Journal of Business Research 53 (2001) 103 ± 109

Age differences in memory for radio advertisements:

the role of mnemonics
Malcolm C. Smitha,*, Mark R. Phillips Jrb
a
Department of Marketing, Faculty of Management, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada R3T 5V4
b
University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA
Accepted 1 June 1999

Abstract

This study examines age differences in memory for radio advertisements. Younger and older adults listened to a bogus radio program.
Half of each age category listened to a version of the program embedded with two ads utilizing a simple rhyming mnemonic device. The
other half of each age category listened to the same program, but with ads without any rhyming mnemonics. Various measures of recall and
recognition of the target ads were taken both immediately after exposure and after a 7-day delay. While no age differences in memory
emerged, mnemonic versions of the ads resulted in better scores for overall unaided memory, prompted brand recall, and overall memory for
both age groups. There were no differences in memory scores over the 7-day delay, nor were there any interaction effects. D 2001 Elsevier
Science Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Memory; Age differences; Radio advertisements; Mnemonics

Although our society is rapidly aging, the research
literature concerning issues on marketing to older adults is
surprisingly sparse. It has been estimated that the ``mature''
market growth rate will be anywhere from 11% (Moschis,
1992, p. 26) to 18% (Ostroff, 1989) during the last decade of
this century. Subsequently, it will be growing at a faster rate
than the population as a whole. Recently, however, market-
ing academics have taken notice of this emerging market
(e.g., Cole and Gaeth, 1990; Moschis, 1992; Tepper, 1994;
Law and Craik, 1995 ; Smith, 1995; Sorce, 1995). Much of
this research has dealt with the cognitive functioning of
older consumers, especially memory for advertising content
with television and print used almost exclusively as the
media for these studies. Radio has been scarcely used, with
the notable exception of Cole et al. (1995, p. 617), who note
that ``because radio is an audio medium, theories developed
to understand how television and print advertising work
may not generalize to radio advertising.'' Therefore, one
objective of this study was to examine if any age differences
in memory for advertising emerge when radio is utilized.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-204-474-9484.
Research has also been conducted on learning aids which
might help older consumers remember the content of text
and advertisements. Mnemonics, a learning aid that utilizes
such things as rhymes, is used here as a learning tool to see
if they will help consumers, and older consumers in parti-
cular, to better remember the content of ads.
Finally, this study examined not only immediate recall of
ad content, but also delayed recall. This is an important
factor for advertisers and delayed recall has rarely been used
in the literature.
1. Aging and memory
The traditional view of aging and cognition has been
that, with age, cognitive deficits emerge. One topic that has
been heavily researched in the field of gerontology is that of
memory and aging. Findings have indicated that memory
for text decreases with age (see Light, 1991). This has often
been explained by means of a shrinkage of working memory
capacity and resources (e.g., Salthouse, 1992).
In the realm of marketing, much of the research inves-
tigating aging and memory has dealt with memory for
advertising. Again, most of these studies have found that

0148-2963/01/$ ± see front matter D 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 4 8 - 2 9 6 3 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 7 9 - X
104 M.C. Smith, M.R. Phillips / Journal of Business Research 53 (2001) 103±109
with age, memory for the content of ads declines (Stephens,
1982; Cole and Houston, 1987; Law and Craik, 1995).
An audio medium such as radio provides no chance to
self-pace the speed of input stimuli, nor repeat the ex-
posure to the stimuli as processing is taking place. In
addition, radio avoids any interaction of pictorial and text
processing that may occur with television or print ads with
pictures (see Leigh, 1991). Thus, cognitive processing of
radio ads must be carried out in a ``one-way,'' linear
fashion. As Cole et al. (1995) point out, a medium such
as speech (as in radio) requires continuous working mem-
ory processing. Given the findings that older adults may
have a decrease in working memory capacity, one would
expect that memory for the content of radio advertising
would be superior for younger adults when compared to
older adults.
2. Mnemonics
The goal of using mnemonics is to improve encoding
efficiency. While this subject has received scant attention
in the marketing/advertising literature, it has been an area
of focus in other disciplines. A recent review of a psychol-
ogy data base revealed 469 separate studies dealing with
mnemonics and memory. Various mnemonic strategies
including peg word, first letter, key word, method of loci,
link/chain, figure alphabet, Yodai, and rhymes have been
used with various subjects and disparate environmental
situations (see Malhotra, 1991 for a general overview of
these mnemonic techniques). In addition, music, imagery,
and story telling have been investigated as mnemonics
(Hill et al., 1991; Scruggs and Brigham, 1991; Yalch,
1991; Richardson and Rossan, 1994). Consistent across
all such subject groups and test situations is the implicit
assumption that improving encoding efficiency will im-
prove memory.
Yesavage et al. (1989) offer the following five limita-
tions of mnemonics research involving older adults: (1)
mnemonic techniques are too complicated for the older
adults to effectively utilize; (2) many studies rely on visual
images and visual image associations whereas older people
have difficulty producing and remembering visual images;
(3) high anxiety levels tend to depress test performances
and older adults are often resistant and/or anxious about
using new techniques and participation in (new) test
situations; (4) some findings suggest that encoding proces-
sing may be more superficial in older adults vis-a-vis their
younger counterparts, which suggests that any improve-
ment in memory due to mnemonics may be restricted to
the short term; and (5) any treatment effects may be
negligible, which begs the question, ``Is mnemonic training
worth the time and resources expended to realize minus-
cule improvements?''
This study attempts to address the aforementioned
limitations by: (1) using a simple mnemonic technique
(rhyming) without benefit of any prior training; (2) utilizing
an auditory rather than a visual medium; (3) conducting the
test in an environment comfortable to subjects, thereby
reducing anxiety; and (4) testing both immediate and
delayed recall.
3. Timing of memory measures
Most often memory tasks are performed immediately
after the stimuli were seen/heard in a learning and memory
study; however, the timing of the memory task has been
shown to have an effect on memory performance. Findings
have been reported which demonstrated that age differences
in recall for text diminish over time (Dixon et al., 1982;
Sinnot, 1986), while others have found that such age
differences are magnified over time (e.g., Cohen and Faulk-
ener, 1984).
4. Hypotheses
In order to assess whether older adults suffer memory
deficits relative to younger adults for the content of radio
advertisements and what effect mnemonics will have on
this possible differential, the following hypotheses were
formulated.
H1. With radio ads, older adults will have lower scores
than younger adults for:
H1a. unaided recall, aided recall, and recognition of the
advertising message;
H1b. unaided recall, aided recall, and recognition of the
brand/company name;
H1c. unaided recall, aided recall, and recognition of the
product category.
H2. The use of mnemonics will result in increased levels
of memory in terms of unaided recall, aided recall and
recognition for both younger and older adults.
H3. Unaided recall, aided recall, and recognition scores
will be higher for both age groups immediately after
exposure than after a 7-day delay.
Encoding efficiency should increase with the use of
mnemonics. This, coupled with the fact that older adults
may suffer encoding deficiencies, is the basis for the fourth
hypothesis.
H4. There will be a significant interaction between age
and mnemonic treatment on memory for the brand/company
names in the target ads (i.e., the older adults will more
greatly benefit from the use of mnemonics vis-a-vis the
younger adults in terms of memory for the target brand/
company names).
 M.C. Smith, M.R. Phillips / Journal of Business Research 53 (2001) 103±109 105

5. Methods
The effects of age and type of advertisement were
examined in a 2 (age group)  2 (message type) between
subjects factorial design. Age was divided into younger and
older adults and participants from each age group were
randomly assigned to one of two types of advertising
treatment (mnemonic and non-mnemonic) using radio as
the medium. Memory for advertising was tested both
immediately after exposure to the stimulus material and
after a 7-day delay.
5.1. Participants
One-hundred fourteen young adults in introductory busi-
ness and communications classes from a large western
university in the USA volunteered to participate in the
study. Ninety-eight older adults were recruited over the
telephone from the same city from the membership list of
Senior Health Services Class supplied by a local hospital. Of
the older adults recruited, 58 kept their appointments for the
designated day and time of the study.
5.2. Stimuli
Participants were exposed to one of two variations of a
professionally prepared cassette tape of a 10-min bogus
radio program. They were told that the excerpt they would
hear was a test tape of a new format for an unnamed radio
station. Their opinions were being solicited to help station
management determine if this format was viable. The two
variations of the radio program were virtually identical
except for the target ads under investigation. These target
ads were for a fictitious travel agency (``Blue Sky Travel''),
and a fictitious oral rinse (``Cavoloss'') and were embedded
in the middle section of the program to avoid primacy and
recency effects. One version's target ads were embedded
with a rhyming mnemonic device (mnemonic ads) which
was associated with the brand/company name. These
rhymes were ``Fly high with Blue Sky,'' and ``Toss the
floss, use Cavoloss.'' The other version contained the same
ad devoid of any rhyming mnemonic (non-mnemonic ads).
In total, four variations of the tape were made: two with
mnemonic target ads and two with non-mnemonic target
ads. In each of these cases, the order of target ads was
reversed to avoid ordering effects. Care was also taken to
use music and a generic format that was deemed as non-
offensive as possible to both age groups.
5.3. Procedures
The older participants were divided into four groups and
studied over a 2-week period. In order to provide a setting
that would be familiar and comfortable to these participants,
their study site was the area where they usually held their
Senior Health Services Class seminars. Each group came to
the study site on a designated day of the week and, after
being exposed to the radio program stimulus, a self-paced
questionnaire was administered which was designed to
measure recall and recognition of the target ads. Specific
questions pertaining to this information were disguised
among other questions that asked about the participants'
impressions of the program. Upon completion of the ques-
tionnaire, the participants were excused and asked to return

Table 1
Means for memory categories by age, version, and time
Factors
Younger Older
Mnemonic Non-mnemonic Mnemonic Non-mnemonic
Dependent variables Immediate Delayed Immediate Delayed Immediate Delayed Immediate Delayed
Unaided product recall 1.80 1.47 1.22 1.38 1.48 1.68 1.04 1.14
Unaided brand recall 0.68 0.98 0.40 0.35 0.48 0.55 0.70 0.59
Unaided message recall 0.88 0.71 0.89 0.53 0.65 0.55 0.44 0.23

Aided product recall 1.46 1.76 1.35 1.65 1.23 1.18 0.85 0.91
Aided brand recall 0.69 1.10 0.56 0.62 0.77 0.86 0.52 0.82
Aided message recall 1.22 0.88 1.22 1.00 1.03 0.82 0.78 0.73

Prompted brand recall 0.93 1.08 0.65 0.47 0.81 0.73 0.74 0.55

Product recognition 3.22 3.43 3.13 3.06 3.16 3.09 2.89 3.05
Brand recognition 2.63 2.78 2.47 2.59 2.77 2.91 2.44 2.36

Overall unaided recall 3.36 3.16 2.51 2.26 2.61 2.77 2.19 1.95
Overall aided recall 3.37 3.73 3.13 3.26 3.03 2.86 2.15 2.45
Overall recognition 5.85 6.20 5.60 5.65 5.94 6.00 5.33 5.41
Overall memory 12.58 13.10 11.24 11.18 11.58 11.64 9.67 9.82
106 M.C. Smith, M.R. Phillips / Journal of Business Research 53 (2001) 103±109

Table 2
ANOVA results for major composite memory scores
Dependent variables
Overall unaided recall Overall aided recall Prompted brand recall Overall recognition Overall memory
Factors F p F p F p F p F p
Age 2.034 0.155 3.461 0.064 0.343 0.559 0.245 0.621 2.667 0.104
Version 6.097 0.014 1.531 0.217 4.981 0.026 2.686 0.102 4.667 0.032
Timing 0.213 0.645 0.246 0.621 0.069 0.793 0.340 0.560 0.067 0.795

Age  version 0.175 0.676 0.189 0.664 1.042 0.308 0.139 0.710 0.030 0.863
Age  timing 0.085 0.771 0.065 0.799 0.177 0.674 0.057 0.811 0.008 0.928
Version  timing 0.071 0.790 0.001 0.981 0.808 0.369 0.124 0.725 0.049 0.825

Age  version  timing 0.065 0.799 0.195 0.659 0.130 0.719 0.073 7.87 0.042 0.838

1 week later. The first session took approximately 40 min to
complete. Of the 58 older adults that were initially tested, 44
returned the following week. They were not told what the
second session would entail. During the session in week 2,
an identical questionnaire was administered to measure
delayed recall and recognition. In addition, demographic
data were collected. The session also took approximately 40
min to complete.
The younger adults were studied in much the same
manner. Each class was divided approximately in half and
one group was exposed to the mnemonic version of the
program and the other group was exposed to the non-
mnemonic version. One week later, the questionnaire was
re-administered to the younger adults (83 in number) to
measure delayed recall and recognition. As with the older
adults, they did not know what the second session would
entail. Demographic data were also collected at this time.
Each session took the younger adults approximately 30 min
to complete.
5.4. Dependent measures
Memory (immediate and delayed) was assessed in the
following categories for each ad: (1) unaided recall of the
product category, brand/company name, and advertising
message; (2) aided recall of the product category, brand/
company name, and the advertising message; (3) recogni-
tion of the product category and the brand/company name;
and (4) prompted recall of the brand/company name.
Participants received two points for a correct answer, one
for a partially correct answer, and zero for an incorrect or no
answer. The scores for each ad were added together. (The
means for each of these memory scores are presented in
Table 1.) A composite score was then calculated for unaided
recall, aided recall, and recognition by summing the appro-
priate product category, brand/company name, and advertis-
ing message scores. For example, an overall unaided recall
composite score was calculated for each participant by
summing the recall scores for unaided product category,
unaided brand/company name, and unaided adverting mes-
sage for both ads. Finally, an overall memory score for each
participant was calculated by summing the composite un-
aided recall, aided recall, recognition, and prompted brand/
company name recall scores which gave a total of five major
dependent memory scores.
6. Results
The younger adults had an average age of 18.88 years
(S.D. = 1.04 years) and the older adults had an average age
of 71.46 years (S.D. = 6.42 years). The older group had
significantly more years of education (mean = 13.9) than the
younger adults (mean = 12.6) (t = 6.09, p < 0.001). In
addition, there was no difference in how well each age
group liked the radio program. Using a seven-point scale
(where 1 = strongly dislike and 7 = strongly like) the mean
ratings were 3.51 for the older adults and 3.68 for the
students (t = 0.77, p > 0.05).
As seen in Table 2, the results of the ANOVA indicated
that there were no age differences in memory for any of the
five major composite memory scores. In all cases, older
adults performed as well as the younger adults in recalling
and recognizing content of the ads used. When education
was entered into the same ANOVA analysis as a covariate,
no age difference emerged.
The mnemonic versions of the ads produced better
memory scores in three of the five major composite depen-
dent variables. Overall unaided recall (F(1,292) = 6.10, p <
0.05), prompted brand recall (F(1,291) = 4.98, p < 0.05),
and overall memory (F(1,291) = 4.67, p < 0.05). All were
significantly higher for the mnemonic versions of the ads
than for the non-mnemonic versions.
There were no differences in memory scores due to
timing. In addition, there were no significant two- or
three-way interactions.
7. Discussion
Contrary to Hypothesis 1, our older participants per-
formed as well on the memory tasks as their younger
 M.C. Smith, M.R. Phillips / Journal of Business Research 53 (2001) 103±109
counterparts which, in and of itself, is an interesting
finding. Given that past research has found that age
differences often exist, the question arises, ``Why were
there no age differences found in this study?'' One possible
explanation for this can be found in the gerontology
literature which claims that the social context of the
memory task may play a roll in memory performance
(Adams et al., 1995, 1997; Blanchard-Fields and Abeles,
1996). That is, when the environment or the social setting
of the memory task is relevant to the participant, they may
be motivated to process the information and encode it for
later retrieval. It may be that when the setting and the task
are conducive to motivate the subjects to process the
information presented, age differences previously reported
in the literature may disappear. In this study, both the
younger and older adults undertook the memory task in
an environment that was familiar to them and was non-
threatening. The older adults may have been motivated to
process the information in the ads due to the fact that they
were recruited, not for a university study, but for research
being conducted by the group to which they belonged. The
fact that management personnel from the group were
present and introduced the experimenters as conducting
co-operative research with them, may have further still put
them at ease. This finding is in agreement with gerontolo-
gical research which has manipulated the social context of
the memory task (e.g., Adams et al., 1995).
Another explanation is that the older adults possessed a
relatively high level of education. While this variable is a
known correlate of memory for text material, it remains to
be seen if the same effect is observed for materials which are
learned solely via an auditory means.
It may also be that the memory task was an easy one
for both age groups in that it may not have taxed their
cognitive resources to the point that deficits would occur.
It is important to note, however, that the ``learning'' of
the material was via a passive means. That is, the
participants in this study did not know that they would
have to recall the content of the target ads. Consequently,
even though the task may not have been ``easy'' per se, it
was still real-to-life. In fact, memory of such forms of
advertising may not be naturally complex and demanding
and, therefore, not push the limits of cognitive resources
of any age group.
Although no age-related differences in memory for the
content of the target ads were found, this finding supports
the notion put forth by Sorce (1995) that cognitive decline is
not necessarily an inevitable result of aging per se. Further
research is needed, however, to investigate to what extent
the social context in which the memory task is undertaken
can affect memory scores as well as the effect of education
level on memory for auditory materials.
While Hypothesis 2 was supported in that the mnemonic
versions resulted in better memory scores for both ages,
Hypothesis 4 was not supported. That is, mnemonics served
to increase memory scores equally for both the younger and
107
older subjects. To understand why this may have happened,
it is important to remember the five limitations identified by
Yesavage et al. (1989) in light of the methods utilized in
this study.
First, a mnemonic strategy (rhyming) was chosen that
was simple to administer and understand and was non-
threatening in that it required no prior training and was
familiar to participants of all ages. One problem asso-
ciated with mnemonic strategies, particularly in regard to
older adults, is that more sophisticated techniques require
a level of learning and memory in order to apply the
artifice to memory tasks. In other words, participants are
required to remember how to remember, adding another
level of difficulty to the task. This learning barrier is not
only problematic for older adults but also unrealistic for
advertisers: how can such training be implemented?
Rhyming is both a ``natural'' mnemonic requiring no
training and is applicable across media and, therefore,
attractive to advertisers.
Second, various studies have suggested that older people
find it difficult to utilize visual imagery for memory tasks
(e.g., Winograd and Simon, 1980). Consequently, a verbal
mnemonic (auditory rhyming) within a verbal medium
(radio) was chosen for this study.
Third, it has been well documented that raised anxiety
levels can depress test scores (e.g., Spielberger et al., 1979;
Yesavage and Jacob, 1984). It is commonly believed that
this anxiety effect tends to be exacerbated among older
adults. That is, older adults tend toward high anxiety when
asked to utilize techniques in unfamiliar (and unnatural)
testing situations (Yesavage et al., 1989). As discussed
above, care was taken to ameliorate any anxiety among
the senior participants.
In addition, a radio format was also chosen that would
be, if not wildly admired, less likely to offend subjects. This
was not an easy task as the format and musical selection
had to be identical for both elderly and young subjects,
disparate groups by definition with obvious taste differ-
ences. Such a result was seemingly achieved, as the two
groups' overall ratings of the program were equally neutral.
In sum, it is believed that the test was conducted in a
manner and in surroundings conducive to low anxiety levels
among older participants.
Fourth, Yesavage et al. (1989) claim that older adults
may only realize short term benefits from mnemonic stra-
tegies. This problem was addressed by taking a 7-day delay
memory measurement (Hypothesis 3). Interestingly,
although Hypothesis 3 was not supported, certain measure-
ment scores were actually higher after 7 days than the initial
immediate scores. This suggests that contrary to previous
findings, which indicated that older adults tend to encode
more ``superficially'' than young people, the rhyming mne-
monic used in this study may have provided an adequate
level of processing ``depth.'' If this were not the case we
would have expected younger participants' delayed recall to
both be higher than that of the older adults and to have
108 M.C. Smith, M.R. Phillips / Journal of Business Research 53 (2001) 103±109
eroded to a lesser extent. Instead, younger and older adults'
scores were equivalent and any anticipated erosion in
memory failed to occur.
Certainly, no one would claim that an erosion of memory
for advertising will not occur over the long term, mnemo-
nics or not. However, this preliminary finding does suggest
that a mnemonic that is easy to use and does not require
training, which is particularly applicable to advertising
endeavors, and which is applied in a manner appropriate
for older adults' usage can assist them in encoding and,
consequently, in recall of advertising messages.
Fifth, Yesavage et al. (1989) state that any increases in
memory realized by the use of mnemonics may be so
negligible as to discourage the effort necessary to attain
the gain. We leave it to the readers to determine exactly
what constitutes a negligible gain, but assert that the effort
required to realize this gain is likewise negligible. In short,
the rhyme technique used herein is, by its very simplicity,
appropriate for the everyday use of seniors. The increased
memory scores for the mnemonic versus non-mnemonic
version suggest that the rhymes had an effect on encoding.
The stability of memory scores after a 7-day delay suggests
that the encoding occurred at a sufficient depth so as to
enhance more than just short-term recall. The ability of
advertisers to re-enhance processing through additional
exposures argues in favor of this technique. Certainly
further research is needed in this area, but this is a promising
first step.
In addition to addressing the five points above, care was
taken to make the experiment as external and ecologically
valid as possible. Certainly the experimental situation itself
was artificial. But within the situational condition, other
factors were manipulated to approach realism. The radio
program itself was prepared by a professional disk jockey
and was consistent in terms of format and content with local
radio broadcasts. Participants of both ages were asked to
listen carefully to the program but were not discouraged
from talking during its broadcast and judging from the
number of comments and interactions that took place during
the experiment, it seems likely participants were not inhib-
ited or intimidated by the process. This is consistent with
actual radio usage where the radio is often background, or
tertiary, to other activities.
The delayed recall condition was perhaps more ecologi-
cally valid than the initial exposure in that it was conducted
with much less pretense or manipulation. Simply, with no
warning, respondents were asked to demonstrate what they
remembered from the week before. Certainly, the older
participants knew they were meeting for a reason, but had
no idea as to the purpose; the young adults were not even
informed that they would be asked to respond after 7 days
Ð those that attended class and had been involved in the
initial measure were asked to participate.
An obvious failing of the research design is that it did not
incorporate multiple exposures into the experiment. While
impossible to assert based on this study, it seems counter-
intuitive to assume that multiple exposures will decrease
memory scores.
7.1. Managerial implications
To suggest that older adults comprise a target segment
is, in a sense, specious. Obviously, this group is comprised
of a broad cross-section both in terms of demographic and
psychographic variables. However, target segments that
contain an older adult component may benefit from
utilizing mnemonic devices. This effect may be particu-
larly important for products or companies that have low
name recognition among target subjects, for the introduc-
tion of new products, and/or for modifications or usage
innovations to existing product offerings. In these cases,
increasing memory for the product/company/usage is a
primary goal and this research indicates that, at least for
radio advertising, a simple mnemonic will assist such
memory retention.
This research does not deal with buying behavior or other
issues tangentially related to advertising; it specifically
focuses on memory for advertising messages and suggests
that where remembering simple concepts such as company/
product name and appropriate usage are preeminent, such as
the examples above, that managers would be well advised to
include simple mnemonic devices within their advertising
messages, particularly when all or part of their target
segment consists of older adults.
8. Conclusions
Previous research has indicated that in general, older
adults remember less of the content of advertising than
younger adults. Another body of research suggests that
mnemonic techniques that are too complicated and/or utilize
visual imagery may disproportionately assist younger
adults. This study suggests that memory decline for radio
ads may not be inevitable and that mnemonics that are
``older adult friendly'' will enhance memory for both
younger and older adults. Given the aging of the baby
boom generation, such findings should be of interest not
only to advertisers but also to government, public service,
and senior-oriented service entities of all kinds. Certainly
simple mnemonic techniques warrant further research vis-a-
vis older consumers.
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