Sense of the Self IV. “It is good if I say it is good.
”
3 Theories about Ethics that Center on the Self:
1. Subjectivism
 individual thinking person (subject) is at
the heart of all moral valuations
 the one who is confronted with the
situation and is burdened with the need
to make a decision or judgment
 leaps to the more radical claim that the
individual is the sole determinant of
what is morally good or bad, right or
wrong
Problems Of Subjectivism
I. “No one can tell me what is right and
wrong”
 there is some validity to this
 No one can compel another to accept a
certain value judgment if she herself
does not concur with it
 cannot be taken as absolute
- We realized, in many instances, that we had
maintained an idea or an opinion that further
discussion reveals it was actually erroneous
- We realize that we can be mistaken and that we
can be corrected by others
II. “No one knows my situation better than
myself”
 there is some validity to this
 person who is put in a certain situation,
which calls for a decision, has
knowledge of the factors that affect her
situation and decision
 to take this fact as a ground for not
listening to others is to have a mentality
that imagines that one’s own situation or
concern is so personal and unique that
there is no way another person can
possibly understand her and give her any
meaningful advice
 But does not it make greater sense to
recognize the reality that many human
experiences are common and that others
may have something useful to suggest?
III. “I am entitled to my own opinion.”
 valid point that is often misused
 each person has the right to believe what
she believes and has the right to express
this
 this right is often stubbornly
misconstrued as immunity from
criticism and correction. Ex. A bigoted
racist has an opinion against anyone
who is dark skinned
 these opinions are highly problematic
because there is no basis for considering
any of these groups of people as inferior
 we get to the heart of the problem of
subjectivism
 The problem now becomes: “What is
my basis for saying it is good?”
 renders subjectivism an untenable view
for someone who is interested in ethics
 takes the fact that I am the subject
making the valuation and uses this fact
as the very basis for that valuation
 But when “I”, as subject, am asking
what is right or wrong, good or bad,
with subjectivism, there is no other basis
that I can look toward
2. Psychological Egoism
o “Human beings are naturally self-centered, so all
our actions are always already motivated by self-
interest. “
o theory that describes the underlying dynamic
behind all human actions
o As a descriptive theory, it does not direct one to
act in any particular way.
o it points out that there is already an underlying
basis for how one acts
o The ego or self has its desires and interests, and
all our actions are geared toward satisfying these
interests
o an irrefutable theory because there is no way to
try to answer it without being confronted by the
challenge that, whatever one might say, there is
self-serving motive at the root of everything.
3. Ethical Egoism
o differs from psychological egoism in that it does
not suppose all our actions are already inevitably
self-serving
o Prescribes that we should make our own
interests, as the single overriding concern
o may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but
we should do that only if it ultimately benefits us
o should consider herself as the priority and not
allow any other concerns, such as the welfare of
other people, to detract from this pursuit
 Utilitarianism  Abolition of slavery, death penalty, and
corporal punishment for children.
 ethical theory that argues for the goodness of
 Denied individual legal rights nor agreed with
pleasure and the determination of right behavior
natural law.
based on the usefulness of the action’s
 Equates happiness with pleasure.
consequences
 Provides a framework for evaluating pleasure
 pleasure is good
and pain – FELICTIC CALCULUS
 goodness of an action is determined by its
 FELICTIC CALCULUS – calculates pleasure
usefulness.
that some actions can produce.
 one’s actions and behavior are good in as much
 Intensity or strength of pleasure
as they are directed towards the experience of
 Duration or length of the experience of pleasure
the greatest pleasure over pain for the greatest
 Certainty, uncertainty, or likelihood that the
number of persons.
pleasure will occur
 UTILITY – refers to the usefulness of the
 Propinquity, remoteness, or how soon there will
consequences of one’s action and behavior.
pleasure
Like, some individual rights can be sacrificed
 When we are to evaluate our tendency to choose
for the sake of the greater happiness of many.
these actions, two more dimensions need to be
considered:
 JEREMY BENTHAM & JOHN STUART
FECUNDITY - chance it has of being followed
MILL – two foremost utilitarian thinkers.
by sensations of the same kind.
 Their system emphasizes the consequence of
PURITY – chance it has of not being followed
actions.
by sensations of the opposite kind.
 goodness or the badness of an action is based on
 EXTENT – considering number of persons who
whether it is useful in contributing to a specific
are affected by pleasure of pain, another
purpose for the greatest number of people
dimension is to be considered.
 It is consequentialist
 Pleasure and pain can only ”quantitatively”
 The moral value of actions and decision is
differ from other experiences of pleasure and
based solely or greatly on the usefulness of
pain
their consequences; it is the usefulness of
results that determines whether the action is
good or bad
JOHN STUART MILL
 UTILITARIAN VALUE – pleasure and
happiness  1806-1873
 BENTHAM & MILL – understand happiness  His father, James Mill was a student of Jeremy
as the experience of pleasure for the greatest Bentham
number of persons, even at the expense of some  Wrote a history of Roman Law at age eleven
individual’s rights  Suffered a nervous breakdown at age of twenty
 supports Bentham’s principle of utility
 reiterates that moral good as happiness and,
The Principle of Utility consequently, happiness as pleasure
 What makes people happy is intended pleasure
 JEREMY BENTHAM – our actions are
and what makes us unhappy is privation of
governed by two “sovereign masters” –
pleasure
PLEASURE AND PAIN.
 The things that produce happiness and pleasure
 The principle refers to the motivation of our
are good; whereas, those that produce
actions as guided by our avoidance of pain and
unhappiness and pain are bad
our desire for pleasure
 We act and do things because we find them
 We do what is pleasurable and we do not do
pleasurable, and we avoid doing things because
what is painful
they are painful
 pleasure is good if, and only if it produce more
 theory of life
happiness than unhappiness
 Dissents from Bentham single scale of pleasure
 It is not enough to experience pleasure, but to
 The principle of utility must distinguish pleasure
also inquire whether the things that we do makes
"qualitatively" and not merely quantitatively
us happier
 thinks that there are higher intellectual and lower
and lower base pleasures
 “We undermine ourselves if we only and
JEREMY BENTHAM primarily desire sensuality because we are
 (1948-1832) capable of higher intellectual pleasurable
 wrote about the greatest happiness principle of goods.”
ethics  CRUDE BESTIAL PLEASURES - which are
 Known for a system of vi management called appropriate for animals, are degrading to us
PANOPTICON because we are by nature not easily satisfied by
 Advocate of: pleasures only for pigs.
 Economic freedom  pare qualitatively different from animal
 Women’s rights pleasures
 Separation of church and state  recognizes that there are different kinds of
 Animal rights pleasures
 Quality is preferable than quantity
  excessive quantity of pleasure might result in
pain
 In deciding over two comparable pleasures, it is
important to experience both and discover which
one is actually more preferred than the other
 no other way of determining which of the two
pleasures is preferable except by appealing to
the actual preferences and experiences
 Higher intellectual pleasures are preferable than
purely sensual appetites
 ”It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than
a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied
than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig,
is of a different opinion, it is because they only
know their own side of the question. The other
party to the comparison knows both sides."
PRINCIPLE OF GREATEST NUMBER
o Equating mdoes not aim to describe the
utilitarian moral agent alone and independently
from others
o This is not only about our individual pleasures,
regardless of how high, intellectual, or on other
ways noble it is, but it is also about the pleasure
of the greatest number affected by the
consequences of our actions
o Utilitarianism cannot lead to selfish acts
o Neither about our pleasure nor happiness alone
o It cannot be all about us
o If we are the only ones satisfied by our actions,
it does not constitute a moral good
o If we are the only ones who are made happy by
our actions, then we cannot be morally Good
o Utilitarianism is interested with the best
consequence for the highest number of people.
not interested with the intention of the agent
o actions are based only on the greatest happiness
of the greatest number, is it justifiable to let go
of some rights for the sake of the benefit of the
majority?
JUSTICE AND MORAL RIGHTS
o JUSTICE - respect for rights directed toward
society’s pursuit of the greatest happiness
of the greatest number
o RIGHTS - a valid claim on society and are
justified by utility
o right to due process, the right for free speech or
religion, and others are justified because they
contribute to the general good
o means that the society is made happier if its
citizens are able to live their lives knowing that
their interests are protected and that society (as a
whole) defends it
o Animals have rights as well because the effect as
such principles on the sum total of happiness
that follows as a consequence of instituting and
protecting their interests
o RIGTH TO LIFE – individuals most vital
interest
o We are treated justly when our legal and moral
rights are respected
o Rights are subject to some exceptions
o Mill creates a distinction between legal rights
and their justification.
 He points out that when legal rights are not
morally justified in accordance to the
greatest happiness principle, then these
rights need neither be observed, nor be
respected.
 Mill thinks that it is commendable to endure
legal punishment for acts of civil
disobedience for the sake of promoting a
higher moral good.
o Moral rights take precedence over legal rights
o While it can be justified why others violate legal
rights, it is an act of injustice to violate an
individual’s moral rights
o The principle of utility can theoretically oblige
us to steal, kill, and the like..
o “theoretically”- tough experiment and need not
be actualized
o what matters is the assessment of what we do is
the resultant happiness, the anything may be
justified for the sake of producing the greatest
happiness of the greatest number of people
o For Mill, justice can be interpreted in terms of
moral rights because justice promotes the greater
social good
DEONTOLOGY
 moral theory that evaluates actions that are done
because of duty
 DEON – Greek word which means being
necessary
 The study of duty and obligation
IMMANUEL KANT
 Main proponent of deontology
 German Enlightenment Philosopher who wrote
one of the most important works on moral
philosophy, Groundwork towards a Metaphysics
of Morals (1785)
 Kant brings our attention to the fact that human
beings, have the faculty called rational will
which is the capacity to act according to
principles that we determine for ourselves
ANIMALS VS HUMANS
Animals
- Sentient organism
- SENTIENCE – the ability to perceive and
navigate the external environment
- Constantly react in their surroundings
Humans
- Sentient but also rational
- Rationality – consists of mental faculty to
construct ideas and thoughts that are beyond our
immediate surroundings
- Capacity for mental abstraction which arises
from the operations of the faculty of reason
 - Ability to stop and think about what we are
doing
- We can remove ourselves mentally from the
immediacy of our surroundings and reflect on
our actions and how such actions affect the
world
- We can imagine a different and better world,
and create mental images of how we interact
with other people in that world
- Through the capacity for imagination and
reflection, we conceive of how we could affect,
possibly even change, the world we live in

- RATIONAL WILL - faculty to intervene in a

world, to act in a manner that is consistent with
our reason

 Animals only act according to impulses,

based on their natural instincts
 thus, animals “act” with the immediacy
with nothing that intervenes between the
impulse and the action. They do not and
cannot deliberate on their actions
 From Latin medium or “no middle”

Humans have reason, which intervenes between impulse

and act.

•We can stop and think about what we are doing to

evaluate our actions according to principles.
•We are not only reacting to our surroundings and
internal impulses but are also conceiving of ways to act
according to certain rational principles.
•ex. you feel hungry. the corresponding impulse is to eat,
but you you’re not yet done with your work, so you
continue working until you’re finish and be able to eat.
•This demonstrates the triumph of your rational will base
on your base impulse to eat.
•The triumph clarifies the meaning of rational will, the
capacity of the person to be the cause of her actions