Welding

• Joining means welding, brazing, soldering or

adhesive bonding
• Forms a permanent joint between parts
• Assembly refers to mechanical methods of
fastening parts together.
• May or may not allow disassembly
 Welding
• Welding is the process of permanently joining
two or more parts through localised coalescence
at their contacting surfaces resulting from
suitable application of heat and/or pressure.
• Accomplished by
– heat alone, with no pressure applied
– by pressure alone, with no external heat supplied
– by a combination of heat and pressure.
• In some welding processes a filler material is
added to facilitate coalescence.
 Welding
According to ISO:
Welding is an operation in which continuity is
obtained between parts for assembly, by various
means.
• multiple entities are made one by establishing
continuity
• continuity implies the absence of any physical
disruption on an atomic scale
• no gaps, unlike the situation with mechanical
attachment or mechanical fastening
 Continuity in Welding
• Continuity means continuation of like atomic
structure
• does not imply homogeneity of chemical
composition across the joint
• homogeneous, as when two parts made from the
same material are joined with a filler of the same
material
• dissimilar (heterogeneous), eg: two parts made
from gray cast iron are joined with a bronze filler
metal
Forces and potential energies in bonding
 Forces and potential energies in bonding

• The attractive and repulsive forces combine to

create a net force
• At some distance it becomes zero as the two forces
exactly offset each other
• This separation is known as the equilibrium
interatomic distance or equilibrium interatomic
spacing.
• At this equilibrium spacing, the net potential
energy is a minimum, the aggregate of atoms is
stable, and the atoms are said to be bonded.
 Welding
• Producing a weld is to bring atoms together to
their equilibrium spacing in large numbers to
produce aggregates.
• All the atoms comprising the aggregate take up
regular positions on a three-dimensional
arrangement of points in space (crystal lattice)
• The result of bonding is the creation of continuity
between aggregates or crystals
American Welding Society Classification
Types of joints

(a) Butt joint.

(b) Corner joint.
(c) Lap joint.
(d) Tee joint.
(e) Edge joint.
 Types of welds

Fillet weld

(a) inside single fillet corner joint (b) outside single fillet corner joint

(c) double fillet lap joint (d) double fillet tee joint
 Types of welds

Groove weld
(a) square butt weld, one side (b) single bevel groove weld
(c) single V-groove weld (d) Single U-groove weld
(e) single J-groove weld
(f) double V-groove weld for thicker sections.
Edge preparation
Types of welds
 Joint terminology

t, throat thickness

Leg length
 Welding positions

(a) flat (b) horizontal (c) vertical (d) overhead

 Welding Power Density
• In order to melt the materials, high-density
heat energy is to be supplied
• Resulting temperatures cause localized
melting of the base metals.
• If a filler metal is added, the heat density must
be high enough to melt it also.
• Power density can be defined as the power
transferred to the work per unit surface area,
W/mm2
 Welding Power Density
• Power density (W/mm2)
= power entering a
surface (W) /area of
the corresponding
surface (mm2)
• moving heat source, resulting in preheating
ahead of the point and post heating after it,
not considered
 Welding Power Density
• The time to melt the metal is inversely
proportional to the power density.
• If power density is too low, the heat is conducted
into the work as rapidly as it is added at the
surface, and melting never occurs.
• Minimum power density required to melt most
metals in welding is about 10 W/mm2
• Very high power densities above around 105
W/mm2 vaporize the metal in the affected region.
Welding Power Density
• In a laser beam welding process, what is the
quantity of heat per unit time (J/s) that is
transferred to the material if the heat is
concentrated in a circle with diameter of 0.2
mm? Assume the power density 9000
W/mm2. (283 W)
A heat source transfers 3000 W to the surface
of a metal part. The heat impinges the surface
in a circular area, with intensities varying
inside the circle. The distribution is as follows:
70% of the power is transferred within a circle
of diameter 5 mm, and 90% is transferred
within a concentric circle of diameter 12 mm.
What are the power densities in (a) the 5-mm
diameter inner circle and (b) the 12-mm-
diameter ring that lies around the inner circle?
(107 and 6.4 W/mm2)
 Energy reqd. for melting
Um = KTm2
• where Um is the unit energy for melting (i.e.,
the quantity of heat required to melt a unit
volume of metal starting from room
temperature), J/mm3
• Tm is melting point of the metal on an absolute
temperature scale, K
• K is a constant whose value is 3.33 x10-6
 Energy available for melting
H
f1: heat transfer factor

f2 : melting factor

Net heat energy available for welding, Hw = f1 f2 H

 Heat transfer factor
• The heat transfer factor f1 is determined
largely by the welding process and the
capacity to convert the source energy (e.g.,
electrical energy) into usable heat at the work
surface.
• Arc-welding processes are relatively efficient
in this regard, while oxyfuel gas-welding
processes are relatively inefficient.
 Melting factor
• The melting factor f2 depends on the welding
process, thermal properties of the metal, joint
configuration, and work thickness.
• Metals with high thermal conductivity are
difficult to weld due to rapid dissipation of
heat away from the heat contact area.
• In general, a high power density combined
with a low conductivity work material results
in a high melting factor.
 Heat balance in welding
Hw = Um V

• Hw is net heat energy available for the welding

operation, J
• Um is unit energy required to melt the metal,
J/mm3
• V is the volume of metal melted, mm3
 ‘Rate’ balance in welding
Hw = Um V
• Considering rate of heat energy supplied and the
rate of volume of metal melted
RHw = Um RV
• While welding a continuous bead,
Rv = Aw v
Aw : weld cross sectional area
v: travel speed
f1 f2 RH = Um Aw v
The power source in a particular welding setup
generates 3500 W, which can be transferred to the
work surface with a heat transfer factor of 0.7. The
metal to be welded is low carbon steel, whose
melting temperature, is 1760 K. The melting factor in
the operation is 0.5. A continuous fillet weld is to be
made with a cross-sectional area of 20 mm2.
Determine the travel speed at which the welding
operation can be accomplished. (5.95 mm/s)
A U-groove weld is used to butt weld 2 pieces of 7.0
mm-thick titanium plate. The U-groove is prepared
using a milling cutter so the radius of the groove is
3.0 mm. During welding, the penetration of the weld
causes an additional 1.5 mm of material to be
melted. The final cross-sectional area of the weld can
be approximated by a semicircle with a radius of 4.5
mm. The length of the weld is 200 mm. The melting
factor of the setup is 0.57 and the heat transfer
factor is 0.86. (a) What is the quantity of heat (in J)
required to melt the volume of metal in this weld
(filler metal plus base metal)? Assume the resulting
top surface of the weld bead is flush with the top
surface of the plates. (b) What is the required heat
generated at the welding source? (90770 J, 185200 J)
• Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of
arc welding of steel with a current of 200 A at
20 V. The travel speed is 5 mm/s and the cs
area of the joint is 20 mm2. Heat required to
melt steel is taken as 10 J/mm3 and heat
transfer efficiency is 85% (29.41%)
• An arc weld pass is made on steel under the
following conditions: 20 V, 200 A, 5 mm/s
travel speed. Take heat transfer and melting
factors as 0.9 and 0.3 resply. Required heat to
melt is 10 J/mm3. Estimate the cs area of
weld.(21.6 mm2)
Welding metallurgy
 Welding metallurgy
The fusion zone
• completely melted and solidified
• Homogeneous mixture of filler metal and base
metal
• Epitaxial growth
• Columnar grains
 Welding metallurgy

Structure of casting Structure of weld

Shallow bead Deep bead

 Welding metallurgy
Heat affected zone
• Subjected to peak temperatures that are too
low to cause melting
• but high enough to cause the microstructural
and property changes
• recrystallization and grain growth
• chemical composition same as base metal
• heat treated due to the welding temperatures
• HAZ much weaker than the base metal.
Welding metallurgy
 Metallurgical damage in the HAZ
Depends on
• amount of heat input
• peak temperatures reached
• distance from the fusion zone
• length of time at high temperatures
• cooling rate
• metal’s thermal properties
Welding metallurgy

strength of a work
hardened material
decreases with
increasing
annealing
temperature and
time
 Welding metallurgy

recrystallization and
grain growth increase
with increasing
annealing temperature
and time.
Welding metallurgy
Welding metallurgy
larger heat input means
longer retention time
above recrystallization
temperature
Welding metallurgy
Welding metallurgy
 Arc Welding Processes
• The process of welding in which heat is produced by creating an electric arc to
join metal workpieces is known as electric arc welding.
Principle of Arc
• An arc is generated between two conductors, cathode and anode, when they
are touched to establish the flow of current and then separated by a small
distance.
• An arc is a sustained electric discharge through the ionized gas column, called
plasma, between two electrodes.
• In order to produce the arc, potential difference between the two electrodes
should be sufficient to allow them to move across the air gap.
• The larger air gap requires higher potential differences.
Different Types of Arc Welding Processes
1. MIG – Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
• MIG stands for metal inert gas and sometimes may be called gas
metal arc welding (GMAW).
• It is a semi automatic, quick process where filler wire fed through
the gun and shielding gas expelled around to protect from
environmental impurities.
• The filler wire fed on a spool to act as an electrode as well.
The tip of the wire acts as an electrode to create the arc with base metal
which melts as filler material to create the weld.

These welding types are sensitive to external factors like rain, wind, and dust to
make it not great for outdoor use.
 The commonest use of the MIG welding process is in automotive repair,
construction, plumbing, robotics, and maritime industry.

 The welding offered is sturdy, strong, which can withstand enormous force.
2. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
• It is popular welding because of its low cost,
easy and simple operability.
• The filler material here is a replaceable stick
electrode.
• It generates the arc when the end of the stick contacts
the base metals.
• The heat of the arc melts the electrodes filler metal to
make the weld.
• It coats the stick electrode with a flux that creates a
shielding cloud to protect the weld zone from oxidation.
• The flux on cooling changes into slag, which needs to
chip off.
• It is possible to perform the process of stick welding in
outdoor and adverse weather like wind and rain.
FLUX
• Flux is a mixture of various minerals, chemicals, and alloying
materials that primarily protect the molten weld metal from
contamination by the oxygen and nitrogen and other contaminants in
the atmosphere.
• Function of Flux
– Flux gives alloys to beam material, bead becomes stronger than
even the parent material.
– Provides heat treatment to bead.
– Protects the bead from atmospheric gases.
– Arc stabilization is good
Flux Materials

Deoxidizing element Alumina, graphite, Mn, Si

Slag formation compound Iron oxide, SiO2
Weld strength Cr, W, Ni, Co, V
Arc Stabilizer CaO, TiO2, MnO
• Short Circuit Current (SCC): It is that current which flow when
we touch the workpiece by electrode. Current required during arc
generation.

• Open Circuit Current: It is that current, which flow when we

maintain a gap between workpiece and electrode.

• Open circuit voltage (OCV): voltage that is required to generate

the arc under no load conditions. Generally Voc = 80 V (voltage at
time of short-circuit current).

• Generally V = A + Bl
Where V = voltage, l = arc length (mm) and A, B = constant.
Automatic and Semiautomatic Welding
• Automatic Welding: the movement of electrode w.r.t. the
workpiece will be controlled.

• Semiautomatic Welding: the movement of electrode controlled

by automatic machines and the relative movement of the
electrode is controlled manually
Transformer
• Constant Current type transformer: used in manual metal arc
welding because arc length cannot be controlled, so arc
current is controlled by transformer. It has drooping volt-
ampere characteristics curve.
• Constant Voltage Transformer: Used in
automatic as well as semiautomatic
welding. It has flat volt-ampere
characteristics.

• For semiautomatic arc

• Varc = (OCV) – (OCV/SCC)*Current

Heat input supplied (H S ) =

VI
vA
 J mm3 

A  weld bead area, v = velocity (mm/s)

Actual Heat Input (H a )
Heat Transfer Efficiency t  =
Heat input supplied (H S )
Heat required to melt unit volume of material  H m 
Melting Efficiency  m  
Actual Heat input supplied (H a )
where H m  mc p T  mL.
• The voltage - length characteristic of a direct current arc in an
arc welding process is V= (100+40l), where l is the length of
the arc in mm and V is arc voltage in volts. During a welding
operation, the arc length varies between 1 and 2 mm and the
welding current is the range 200-250A. Assuming a linear
power source, calculate the short circuit current.
(Ans. Between 423 and 428 A)
• A DC welding power source has a linear voltage-current (V-
I) characteristic with open circuit voltage of 80V and a short
circuit current of 300A. For maximum arc power, the current
(in Amperes) should be set as _______________
(Ans. between 149 and 151)
 Comparison of Different Electrode
Polarity
DC, Electrode DC, Electrode AC
positive/DCRP negative/DCSP

Heat generation 2/3rd at electrode 2/3rd at workpiece 50% on both

1/3rd at workpiece 1/3rd at electrode
Penetration Shallow Deep Intermediate
Metal deposition High Low Intermediate
rate
Thickness of work Thin Thick Intermediate
to be welded
3. TIG – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
• The non-consumable tungsten electrode is used to create the
arc when contacting the base metal.
• May use filler wire
• constant supply of shielding gas (Argon) to protect welding
from the environmental impurities if required.
• Only an experienced welder can perform this art as they use
both the hands in unison to perform the welding.
• To avoid the melting of tungsten electrode, thorium or zirconium is
added to the tungsten.
• The power supply can be AC or DC, depending on the workpiece
material .
• For all material except Al, Mg alloys ‘Direct current straight
Polarity (DCSP) will be used so that heat concentration will be
more on workpiece side and depth of penetration is more.
• For Al and Mg alloys,
– if we use DCSP, due to high temperature oxide formation is
severe and this will not allow electrons from the electrode.
– To overcome this Direct current reverse polarity (DCRP) is
used but the melting rate of electrode is more as compared to
workpiece due to this depth of penetration is reduced.
– To overcome this AC welding will be used for welding Al and
Mg alloys.
5. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
• Type of welding involves the covering of metal pieces, welding wire,
arc, and welding joint by a blanket of flux.
• No emissions of welding fumes, strong arc lights, and flying slags.
• Any length of welding with high thickness of materials can be done in a
single run.
• High welding current is used to increase the melting rate of electrode as
well as workpiece.

 Best suited for high deposition

rate, high welding speed and
high depth of penetration.

 The flux material contains CaO

and CaF2
• Application: welding
large diameter pipes,
boilers, pressure vessels,
shipbuilding etc.
• Limitation: only flat
position welding is
possible.
 Plasma Arc Welding
• Plasma is the pool of ionized gas.
• Initially the arc is being generated
between tungsten electrode and the
w/p.
• Plasma gases (argon and He mixtures)
by taking energy from the spark
converts into plasma.
• The temperature of plasma is around
50000 °C but for welding it is restricted
to 20000 °C.
• This high temperature arc impinges
upon the w/p results in reuniting of
electrons and ions to form atomic and
then molecular gas, releasing heat in
the process which is thus utilized for
welding.
• Application: welding stainless steel, Ti,
super alloys.
 Chemical welding
1. Gas Welding
• Process of using heat generated from burning a fuel gas (like acetylene) to cut
and/or join metals together.
• ease of use and low-cost nature.
• Fuel gases are mixed with oxygen to produce a concentrated flame at a high
temperature. This flame directly strikes a weld area and melts the materials

Acetone is used
for absorbing
C2H2 and storing
in cylinder at
high pressure.
Two stage chemical reaction of acetylene and oxygen
• Primary Reaction (inner cone of flame, white flame)
2C2H2 + 2O2 4CO + 2H2 +Heat
• Secondary reaction (Outer envelope, bluish flame)
4CO +2H2 +3O2 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

CO2 acts as shielding gas to protect the weld from the

surrounding atmosphere.

Combining above two equations

2C2H2 + 5O2 4CO2 + 2H2O + Heat
Types of Flame
• Neutral Flame (Volume of C2H2 = Vol. of O2): Used for welding of cast iron,
mild steel, low carbon steel, aluminium etc.
• Carburizing flame (C2H2 > O2): Used for welding medium carbon steel, nickel
• Oxidizing flame (C2H2 < O2): Used for welding copper alloys, brass, bronze,
zinc base materials)
2. Thermit welding
 Thermit is a mixture of Al powder and metal oxide.
 Mixture is ignited by fire cracker.
 Al acts as reducing agent
 Al combines with oxygen an produce intense heat.
 Used for repair railway track.
 Equation:
8Al + 3Fe3O4 4Al2O3 + 9Fe + Heat
 Resistance Welding
• Welding is produced by means of electrical resistance across the two
components to be joined.
• The heat generated H = I2Rt Joules
where I = current in amperes, t = time of current flow in seconds, R = resistance
in ohms.
Spot Welding:
 Copper electrodes are used.
 Indentation is provided by applying force.
 High current is used.
 Max. resistance will be at the interface.
 Because of heat, metal liquefied and
nugget will form

Diameter of nugget d n = 6 t ,
where t =thickness of sheet
t1  t2
If sheet of different thickness then, t  .
2
• Spot welding use: lap welding of thin sheets particular in
automobile section and refrigerator bodies.

Seam Welding
• Continuous spot welding
• Pressure is applied by rollers
• Leak proof joints are obtained.
• Used for welding thin materials.
• Two flat steel sheets, each of 2.5 mm thickness,
are being resistance spot welded using a current
of 6000 A and weld time of 0.2 s. The contact
resistance at the interface between the two sheets
is 200μΩ and the specific energy to melt steel
is 10×109J/m3. A spherical melt pool of
diameter 4 mm is formed at the interface due to
the current flow. Consider that electrical energy is
completely converted to thermal energy. The ratio
of the heat used for melting to the total resistive
heat generated is _____________
 Electroslag Welding
• Arc welding + Resistance welding
• Metal oxide + flux = slag (bad conductor of
electricity)
• The electroslag welding is particularly
suitable for welding thick plates (25 mm to
500 mm).
• The plates to be welded are set up
vertically with a gap of 2-3 cm.
• Filler wires and flux are kept in the gap.
• Filler wire are used as the electrode.
• An arc is created initially which melts the
flux, and thereafter the molten flux short
circuits the arc and heat is generated due
to ohmic resistance of the slag.
• Use in shipbuilding and heavy press
welding
 Ultrasonic Welding
• A solid-state welding process that
produces a weld by local application of
high-frequency vibratory energy while the
work pieces are held together under
pressure.
• The sonotrode tip makes direct contact
with one of the work pieces there by
transmitting the vibratory energy into it.
• Pressure + Ultrasonic vibration = spot
weld
• The welding takes place due to softening
of asperities because of localized heating
by the high velocity rubbing.
• Used for: welding both similar and
dissimilar joints as well as welding of
polymers.
• non-adhesive and non-mechanical method
of joining plastics
 Electron Beam Welding
• A fusion welding process in which a beam of high-velocity
electrons is applied to two materials to be joined.
• kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into heat upon
impact.
• performed under vacuum conditions to prevent dissipation of the
electron beam.
• Electron-beam welding provides excellent welding conditions
because it involves:
– Strong electric fields, which can accelerate electrons to a very high
speed.
– Using magnetic lenses, by which the beam can be shaped into a
narrow cone and focused to a very small diameter
– power density of the beam can be as high as 104 – 106 W/mm2.
• High Voltage: 20-200 kV; Current: 50 – 500 mA
• Use: Welding of Ti, Ni, SS and alloys, gas turbine parts, defense
sector
 Laser Beam Welding
• used to join pieces of metal or thermoplastics through the use
of a laser.
• The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for
narrow, deep welds and high welding rates.
• high power density (on the order of 1 MW/cm2)
• small heat-affected zones and high heating and cooling rates.
• Application: Welding Cu and Al alloys in
electronic industries
• Limitation:
– High reflective materials cannot be welded.
– High initial cost.
 Solid State Welding
1. Pressure welding:
 a group of joining processes in which
components are joined by applying heat and
pressure.
 Heat can be generated either via an electrical
current (resistance welding) or by friction
(friction welding).
2. Friction Welding:
 The parts to be welded are
kept in contact and rotated
relative to each other.
 The interface is heated up
due to friction.
 Axial pressure is applied to
complete the welding.
 Limitation: only cylindrical
part can be welded.
3. Explosive welding
 Low intensity explosives are used.
 Plastic deformation is used for joining.
 Stand off distance = (o.25-0.5)thickness.
Q. In an arc welding process, the voltage and
current are 25 V and 300 A respectively. The arc
heat transfer efficiency is 0.85 and welding
speed is 8 mm/sec. What would be the net heat
input (in J/mm)?
• Two pipes of inner diameter 100 mm and
outer diameter 110 mm each are joined by
flash welding using 30 V power supply. At the
interface, 1 mm of material melts from each
pipe which has a resistance of 42.4 Ω. If the
unit melt energy is 64.4 MJ/m3, then time
required for welding (in s) is ?
 Metal Transfer
• The depth of penetration, the stability of the weld pool,
and the amount of spatter loss depend, to a large extent,
on the modes of metal transfer from the consumable
electrodes.
• Various forces that cause the transfer of metal into the
weld pool are as follows:
– Gravity
– Surface tension
– Electromagnetic interaction
• Three main modes of metal transfer:
– short circuit,
– globular and
– Spray
1. Globular Mode
 Metal is transferred by the globular mode when the wire creates
globs of molten metal on the tip that fall into the puddle under
gravity to make the weld.
 It looks like a small ball is constantly forming and reforming on the
end of your wire.
 Drops larger than electrodes hence severe spatter.
 Welding is most effectively done in the flat position.
 Spatter present.
1. Short Circuit
 Metal is transferred by the short circuit mode when the
wire connects with the puddle and literally shorts the
circuit.
 This shorting occurs roughly 20 to 200 times a second.
 It can be used in every position – flat, horizontal,
vertical, or overhead
 Short circuit is the most common mode of metal
transfer.
 Spatter is present.
• Advantages
– Allowing welding in all positions.
– Good for welding thin materials.

• Disadvantages
– Prone to lack of fusion
– Tends to give spatter.
3. Spray Transfer
 Due to high voltage and current, fine droplets of weld
metal sprayed from the tip of the wire into the weld pool.
 It looks like a needle spraying from the wire into the
puddle.
 Advantages
 Continuous transfer of metal.
 High heat input gives good fusion
 High rates of weld metal deposition.
 Suitable for welding thicker plates
 No spatter.
 Disadvantages
 High heat input thus high distortion.
 Not suitable for sheet metal welding.
 Solid/Liquid State Welding
• Three processes, soldering, brazing, and
adhesive
• The bulk material or metal to be joined are
not melted.
• A molten filler material is used to provide the
joint.
 Soldering and Brazing
• Allowing a molten filler material to flow in the gap between the
parent bodies.
• Melting point of filler material must be much lower than that of
the parent bodies.
Advantages of Brazing and Soldering
• Low temperature
• May be permanently or temporarily joined
• Dissimilar materials can be joined
• Speed of joining
• Less chance of damaging parts
• Slow rate of heating and cooling
• Parts of varying thicknesses can be joined
• Easy realignment
 Welding Defects
1. Weld Crack
Causes of cracks:
• Residual stress caused by the solidification shrinkage.
• Base metal contamination.
• High welding speed but low current.
• No preheat before starting welding.
Remedies
• Preheat the metal as required.
• Provide proper cooling of the weld area.
• Use proper joint design.
• Remove impurities.
2 Porosity
The trapped gases create a bubble-filled weld that becomes weak and
can with time collapse.
Causes of porosity:
• The presence of moisture.
• Improper gas shield.
• Incorrect surface treatment.
• Use of too high gas flow.

Remedies:
• Clean the materials before you begin welding.
• Use dry electrodes and materials.
• Use correct arc distance.
• Check the gas flow meter and make sure that it’s optimized as
required with proper with pressure and flow settings.
• Reduce arc travel speed
3. Incomplete Fusion
Lack of proper fusion between the base metal and the weld metal.
Causes:
• Low heat input.
• Surface contamination.
• Electrode angle is incorrect.
• The electrode diameter is incorrect for the material thickness you’re
welding.
• Travel speed is too fast.
Remedies:
• Use a sufficiently high welding current with the appropriate arc
voltage.
• Before you begin welding, clean the metal.
• Avoid molten pool from flooding the arc.
• Use correct electrode diameter and angle.
4. Slag Inclusion:
Slag is a vitreous material that occurs as a byproduct of stick welding,
flux-cored arc welding and submerged arc welding
Causes:
• Improper cleaning.
• The weld speed is too fast.
• Not cleaning the weld pass before starting a new one.
• Incorrect welding angle.
Remedies:
• Increase current density.
• Reduce rapid cooling.
• Adjust the electrode angle.
• Remove any slag from the previous bead.
5. Spatter
• small particles from the weld attach themselves to the surrounding
surface.
Causes:
• The running amperage is too high.
• Voltage setting is too low.
• The work angle of the electrode is too steep.
• The surface is contaminated.
Remedies:
• Clean surfaces prior to welding.
• Reduce the arc length.
• Adjust the weld current.
• Increase the electrode angle.
6. Undercut
• Groove formation at the weld toe, reducing the cross-sectional thickness
of the base metal.
• The result is the weakened weld and workpiece.
Causes:
• Too high weld current.
• Too fast weld speed.
• The use of an incorrect angle, which will direct more heat to free edges.
• The electrode is too large.
• Incorrect usage of gas shielding.
Remedies:
• Use proper electrode angle.
• Reduce the arc length.
• Reduce the electrode’s travel speed, but it also shouldn’t be too slow.
• Choose shielding gas with the correct composition
Nondestructive Testing Methods Used
for Welding
Liquid Penetrant Testing
• This technique isolates a testing area, then attempts to pass fluid
through it. If the fluid refuses to pass through the weld, then the
weld is secure. However, if cracks or flaws run through the weld,
then so will the fluid.
• it does not detect sealed voids within an object, flaws that don’t
touch the surface.
Radiography
• uses X-rays to observe the internal structure of weld
• This technique can detect sealed internal voids, as well as
the cracks and flaws observed by liquid penetrant testing.
• safety concerns for operators.
Ultrasonic Testing
• For speed and capability, ultrasonic testing is the preferred method of
nondestructive testing for welds.
• High-pitched acoustic waves are introduced into a weld via a transducer.
Any internal changes in structure—including cracks, voids, or warps—can
alter the transmission of these sound waves through the weld.
• These alterations can be detected from the same side of the weld that
the wave was introduced on, allowing the ultrasonic instrument to
interpret their reflectance.
 Arc Blow
• unwanted, deflection of the arc during arc
welding.
• Magnetic Arc Blow:
– deflection caused by distortion of the magnetic
field produced by an electric arc current.
Soldering and Brazing