hendricks‘), and this is more fully described in other texts 8) (6), It is composed of units made of two silica tetrahedral sheets with a central alumina ‘octahedral sheet. All the tips of the tetrahedra point towards the centre of the unit with some Of the oxygen atoms at the tips being shared by the central octahedral sheet (see Figure 1). ‘The sheets are continuous in the (a) and (b) direction, and are stacked one above the other in the (c) direction. In montmorillonite some of the aluminium ions (Al) have been replaced by ions of similar size but of lower valency (usually Fe" or Mg"), The crystal structure, because of this isomorphous replacement, has a net negative charge. ‘The resultant negative charge is compensated by exchangeable cations which lie between one unit layer and the next, and on the external surfaces of crystals formed by the stacking of units. Bentonite used in civil engineering has sodium as the exchangeable cation, as mentioned previously, Only weak bonds exist between the unit layers and they can be easily severed, Water ‘molecules can enter between the unit layers causing the crystal to swell in the (c) direction (ntracrystalline swelling). This is a characteristic feature of montmorillonite. The unit layers ‘may be pushed apart by a distance equivalent to 1 to 4 monomolecular layers of water; this increase the (c) axis dimension from 0.96 nm, for the dry clay, up to about 1.25 to 2.00 nm, for the wet clay. This can result in a doubling of the clay volume, 2.2 BENTONITE SUSPENSION (On immersing bentonite in water the sodium montmorillonite present undergoes intra- crystalline swelling. Swelling then continues with a rapid uptake of a large quantity of water (osmotic swelling). This additional swelling is a result of repulsive forces which are created between neighbouring particle surfaces, causing them to move further apart. The repulsion arises from the interaction of the so-called diffuse electrical double layers which are developed in the presence of water, The diffuse double layer is associated with the distribution of | ‘exchangeable cations at a surface. In the presence of water the cations have a tendency to diffuse away from the surface, but they are also electrostatically attracted to the charged Figure 1 Diagrammatic illustration of the montmorillonite structure ——> pase © wrt © Sin O omen © Aluminium (iron magnesium) lattice. This results in the concentration of cations gradually decreasing with increasing distance from the surface. The swelling of montmorillonite and the concept of diffuse double layers is discussed fully in available literature ®) ©), With sodium montmorillonite (with little or no salt present in the water), the repulsive forces are so strong that the clay crystal cleaves apart, a large proportion of unit layers becoming separated from each other. This results in a suspension of very thin plate-like particles having a negative charge on the surface (face), a positive charge at their edge, and surrounded by clouds of cations. In suspension, the particles become orientated with negative faces in association with the Positive edges to form a three-dimensional ‘house of cards’ structure. This extends throughout the available volume and a gels formed), These edgeface bonds are relatively weak; when the gels stirred the bonds can be readily broken andthe system becomes more fluid, When the suspension is at res, the bonds are reformed and it gels once again. This phenomenon is called thixotropy and has important implications with reard to the use of bentonite in civil engin- ering, Such gels behave as Bingham Body Fluids and are characterized by a Bingham Yield 13 4 Stress which is 4 measure of the number and strength of the bonds in the “house of cards’ structure, If bentonite suspension is placed over a filter it forms a filter cake of hydrated bentonite particles, which is a barrier to water loss through the filtering medium. Even a very weak suspension of only a low percentage of solids will exhibit a viscosity higher than water, thixo- tropy, and the ability to form a filter cake ‘These are the essential properties which make possible the use of bentonite for stabilizing ‘borehole during excavation and maintaining it until the conerete forming the pile is placed. It is possible to form slurries from clays other than sodium bentonite, though their properties, in general, cannot match those demonstrated by sodium bentonite, Therefore, sodium bentonite is used as the basic material in the construction of piles and diaphragm walls. 2.3. SPECIFICATION FOR BENTONITE MATERIAL ‘There is no specification relating to the type or quality of bentonite used in piling or diaphragm walls, but the use of the Specification of the Oil Companies Materials Association 1 i gene- rally accepted It is assumed that the use of the Oil Companies’ Specification assures a quality of bentonite ‘which may be used with confidence for piling and diaphragm walling, In special cases, where a detailed study is carried out, some relaxation in the specification may be possible in order to make use of locally available materials. Another instance might be that « higher volume fluid loss than the 15 em? specified could be justified because the depths of piles (and therefore the suspension pressures) are less than those in the oil industry. A value of 24 cm? is occasionally quoted, 2.4 EXTRACTION AND PROCESSING OF BENTONITE Bentonite is usually excavated by open cast mining, though the deposits in Bath, Somerset, are worked by drift mining. After removal of the overburden, the clay is extracted by means of taglines or mechanical shovels and stockpiled. The bentonite is crushed to about 2S mm particle size and passed through rotary louvre dryers to reduce the moisture content to about 10%; it is then finely ground. Sodium bentonite is suitable for use with this treatment alone, Caleium bentonite is usually converted to the sodium form by cation exchange with sodium carbonate, added prior to drying and grinding. ‘The commercial products available are usually rather impure, the montmorillonite content typically varying from 60 to over 90% Other clay minerals such as kaolinite, halloysite and ilite, may be present, together with, varying quantities of quartz, calcite, iron oxides and other materials. The montmorillonite content of the Redhill and Woburn deposits is estimated to be greater than 80%, The sodium- exchanged bentonite will be further contaminated by excess sodium carbonate formed during the processing of the bentonite. It isa standard practice, in accepting the bentonite for use, to require a statement from the supplier that it satisfies the Specification of the Oil Companies (see Section 2.3), 3. The stabilizing action of bentonite suspension in a borehole 3.1. CAVING OF AN OPEN UNSUPPORTED BOREHOLE ‘The stability of an open borehole in cohesionless and cohesive soils was analysed by Terzaghi(!2) and others. The walls of a borehole may collapse under a horizontal earth pressure component or earth pressure and water pressure combined, Opposing the collapse are the passive forces of soil arching around the hole Caving or collapse may involve a wedge of sol siding into the borehole or, in sandy and gravelly layers, the particles on the interface could fall progressively. 3.2 THE STABILIZING ACTION OF BENTONITE SUSPENSION ‘The stabilizing action of bentonite for oil drilling has been known for a long time. Bentonite properties were first studied by Freudlich in the 1920's and later by Lorenz and Veder. The intense study of the stabilizing action of bentonite in weak strata started with the appl cation of bentonite suspension to the construction of piles and diaphragm walls. ‘There are many publications which contain details of the action of bentonite suspension, field observations and laboratory experiments(13 # 20)_ ‘The present views of the way in which bentonite provides support to the walls of the borehole may be summarized as follows. The bentonite suspension acts on the side of the wall exerting hy drostatic pressure corresponding to the depth of the suspension at that point. The suspension acts through the bentonite cake which forms a diaphragm sufficiently impervious to prevent an increase in pore water pressure in the soil surrounding the bore, To assure stability of a borehole the hydrostatic pressure of the bentonite suspension must be greater than the pressure ofthe soilless the arching effect. ‘The magnitude of the soil pressure calculated on the basis of classical theories is often ‘greater than the hydrostatic pressure of the bentonite suspension which makes the equilibrium observed in practice difficult to explain. This may be attributed to the differences between theoretical assumptions and practically encountered cases, or to the difficulty of obtaining reliable values of soil strength parameters, In addition to the hydrostatic pressure, which is the main stabilizing factor, there are some secondary factors often put forward by researchers: ‘The increased resistance to shearing of the zone penetrated by bentonite ‘The strength of the filter cake which may act as reinforcement of the ground ‘The shearing resistance of the suspension Electro-osmotie forces. In practice the stability of the borehole is attained if the bentonite suspension is main- tained at the ground level, provided that the ground water level (including the plezomettic level of water in deep layers) is not less than 1.5m below ground level; ie. a positive head of 1.5m ‘of bentonite fluid must be maintained above the ground water level within fairly close limits. Figure 2 Surface filtration 16 ‘The practical limitations to the construction of excavations under bentonite suspe are 1. Very permeable strata causing loss of bentonite suspension and therefore preventing the ‘maintenance of the correct suspension level. (Soil of permeability up to k® 10"? m/s ‘can be stabilized with bentonite suspensions having concentrations of up to 6% by weight). 2. Cavities which may lead to sudden or excessive loss of bentonite suspension, 3. Very weak strata, such as some estuarine clays, with cohesion values of less than LOKN/m?, (Very weak strata present a problem with retention of fresh concrete and a casing or liner may be required even if satisfactory conditions during excavation can be obtained), 4, Water under artesian head. 3.3. FILTER CAKE FORMATION ‘As mentioned in previous paragraphs, the bentonite suspension must form a seal on the surface ‘with which it comes into contact, in order to exert a stabilizing pressure on the borehole sides. In this way hydrostatic pressure can be exerted on the walls, without a rise in pore water pressure in the soil with subsequent loss in wall stability or a loss of slurry from the excavation, In soils of low permeability such as clays, where filtration does not occur otis very limited, hydrostatic pressure may be exerted directly on the walls of the borehole. ‘There are three mechanisms which can operate during the formation of a seal in pervious soils. The mechanism which occurs in any particular case depends on a number of factors, for ‘example, the permeability of the ground and the solids content of the slurry. The three mechan- isms are described briefly below, and an indication i given of their probable occurrence. Surface filtration In the classical concept of surface filtration, hydrated bentonite particles form a filter cake on the surface of the soil (see Figure 2). Very little bentonite penetrates the bed, although, because ‘ Hycronatie ~ presure ; A vil, = Beton feck {ooed by ogo we rag Figure 3 Deep filtration of the filter cake's finite permeability, some water continues to move from the slurry into the soil. This water loss decreases with time, as the filter cake becomes thicker and presents a greater barrier to percolation. The filter cake itself can form even when the bentonite particles are considerably smaller than the pores in the sol. Sealing of the borehole walls by blocking or bridging is known to occur'22 % 25) when pore diameters are up to about 10 times the particle plate diameter. Laboratory experiments have shown that this mechanism operates in low permeability soils in the presence of muds with a high solids content, and it operates reliably with well hydrated slurries. By collecting the filtrates and measuring how the flowrate changes with time, two distinct phases in the filtration can be isolated. Firstly there isa period of high fluid los, during the formation of filter cake. Subsequently, there is a period when the fuid loss decreases with time according to the relation: This is the classical equation describing the reduction in fluid loss due to the gradual build up of a filter cake during filtration. There are very strong indications that surface filtration can also occur in much coarser soil if the bentonite contains some fine sand in suspension. Here one can envisage a fine sand layer forming against the coarser material, and the bentonite filter cake forming against the fine sand layer. Deep filtration During deep filtration, slurry penetrates into the pores and voids in the soil; bentonite particles slowly clog the pores and eventually a seal is formed which may extend many millimetres {nto the soil (see Figure 3). This is a much more complicated process than surface filtration and, 7 3.4.1 Concentration of bentonite suspension 3.4.2 Contamination 18 although used commercially for water purification (in sand and gravel beds), is not well understood. However, itisclar that deep filtration will not be as effective as surface filtration asa general soi stabilizing mechanism, because of the time necessary to establish the iter cake, during which pore water pressure can rise. Rheological blocking Rheological blocking occurs when the ground is open, and the slurry penetrates the ground until restrained by the shear streses between slurry and soil particles. The following relation- ship has been proposed 28 for the penetration distance due to this mechanism: Pa 2 where J = distance penetrated driving pressure slurry shear strength, fective pore radius ' It is most likely that this is the mechanism operating when bentonite is found some ‘metres away from the bore, particularly in gravel, or in fissured ground. Asa stabilizing mech- anism, rheological blocking is even more wasteful than deep filtration, not only because of the time taken to establish a eal ~ during which time pore water pressure will rise — but also. because the presence of slurry could reduce the angle of internal friction of the soil, and hence its inherent stability. 3.4 EFFECT OF SUSPENSION COMPOSITION ON FILTER CAKE FORMATION Ideally a stabilizing suspension should establish its seal quickly, ie, preferably by surface filtration with as little initial fuid loss as possible. For bentonite slurries produced in the UK using converted calcium bentonite (e.g. Berkbent CE or Fulbent 570), there appears to be a‘cutoff” concentration of between 4 and 44% bentonite, below which ‘intial uid loss" rises sharply even in ground of quite Low permeability (S x 10 m/s). The usual practice, therefore, is to keep the concentration of bentonite above 4% and in the region of 5 to 68%. It is most important to obtain efficient hydration of the bentonite. This depends upon the type of bentonite being used and the method and time taken in mixing. The use of colloid mills which disperse agglomerated particles by intensive shearing action as the suspen- sion is passed through a small gap between the faces of fixed and revolving plates (see Figure 4) leads to rapid hydration of the bentonite, During excavation and the placing of concrete, the suspension is contaminated by particles of soil, cement and sand. Contamination with sand may not be detrimental to the formation of the filter cake, There are very strong indications that the presence of relatively small quantities of fine sand in the slurry can change the blocking mechanism in open ground (permeability greater than 1 x 10%m/s) from rheological blocking to @ combination of deep filtration and surface filtration. Contamination with clay, usually inthe calcium or aluminium forms, can promote ion exchange with the slurry to such an extent that the filter properties are markedly changed. ‘This effect causes the filter cake to be much thicker and to have a far higher rate of fuid loss. In practice it does not affect the stability ofthe borehole in site of a possible increase of pote water pressure in the vicinity ofthe bore, but it may form an undesirable layer between the shaft concrete and the soi. Figure 4 Schematic diagram of colloid mill Contamination by cement gives rise to much the same effects as does contamination by clay; in addition, the pH increases considerably. Bentonite slurties are very sensitive to cement contamination ~ a concentration as low as 0.05% by weight of solids can give measurable effects 3.5 THE CAPACITY OF BENTONITE SUSPENSION TO KEEP DETRITUS IN SUSPENSION ‘The capacity of bentonite suspension to keep small particles in suspension or to delay their settlement is a very important property. The sediment which may settle at the bottom of a borehole can impair the load bearing capacity ofa pile constructed therein, Using freshly prepared bentonite slurries based on converted bentonite (e.g. Berkbent or Fulbent), a sharp change in sedimentation behaviour has been found when the bentonite con- centration exceeds 4%. Below this value sand settles cut much more rapidly. 19 4 Displacement of bentonite suspension by concrete 4.1. PILE FORMATION Placing concrete in a bentonite filled bore requires the use of a tremie pipe. It isa straight- forward operation, but requires skill and attention. Poor tremie technique may produce @ defective pile, even if the bentonite suspension and the concrete have the correct properties, ‘The procedure is discussed in more detail in Section 4.7. It is clear that complete displacement of the bentonite is required in order to produce ‘good pile. Incomplete displacement at the bottom of a pile would reduce the end bearing. Intermixing might leave inclusions and reduce the strength of concrete. Bentonite left on the sides of the borehole might ‘lubricate the shaft/sil interface, thus reducing friction between the two. Similarly bentonite undisplaced from reinforcing bars might reduce the bond between the steel and concrete. 4.2. DISPLACEMENT OF BENTONITE SUSPENSION FROM THE FACE OF THE BOREHOLE ‘The displacement of bentonite suspension consists of replacement of the lighter fluid of ben- tonite by the heavier Nuid of concrete. ‘The mode of displacement must comply with the principles of theology. The properties of fresh, highly workable (fluid) concrete and of bentonite suspension, ae similar in type but differ considerably in magnitude. Both materials behave, very neatly, as Bingham Body Fluids ~ that is to say they exhibit elastic deformation up to a certain stress level but flow like liquid above this level. Flow properties can thus be defined by yield stress and plastic viscosity ‘A comparison of the usual ranges ofthese parameters is given in Table 2. Table 2A comparison of the flow properties of bentonite suspension with wet concrete Yield stress Plastic viscosity Density Material (Nim) ey" (Mgim?)* Concrete 250-1000 = 22-25 Bentonite suspension 0-25 10-50 102-13 * typical maximum and minimum values encountered in practice. Itcan be seen that the yield stress of bentonite suspension is very much lower than that of concrete. This fact means that concrete willbe very efficient at scouring slurry from vertical surfaces since the concrete itself will not be sheared until only very thin mud layers in the bore. surface irregularities remain (Hutchinson. It could be argued therefore, that, since the fluid bentonite will be displaced from the sides of the borehole, the lubricating action of bentonite (often employed in the sinking of caissons) will not apply and the friction of the pile will not differ significantly from that which would exist if bentonite were not used. However, this opinion must be qualified: 1. As previously described, in pervious scils bentonite penetrates some distance into the soil and forms a filter cake which is composed of bentonite particles, The nature of this ‘cake and its thickness may vaty considerably depending on the state of the bentonite sus- pension, ¢, its contamination, pressure head and standing time. In general a clean, ‘uncontaminated suspension forms a firm cake while a suspension with particles of soil produces soft and more pervious cake. Veder“5) brought attention to the fact that the cake of bentonite has a finite resistance to deformation, He measured an increased resistance to shearing in a triaxial test on a cylindrical sample of sand surrounded by bentonite cake. There is no direct measurement of the shear strength of the filter cake available, but Veder's experiment and some measurements of shear strength of sodium. niontmorillonite (Mesri and Olson 5) suggest that the order of shearing resistance of filter cake formed on a borehole wall is several times greater than the shear strength of the bentonite slurry or fresh concrete given in Table 2. We should not expect an efficient scouring action from the rising concrete which would remove such a layer, Observation Of the excavated faces of diaphragm walls in pervious soils confims the fect that the bentonite cake remains partly, or totally, on the surface of the concrete as a material of soft to firm consistency. The penetrated zone of soil is not affected by the scouring. action of rising concrete. It would be unreasonable to expect that in such cases direct ‘contact between soil and concrete exists. 2. In clay strata the filtering effect on the sides of boreholes is very slight and, therefore, the formation of a filter cake is not as described for pervious strata. In spite of the low permeability of clays (1 X 10~" m/s), itis possible, using high pressures on the suspension, to obtain a filter cake in laboratory conditions on thin layers of clay. Wates and Knight(28) have obtained filter cake on a filter of permeability 10°! m/s; simi- larly, it has been found that a 0.5 mm thick cake was formed on a 25 mm thick ‘dry’ clay (moisture content 8.3%) after 2 hours under a pressure of 689.5 kN/m? In boreholes for piles in saturated clays, where the pressure on the bore wall is due solely to the hydrostatic pressure of the bentonite suspension, only a very thin coating of ‘bentonite cake may be expected to form. This is confirmed in practice on excavated piles and diaphragm walls. However, at times «filter cake of afew millimetres thickness has been observed and it formation is not completely explained. It may be the result of bentonite suspension having been lft standing inthe open excavation for a long period of time, or it may have resulted from other factors suchas electrical forces), or chemical reactions, During pile construction the cake on the sides of the boreholes is subject to the consider- able pressure of fresh concrete, which should result in a good contact between the shaft/ filter cake and filter cake/soil interfaces. It is also subject to a stabilizing action (harden- ing) by reaction with calcium hydroxide during concrete hydration. Further reaction may also take place later, if free calcium oxide is present in the concrete), 3. Apart from the influence of bentonite filter cake it has also to be borne in mind that softening of the walls ofa pile shaft may take place due to the presence of water within the bore. However, itis difficult to see how a loss of intergranular stress from this effect could be more than the loss due to absorption of air in an open borehole in the same ground. There is also the possibility that the borehole walls could be smeared with softened or re- ‘moulded clays during the passage of the boring tool. Neither of these potential problems is specific to bentonite and they could apply to any ‘open boring under water, but there might be some differences between lined and unlined boreholes. There is no evidence that with usual construction methods these factors are important and itis considered that any influence is likely to be slight. ‘Asa summary of these qualifications the following three points can be made. Due to the ‘marked differences in the shearing strengths of bentonite shurry and wet concrete, the condi- tions for displacement of the bentonite suspension by concrete from the sides of the borehole a Figure 5 Displacement of bentonite suspension by tremied concrete from bottom of pile 2 Experimental set-up Piles formed by complete displacement of ‘uncontaminated bentonite suspension Investigation of the suspension and displacement properties of bentonite suspension Cylindrical holes were formed by the compaction of sand around a stee! (iner of 0.75 m diameter and 0.75 m depth, The liner was filled with prepared suspension and withdrawn. ‘After 24 hours suspension properties were as follows: Test No, Density Mg/m® 24 h gel strength N/mm? A 1.04 (uncontaminated) 137 8 1.18 (contaminated) 149 Cand D 1.20 (contaminated) 180 E and F 1.25 (contaminated) 207 ‘After this 24-hour period the suspension was displaced by concrete tremied through a pipe 0.2m diameter and 3:m long. The concrete used exhibited the following properties: Density = 2.2Mg/m> Shear strength © 800 N/mm? ‘Slump = 200mm ‘Tests A and B resulted in complete displacement of the suspension ‘Tests C and D produced cylinders which were basically flat-ended but which showed signs of incomplete displacement Tests E and F produced piles with rounded points «will be favourable in pile construction. In permeable soils, a thick filter cake may remain on the sides of the borehole, between the concrete and the soll. In cohesive soils, where the pene- tration of bentonite suspension is not possible and the formation of filter cake is greatly reduced, or very slight, direct contact between the concrete and the soil may be achieved. 4.3 DISPLACEMENT OF BENTONITE SUSPENSION AND DETRITUS FROM. THE BASE OF THE PILE BORE The mechanism of displacement from the bottom of a pile is not wel understood. In idealized conditions, the dense fluid of concrete, with its higher shear value, should easly displace the less dense fuid of bentonite. In practice, this displacement depends toa great degree on the properties of the bentonite suspension and concrete which are not always known, and on the Skill in the tremie technique. ‘The usual control parameters that are applied to ensure displacement are the density, viscosity and shear strength of the bentonite suspension, the limits for which are usually set in the specification. In addition, laboratory tests) have shown a marked influence on displace- ‘ment behaviour, due to sand contamination of the fluid, shown by an increase in density, see Figure 5. The control of the properties of bentonite at the bottom of a ple before concreting is very important. The formation of sediment at the bottom of the pile should be prevented, or at least sufficiently delayed to allow concreting to take place. One policy which has been adopted is to change the bentonite suspension if the density is found to be greater than 1.25 Mg/m? or if the Marsh cone reading (see Table 3) exceeds 100. A bentonite sampler of the type shown in Figure 6 may be used in this operation, Table 3 Bentonite suspension properties: definitions and current test methods Pome Patan ‘Caro tt tod concent got emote pe 100 Denaty Mass of pve volume of sary ‘Ma balance (eg by bara Pane way ary (ani Brn Dy) nde wring Fen vacmater Struinn = roys spout oy she sent ade ‘penn oon fra Beg 90) = ing compan Tomnuie ple Shar avengt sand by the dry at ua Far vizamete dod lOmin (uy viet has eos Fling tke shoes Sarg). (te! the two mae pe eres hich cman derby opera) w Tag fal Ryo PH pge cm pe arate es Secon een of ed pera 20D eh penton APL and ant et (aly NO eh ee Fido ‘Vole fit i te ra Grd vlan o ‘Sn do sparta sab ling ree te tp tong naar mpi (0 co, 83 xN ‘ened ‘Stier pape). Fierce new “chon of fie cle ball up wer did cndons Men fierce bul nha Tomo (after Hutchinson, Daw, Shotton and James) 23 igure 6 Mud sampler 24 / oN 7] 1) 2 o Bottom weight Sample tube ‘Top cove lowered to lowered down. lowered down sampling level sampler ready for lifting, (Cementation patent) 4.4 DISPLACEMENT OF BENTONITE SUSPENSION FROM REINFORCING BARS ‘The effect of bentonite on the bond between reinforcing bars and concrete has received some attention in the past. Some early reports indicated substantial loss of bond strength), At present general opinion is that there is no significant reduction of bond. ‘The Federation of Piling Specialists Specification for Diaphragm Walls recommends the use of maximum allowable bond stress values for round non-deformed bars, as specified in CP114; for deformed bars it recommends limiting the increase of allowable values to not more ‘than an additional 10% of the value specified for plain bars. ‘The displacement of bentonite from vertical smooth surfaces of bars should be very effective, taking into consideration the shearing strength of the bentonite gel. There is no coating such as filter cake on the bars to resist the scouring action of concrete on deformed bars. However, some bentonite might be left on the protruding ribs and this could adversely affect the improvement in the mechanical bond between these bars and the concrete as, ‘envisaged in the Code of Practice. 88 Nenuoo pins sy ey moka nn ere ert “ime etiog ew ewwniey (hop ae) mer ‘otoais BC v8 (wh indog ry oote —oats _umn) dung opimung ou peg ‘reaps ay] Cra eoourn, UTE wo pee) vast PI ‘Fee wun eH spuiucany $43210N auens puoe sewn 50 ti ine 3 . e 3 é Figure 7 28 Figure 8 Flow diagram of bentonite circulation system used in pile construction 26 ACIRIA Report) entitled “The effect of bentonite on the bond between steel reinforce ‘ment and concrete’ describes a series of tests where concrete was injected into vertical moulds from the bottom upwards to displace the bentonite. Plain round bars, square twisted bars and deformed bars were used, The Report concludes that while bond strength between concrete and round or square twisted steel bar reinforcement is not materially affected, the bond strength. between concrete and deformed bars is markedly reduced. The use of deformed bars is stil preferred by some because, itis argued, these give a more positive bar anchorage. Recent pull- ‘out tests on partly.sleeved reinforcing bars (Figure 7) have indicated a slightly higher level of adhesion for deformed bars than for plain round bars in support of this view. ‘This represents the current view on the displacement of bentonite from vertical steel reinforcement surfaces. ‘The conditions for the displacement of bentonite from horizontal bars are not as favour- able as are those for vertical bars. It is always possible that some residue of bentonite wil beleft ‘on the upper surfaces of bars in this situation. Horizontal reinforcement, and in particular helical cage binding, also presents a considerable obstruction to the flow of concrete. ‘The replacement of helical reinforcement by hoops or bands of steel, spaced at distances of some metres, is to be recommended. This practice has already come into widespread use and has been adopted by the Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors in the USA), It should be noted that millions of square metres of diaphragm walls have been construct ed successfully to date;many walls represent heavily reinforced structures, subject to consider- able bending moments. 45 SPECIFICATION FOR BENTONITE SUSPENSION Figure 8 shows the cycle of bentonite flow during the construction of a pile. At every stage of the cycle there are certain qualities of the bentonite suspension which can help to ensure its best performance. At some stages limits can be defined, beyond which it would be detrimental to-use the fluid further without action being taken to restore its properties. This is particularly important prior to concreting, and if the measured properties of the bentonite cannot be brought to satisfactory values, the fluid should be exchanged before the concrete is placed. It is. necessary to define the construction requirements, to establish where possible the limits im- posed on the properties of the suspension, and to maintain control of these properties on site | g | eu>| wo | & wsi> ai<| 2 twnse< | 6 «0z> duAnrcor< | wird sur z a 2 wNo> |Z a 2 awINST< e z Surduing z é g g 5 E 2 g os Foes est> £ 2 g & UAW IT > reams a 4 3 a (woneaguon | (wonoyuee e z : | snmunysannbos) | soynnysonnbos) so10u00 ka ase> | £ | cm> 3 By é P0C> e/BW STL > %s1> | wowsoRdsiq i cimse< | : 2 wr “anne 7 3 2 3 4 2 auqeos 3 A a we < voneatoxg, 4 3 u<| 3 wnses |B ewinveot< | sHr< oe (aa) auaqwos | sso} wpfuons | dysoosa | kysooma Aysoosts woryenu20000 mors | mma | MA | wionciet | “iia” | atcommmn | amomsdy | “Sng weg | “Sono in SR Sas wits wee Ses 2285 3 Besse a 4.6.1 Typical 28 ix composition Unfortunately, opinion about the control of bentonite varies widely, Visual inspection ‘and the judgement of an experienced foreman, who may assess the properties of bentonite between his fingers, may be acceptable at one extreme, while at the other extreme we may find ‘8 complex specification with many laboratory tests adapted from the Oil Industry of bentonite suppliers, The first approach could, of course, be over-simplified and visual inspection alone cean be deceptive. The second approach can produce a mass of data which are difficult to inter- pret in relation to the process of bentonite piling because the measurements are often inter- related in a complicated way. Common sense will indicate that the extremes can be ruled out and that control could be based on measurable parameters which can be related directly to the construction process, Table 3 lists various properties of bentonite suspension, how they are defined and the current test methods available. Table 4 (after Hutchinson (33) and others) contains some values for the properties of bentonite suspension. tis a common practice among specialist contractors to establish their own limits and to control the properties on site. Most contractors accept the specification of the Federation of Piling Specialists > (see Table 5). Table 5 Specification for cast-in-place diaphragm walling Property Testmetiod Density Tes han 1.10 gi Mud density balance Vicosity 30-90 sconds Mars cone method Shewrsuengh yy LA-1ONIn? Stesromete HH 95-12 pH indiatr (after FPS Specification) Applies to UK bentonite, 4.6 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN It is believed that unsuitable concrete mix design has, in the past, been the cause of some unsatisfactory results from tests on bored piles. It isa general practice now to specify a cohesive mix of high workability (slump greater than 175 mm), which is not prone to segregation, and which retains its workability as far as possible for the duration of the tremie placing operation. A typical mix is given in Table 65), The high sand and cement content should be noted. Table 6 Suggested concrete mix for bored piles cast under bentonite Stump >175 mm Water/cement ratio, Below 0.6 Agaregate type Natural rounded stone if possible, 20 mm maximum size Sand type Natural sand complying with zone 2 or 3 grading Sand content 35 to 45% of the total aggregate weight Cement Not less than 400 kg/m? of OPC or SR cement Admbxtures ‘The use of suitable admixtures which will improve the work- ability and extend the period during which such workability is ‘maintained are to be advocated (after Sliwinski and Fleming) Pinu paoeidayp ‘un Rome But ‘duund panies S10ui pur Ajenpes s1Buiduind “aoeyane saypeas sye10U00 oy ena] orsuodsns 3s ay esk E35 29 30 ‘The high cement content favoured for in-situ pile constriction is considered wasteful by some; but it does enable the necessary high workability mixes to be used with adequate margins of safety ageinst the inevitable variations in strength and workability. It also compensates for some reduction in strength which may occur on interfaces during displacement. 4.7 CONCRETING (TREMIE OPERATION) ‘The phases of placing concrete in a pile bore by the tremie method are shown schematically in Figure 9. The tremie pipe is placed (o the base of the bore and, having arranged a suitable inter- face or plug, concrete pouring begins. As the concrete rises in the bore the tremie is raised in ‘order to maintain the concrete flow. The lower end of the tremie pipe remains submerged in concrete throughout the process and the bentonite suspension is displaced upwards by the conerete forming the pile shaft. ‘There are several possible defects which may arise during tremie operations and which will affect the performance of the finished cast pile. Some of these are mentioned below. Defective pile base ‘The pile base may not be in contact with the bottom of the borehole, or the concrete may be segregated and mixed with sediment and bentonite. This might happen if: 1. the tremie pipe is held too high at the beginning of the operation, giving rise to disper- sion of the first batches of concrete as they discharge suddenly from the base of the tube, See Figure 10. 2. the hydrostatic pressure of the bentonite suspension falls below that of the standing ‘water pressure in the bore (due to a temporary lowering of the bentonite level) and particularly when a sub-artesian ground water condition occurs in conjunction with loose sand at the base of the bore, then itis likely that an inflow of soil particles will take place. To achieve satisfactory end bearing, complete displacement of bentonite is necessary, Experience indicates that this can be achieved with due care and attention, If the founding stratum is rock or cemented sand, the contact with the concrete should be very good. It may ‘be more difficult to obtain good results if the founding stratum is granular and there may be lifficulties when the pore water pressure is high in relation to the bentonite pressure. This problem may occur also in tremie conerete placing in a pile formed under water and cannot be attributed exclusively to the use of bentonite. Defective concrete in the shaft Defects may occur by excessive lifting and lowering (surging) of the tremie pipe or occasion- ally because the tremie is mistakenly lifted out of the already placed concrete. Among the above described problems, defective pile bases are more common. It was described by Reese et al(26) when he observed extracted test piles and is also mentioned by Peck at the Eighth International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering in Moscow 7), The defective base was probably the cause of excessive settlement on test piles in Italy, see Section 7.5. Recent experience has shown that when suitable precautions are taken the full base resistance can be achieved. Figure 10 Defects in tremie placing 31 5 Laboratory tests on the influence of bentonite on skin friction 5.1.1 Weiss 5.1.2 Farmer and Goldberger 32 ‘There are only a limited number of reported laboratory tests on the influence of bentonite on skin friction of piles. Scale effect and the difficulties of simulating conditions which exist on sites make the interpretation rather difficult, 5.1 THE CONTRIBUTION OF VARIOUS RESEARCHERS ‘he first recorded attempt was by Weiss in 1965(38), He carried out shear tests on concrete slabs cast horizontally on compacted sands. Comparative tests were performed on dry sand and on sand that had been immersed in bentonite suspension for varying periods. The result, although inconsistent, suggest that a slightly greater fritional resistance is obtained ata con- crete/dry sand interface than at a concrete/sand interface coated with bentonite. Farmer and Goldberg) conducted a test on a model pile in a specially constructed triaxial apparatus, illustrated in Figure 11. Compacted sand was used (Zone 2, Thames Valley, 5 mm

    You might also like