Discuss different owner permissions and access methods of files in UNIX

In this chapter, we will discuss in detail about file permission and access modes in UNIX.
File ownership is an important component of UNIX that provides a secure method for
storing files. Every file in UNIX has the following attributes −

 Owner permissions − The owner's permissions determine what actions the owner of
the file can perform on the file.

 Group permissions − The group's permissions determine what actions a user, who is
a member of the group that a file belongs to, can perform on the file.

 Other (world) permissions − The permissions for others indicate what action all
other users can perform on the file.

 File Access Modes

The permissions of a file are the first line of defence in the security of a UNIX
system. The basic building blocks of Unix permissions are the read, write,
and execute permissions, which have been described below −
 Read
Grants the capability to read, i.e., view the contents of the file.
 Write
Grants the capability to modify, or remove the content of the file.
 Execute
User with execute permissions can run a file as a program.

 Directory Access Modes

Directory access modes are listed and organized in the same manner as any other file.
There are a few differences that need to be mentioned −
 Read
Access to a directory means that the user can read the contents. The user can look at
the filenames inside the directory.
 Write
Access means that the user can add or delete files from the directory.
 Execute
 Executing a directory doesn't really make sense, so think of this as a traverse
permission. A user must have execute access to the bin directory in order to execute
the ls or the cd command.

Explain the need and goals of protection in operating system.

Need of Protection in Operating System

Various needs of protection in the operating system are as follows:

1. There may be security risks like unauthorized reading, writing, modification, or

preventing the system from working effectively for authorized users.
2. It helps to ensure data security, process security, and program security against
unauthorized user access or program access.
3. It is important to ensure no access rights' breaches, no viruses, no unauthorized access
to the existing data.
4. Its purpose is to ensure that only the systems' policies access programs, resources, and
data.

Goals of Protection in Operating System

Various goals of protection in the operating system are as follows:

1. The policies define how processes access the computer system's resources, such as the
CPU, memory, software, and even the operating system. It is the responsibility of
both the operating system designer and the app programmer. Although, these policies
are modified at any time.
2. Protection is a technique for protecting data and processes from harmful or intentional
infiltration. It contains protection policies established by it, set by management or
imposed individually by programmers to ensure that their programs are protected to
the greatest extent possible.
3. It also provides a multiprogramming OS with the security that its users expect when
sharing common space such as files or directories.
Cryptography and its Types
Cryptography is technique of securing information and communications through use of
codes so that only those people for whom the information is intended can understand it and
process it. Thus preventing unauthorized access to information. The prefix “crypt” means
“hidden” and suffix graphy means “writing”.
In Cryptography the techniques which are use to protect information are obtained
from mathematical concepts and a set of rule based calculations known as algorithms to
convert messages in ways that make it hard to decode it. These algorithms are used for
cryptographic key generation, digital signing, and verification to protect data privacy, web
browsing on internet and to protect confidential transactions such as credit card and debit
card transactions
Cryptography is classified into
1. Symmetric cryptography,
2. Asymmetric cryptography
3. Hashing.
Below is the description of these types.

1. Symmetric key cryptography –

It involves usage of one secret key along with encryption and decryption algorithms
which help in securing the contents of the message. The strength of symmetric key
cryptography depends upon the number of key bits. It is relatively faster than
 asymmetric key cryptography. There arises a key distribution problem as the key has to
be transferred from the sender to receiver through a secure channel.

2. Asymmetric key cryptography –

It is also known as public key cryptography because it involves usage of a public key
along with secret key. It solves the problem of key distribution as both parties’ uses
different keys for encryption/decryption. It is not feasible to use for decrypting bulk
messages as it is very slow compared to symmetric key cryptography.

3. Hashing –
It involves taking the plain-text and converting it to a hash value of fixed size by a
hash function. This process ensures integrity of the message as the hash value on both,
sender\’s and receiver\’s side should match if the message is unaltered.
Features of Cryptography are as follows:
1. Confidentiality:
Information can only be accessed by the person for whom it is intended and no other
person except him can access it.
2. Integrity:
Information cannot be modified in storage or transition between sender and intended
receiver without any addition to information being detected.
3. Non-repudiation:
The creator/sender of information cannot deny his intention to send information at later
stage.
4. Authentication:
The identities of sender and receiver are confirmed. As well as destination/origin of
information is confirmed.
What Is Authentication?

Authentication is the process of identifying users that request access to a system, network, or
device. Access control often determines user identity according to credentials like username
and password. Other authentication technologies like biometrics and authentication apps are
also used to authenticate user identity.

Common Authentication Types

1. Password-based authentication

Passwords are the most common methods of authentication. Passwords can be in the form of
a string of letters, numbers, or special characters. To protect yourself you need to create
strong passwords that include a combination of all possible options. 

However, passwords are prone to phishing attacks and bad hygiene that weakens
effectiveness. An average person has about 25 different online accounts, but only 54% of
users use different passwords across their accounts. 

The truth is that there are a lot of passwords to remember. As a result, many people choose
convenience over security. Most people use simple passwords instead of creating reliable
passwords because they are easier to remember. 

The bottom line is that passwords have a lot of weaknesses and are not sufficient in
protecting online information. Hackers can easily guess user credentials by running through
all possible combinations until they find a match.

2. Multi-factor authentication

Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) is an authentication method that requires two or

more independent ways to identify a user. Examples include codes generated from the user’s
smartphone, Captcha tests, fingerprints, voice biometrics or facial recognition. 

MFA authentication methods and technologies increase the confidence of users by

adding multiple layers of security. MFA may be a good defence against most account hacks,
but it has its own pitfalls. People may lose their phones or SIM cards and not be able to
generate an authentication code.
3. Certificate-based authentication

Certificate-based authentication technologies identify users, machines or devices by

using digital certificates. A digital certificate is an electronic document based on the idea of a
driver’s license or a passport. 

The certificate contains the digital identity of a user including a public key, and the
digital signature of a certification authority. Digital certificates prove the ownership of a
public key and issued only by a certification authority. 

Users provide their digital certificates when they sign in to a server. The server verifies
the credibility of the digital signature and the certificate authority. The server then uses
cryptography to confirm that the user has a correct private key associated with the certificate.

4. Biometric authentication

Biometrics authentication is a security process that relies on the unique biological

characteristics of an individual. Here are key advantages of using biometric authentication
technologies:

 Biological characteristics can be easily compared to authorized features saved in a

database. 
 Biometric authentication can control physical access when installed on gates and
doors. 

 You can add biometrics into your multi-factor authentication process.

Biometric authentication technologies are used by consumers, governments and private

corporations including airports, military bases, and national borders. The technology is
increasingly adopted due to the ability to achieve a high level of security without creating
friction for the user

5. Token-based authentication

Token-based authentication technologies enable users to enter their credentials once and
receive a unique encrypted string of random characters in exchange. You can then use the
token to access protected systems instead of entering your credentials all over again. The
digital token proves that you already have access permission. Use cases of token-based
authentication include RESTful APIs that are used by multiple frameworks and clients.

What is a Computer Virus?

A computer virus is a program which can harm our device and files and infect them for
no further use. When a virus program is executed, it replicates itself by modifying other
computer programs and instead enters its own coding. This code infects a file or program and
if it spreads massively, it may ultimately result in crashing of the device. 

Across the world, Computer viruses are a great issue of concern as they can cause
billions of dollars’ worth harm to the economy each year. 

Since the computer virus only hits the programming of the device, it is not visible. But
there are certain indications which can help you analyse that a device is virus-hit. Given
below are such signs which may help you identify computer viruses:

 Speed of the System – In case a virus is completely executed into your device, the
time taken to open applications may become longer and the entire system processing
may start working slowly

 Pop-up Windows – One may start getting too many popup windows on their screen
which may be virus affected and harm the device even more

 Self Execution of Programs – Files or applications may start opening in the

background of the system by themselves and you may not even know about them

 Log out from Accounts – In case of a virus attack, the probability of accounts getting
hacked increase and password protected sites may also get hacked and you might get
logged out from all of them

 Crashing of the Device – In most cases, if the virus spreads in maximum files and
programs, there are chances that the entire device may crash and stop working
Types of Computer Virus
Discussed below are the different types of computer viruses:

 Boot Sector Virus – It is a type of virus that infects the boot sector of floppy disks or
the Master Boot Record (MBR) of hard disks. The Boot sector comprises all the files
which are required to start the Operating system of the computer. The virus either
overwrites the existing program or copies itself to another part of the disk.

 Direct Action Virus – When a virus attaches itself directly to a .exe or .com file and
enters the device while its execution is called a Direct Action Virus. If it gets installed
in the memory, it keeps itself hidden. It is also known as Non-Resident Virus.

 Resident Virus – A virus which saves itself in the memory of the computer and then
infects other files and programs when it’s originating program is no longer working.
This virus can easily infect other files because it is hidden in the memory and is hard
to be removed from the system.

 Multipartite Virus – A virus which can attack both, the boot sector and the
executable files of an already infected computer is called a multipartite virus. If a
multipartite virus attacks your system, you are at risk of cyber threat.

 Overwrite Virus – One of the most harmful viruses, the overwrite virus can
completely remove the existing program and replace it with the malicious code by
overwriting it. Gradually it can completely replace the host’s programming code with
the harmful code.

 Polymorphic Virus – Spread through spam and infected websites, the polymorphic
virus are file infectors which are complex and are tough to detect. They create a
modified or morphed version of the existing program and infect the system and retain
the original code.

 File Infector Virus – As the name suggests, it first infects a single file and then later
spreads itself to other executable files and programs. The main sources of this virus
are games and word processors.
 Spacefiller Virus – It is a rare type of virus which fills in the empty spaces of a file
with viruses. It is known as cavity virus. It will neither affect the size of the file nor
can be detected easily.

 Macro Virus – A virus written in the same macro language as used in the software
program and infects the computer if a word processor file is opened. Mainly the
source of such viruses is via emails.