GST163 – ELEMENTARY GEOMATICS TOPIC 2

TOPIC 2 – LEVELLING

2.1 Introduction of levelling

Levelling is the most widely method for determining differences in elevation between points
that are some distance from each other. An elevation is the vertical distance above or below a
references datum, known as mean sea level (MSL). Elevations can be determined using the
levelling techniques, the total station techniques, the GPS vertical positioning techniques, the
photogrammetry techniques or remote sensing techniques.

Figure 2.1 Levelling concept

The purpose of levelling including to provide heights or contours on a plan, to provide

data for road cross-sections or volumes of earthworks, or to provide a level or inclined surface
in the setting out of construction works.

Table 2.1 shows the classification, Standards of Accuracy and General Specifications for
Vertical Control.
First Order Second Order
Classification Class I, Class II Class I Class II Class III

Miscellaneous
Control
Secondary local control:
Principal Basic framework densification,
control of the may not be
uses: of the National usually adjusted
National adjusted to the
Minimum Network to the National
Network National
standards: Network
Network
higher
Extensive Large Local Small
accuracies
engineering engineering engineering engineering
may be used
projects projects projects projects
for special
Local crustal
purposes. Regional crustal Small-scale
movement and Topographic
movement topographic
subsidence mapping
investigations mapping
investigations
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Determining Support for

Studies of rapid Drainage
geopotential lower-order
subsidence studies
values control
Gradient
Support for establishment in
local surveys mountainous
areas.
Digital,
automatic or
Digital, automatic
tilting levels
or tilting levels
with optical Geodetic levels
Instrument with parallel plate Geodetic levels
micrometers or and invar scale
standards micrometers; and rods
three-wire rods
barcode or invar
levels; barcode
scale rods
or invar scale
rods
Double-run; Double-run;
Field forward and forward and Double-run or Double-run or
procedures backward, each backward, each single run single run
section section
Maximum 50 m Class I;
60 m 70 m 90 m
length of sight 60 m Class II
Maximum
differences in
lengths of
2 m Class I;
forward and 5m 10 m 10 m
5 m Class II
backward
sights (per
setup)
Maximum 3 mm √K Class I;
6 mm √K 8 mm √K 12 mm √K
closures 4 mm √K Class II

2.2 Concept of levelling

Levelling can also be called as differential levelling, is used to determine differences in

elevation between points that are some distance from each other by using a surveyor’s level
together with a graduated levelling staff. The surveyor’s level consists of a cross-hair equipped
telescope mounted on a tripod. The surveyor can sight through the telescope to a graduated
levelling staff in meters or feet and determine a measuring reading at the point where the cross-
hair intersects the staff.
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Figure 2.2(i) Levelling process

Figure 2.2(i) shows the process of levelling. If the staff reading at A = 1.502 m and the
staff reading at B = 0.701 m, the difference in elevation between A and B is 1.502 – 0.701 =
0.801 m. Also, if the elevation of A is 5.250 m above MSL, then the elevation of B is 5.250
+ 0.801 = 6.051 m above MSL. That is 5.250 m (elevation A) + 1.502 m (staff reading at A)
– 0.701 m (staff reading at B) = 6.051 m (elevation B).

Figure 2.2 (ii) Relationship between a horizontal line and a level line.

Figure 2.2 (ii) shows a potential problem that may occur when dealing with levelling
survey. Whereas elevations are referenced to a level line (surface), the line of sight through the
telescope of a surveyor’s level is theoretically a horizontal line. All staff reading taken with a
surveyor’s level contain an error c over a distance K. Error c is known as curvature error. In
fact, the divergence between a level line and a horizontal line is quite small (0.0007 m in 100
m).
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Curvature and Refraction

Figure 2.2 (iii) Effects of curvature and refraction

Curvature error (c) is related to the divergence between a level line and a horizontal line over
a specified distance. It also accounts for the fact that all sight lines are refracted downward by
the earth’s atmosphere. Although the magnitude of the refraction error (r) depends on
atmospheric conditions, it is generally considered to be about one-seventh of the curvature
error. The atmospheric conditions are such as atmospheric pressure, temperature and
geographical location.

2.3 Definitions / Terminology

i. Vertical line
A line that follows the direction of gravity as indicated by a freely suspended plumb-
bob.

ii. Level line

A level line or level surface is one which at all points is normal to the direction of
gravity (vertical line). It is the curved surface parallel to the mean surface of the earth.

iii. Horizontal line / Collimation line

A horizontal line or surface is one that is perpendicular to the direction of the gravity
(vertical line) at a particular point. It also can be referred as collimation line. (The line
that connecting the center point in object lens to the center point of the cross-hair)
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Figure 2.3 (i) Horizontal and level lines

iv. Datum
A datum is any reference surface to which the elevations of points are referred. The
most commonly used datum is mean sea level (MSL). MSL is a tidal datum that are
used as a surface of reference for elevations and depth measurement. It is the average
of tidal level for 19 years.

Figure 2.3 (ii) Mean Sea Level

v. Reduced Level (RL)

The reduced level (RL) of a point is its height above or below datum.
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vi. Standard Benchmark (SBM)

It is a ground planed monument built for stability to minimize the probability of
disturbance. The SBM are established within the precise levelling network to provide
a stable benchmark system that will control the levelling network. SBM normally
located along major road system at every 40 km intervals.

Figure 2.3 (iii) Standard Benchmark (SBM)

vii. Benchmark (BM)

A benchmark (BM) is a permanent point of known elevation (known RL). It is
established by using precise levelling techniques and instrumentation. BM location and
elevations are published by JUPEM and are available to surveyors for a nominal fee.
BM normally located between SBM at every 0.5 km (in developed area) and 1 km (at
other area).

Figure 2.3 (iv) Benchmark (BM)

viii. Temporary Benchmark (TBM)

A temporary benchmark (TBM) is a semi-permanent point of known elevation (known
RL). It can be flange bolts on fire hydrants, nails in the roots of trees, top corners of
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the concrete culvert headwalls, and spike. The elevations of TBM are not normally
published, but they are available in the field notes of various surveying agencies.

ix. Back Sight (BS)

It is the first staff reading taken on a point of known elevations or the first staff reading
after instrument been setup.

x. Fore Sight (FS)

It is the last staff reading taken before moving the instrument to other places or the
staff reading taken at the point of unknown elevations.

xi. Intermediate Sight (IS)

It is the staff reading taken at any other points that is not BS and FS. Usually, the
observation related to additional details of unknown elevations.

xii. Change Point (CP)

It is the point at which the position of the instrument is changed. It is the location of
the staff when the level is moved. It makes the point become FS (before the level move)
and BS (after the level is move).

2.4 Instrumentation

i. Types of surveying level

Surveying level is the main instrument used for levelling. It helps surveyors to
observed the height of levelling staff. There are 3 different types of surveying levels
available; automatic level, digital level and tilting level.

a. Automatic Level
The automatic level employs a gravity-referenced prism or mirror compensator to
orient the line of sight (line of collimation) automatically. The telescope of this
level provides a magnified line of sight for taking measurement, and the
compensator ensure that the line of sight viewed is horizontal even if the optical
axis of the telescope is not exactly horizontal. The instrument is quickly levelled
when the circular spirit level is used.

Automatic levels are extremely popular in present-day surveying operations and

are available from most survey instrument manufacturers. They are easy to set up
and use, and can be obtained for use at almost any required precision. A word of
caution: all automatic levels employ a fragile compensator.
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Figure 2.4 (i) Automatic Level

b. Digital Level
Digital level features a digital electronic image-processor that uses a charge-
coupled device (CCD) for determining heights and distances with the automatic
data recording. The digital level is an automatic level (pendulum compensator)
capable to be used in normal mode (optical levelling with a staff graduated in
meters) or electronic mode (with the staff face graduated in barcode).

When using electronic mode, this level can capture and process the image of
barcode staff for distance in the range of about 0.5 m to 100 m. Data can be stored
internally in onboard memory or transferable memory card. Work can proceed in
the dark by illuminating the staff face with a small flashlight.

Figure 2.4 (ii) Digital Level and barcode staff

c. Tilting Level
The tilting level is mostly obsolete nowadays due to the popularity of automatic
and digital level. It roughly levelled by observing the bubble in the circular spirit
GST163 – ELEMENTARY GEOMATICS TOPIC 2

level before the staff reading can be taken. The telescope is not fixed to the base of
the level. While the telescope is pointing at the staff, the telescope is precisely
levelled by manipulating a tilting screw.

The level is equipped with a tube level that is levelled by operating the tilting
screw. The bubble is viewed through a separated eyepiece or through the telescope.
The image of the bubble is longitudinally split into two and viewed with the aid of
prisms. When the bubble is coincided, the telescope has been precisely levelled.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.4 (iii) (a) Tilting Level. (b) Split bubble, before and after coincide.

ii. Levelling Staff

Levelling staff are manufactured from wood, metal or fiberglass and are graduated in
feet or meters. The metric staff can be read directly to 0.01 m, with millimetres being
estimated whereas the foot staff can be read directly to 0.01 ft. Metric staff readings
are normally booked to the closest 1/2 cm or 1/3 cm (i.e., 0.000, 0.003, 0.005, 0.007
and 0.010); more precise values can be obtained by using an optical micrometer.

Levelling staff are graduated in a wide variety of patterns. Circular bubble can
be used to ensure that the staff is plumb.
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Figure 2.4 (iv) Levelling staff showing a variety of graduated markings.

2.5 Levelling procedure

Before carry out levelling, it is recommended to perform the two-peg test.

i. Two-peg Test
The purpose of the two-peg test is to check that the line of sight through the level is
horizontal (parallel to the axis of the bubble tube). The line-of-sight axis is defined by
the location of the horizontal crosshair.

To perform the two-peg test, surveyor need to places two stakes (points) at a
distance (L) of 60 to 90 m apart. The level is setup in the middle between the two stakes
(points) and staff readings are taken at both locations (first setup). If the line of sight
through the level is not horizontal, the errors in staff readings at both points A and B
will be identical because the level is halfway between the points.

The level is then moved to within L/10 from one of the points (A) and read the
staff reading. Any line-of-sight error generated over that very short distance will be
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relatively insignificant compared to the next staff reading at B. The staff is then held
at B and staff reading obtained.

Figure 2.5 (i) Two-peg Test

ii. Differential Levelling

Temporary adjustment (setting up the level from attach the level on the tripod until
removing parallax) need to be carry out first before staff reading can be perform. It is
advisable to ensure the levelling work follows the following guidelines:
• Keep BS and FS distances as equal as possible.
• Keep the line of sight short, normally below 40 m.
• Never read the staff below 0.5 m due to the refraction error.
• Always commence and finish a level run on a vertical reference (BM, SBM or
TBM)

Figure 2.5 (ii) Levelling process

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Figure 2.5 (ii) shows one complete levelling cycle. The level is setup
approximately in the middle between the BS and FS locations.

Existing elevation + BS = HI
HI – FS = new elevation
These two equations describe the differential levelling process.

To ensure that the staff is plumb (vertically straight), either staff bubble is used or
the surveyor gently “waves the staff” towards and away from the instrument. The
correct staff reading will be the lowest reading observed.

Figure 2.5 (iii) Waving the staff slightly to and from the instrument allows the
surveyor to take the most precise (lowest) reading.

Figure 2.5 (iv) shows the technique used when the point whose elevation is to be
determined is too far from the point of known elevation. When the elevation of the
desired point has been determined, surveyors must either continue the survey to a point
of known elevation (BM) or return (loop) the survey to the commencement. The survey
must be closed onto a point of known elevation to ensure the accuracy and acceptability
can be determined. If the closure is not within allowable limits, the survey must be
repeated. The arithmetic can be verified by performing arithmetic check.
GST163 – ELEMENTARY GEOMATICS TOPIC 2

Figure 2.5 (iv) Levelling process: more than one setup.

Figure 2.5 (v) Booking of data collection.

2.6 Levelling data processing

After finish up levelling data collection, the next step is to implement the data
processing to calculate reduced level (elevation) of each point that being collected.
There are two methods to calculate reduced level; Rise and Fall method and Height of
Collimation (HOC) method.

i. Rise and Fall method

The Rise and Fall method can be describe as “down the stairs” method. It is simply as
going down the stairs. In order to perform this method, it need to construct a table
consisted Rise and Fall column. Each row of data needs to be subtracted on the other
rows one by one. If the answer is positive (+), write in the Rise column. Otherwise,
write in the Fall column.
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Figure 2.6 (i) Rise and Fall method.

ii. Height of Collimation method

The Height of Collimation method is another method to calculate reduced level
(elevation) of points. To implement this method, it needs to construct a table consisted
HOC column. The equations below used to calculate RL and HOC.

RL + BS = HOC
HOC – FS/IS = RL
(Important tips; HOC is calculated for rows that have BS only).
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Figure 2.6 (ii) HOC method.

Table 2.6 Comparison between Rise and Fall and HOC method.

iii. Accuracy of Levelling

After calculating Reduced Level, it is compulsory to check the quality of the data
whether it is acceptable or not. In order to determine the quality of the data, first
GST163 – ELEMENTARY GEOMATICS TOPIC 2

surveyor need to calculate the misclosure. Misclosure is the amount by which the
measured height difference (∆Hmeas) differs from the known height difference. Known
height can be derived from the value of RL of the starting and finishing BM (∆Hknown).

Misclosure = ∆Hknown - ∆Hmeas

It is expected to achieved small misclosure in closed level loops. If the misclosure is

small, the data can be adjusted but if the misclosure is large, the data need to be
collected again.

How to check the misclosure is small or large?

The amount of misclosure can be accepted are depends on the accuracy need to
achieve. For “fly” levelling, normally use the second order Class III standard (refer
Table 2.1); Misclosure ≤ 12√ k mm. So, allowable misclosure can be derived as:

Misclosure ≤ C √ k mm
C is the constant value based on degree of accuracy of levelling work.
K is the total length of the levelling loop in kilometer (km).

iv. Adjusted Reduced Level

As mention earlier, if the misclosure obtained is small, then the data can be adjusted.
To adjust the data, there are some info need to be considered:
• Total number of setups.
• The value of misclosure.

The correction is linearly distributed accordingly to the number of setups, by using the
formula:
Station no. X (misclosure / total no. of setup)

2.7 Errors
Errors in levelling can be occur due to three (3) factors; human, instrument and natural.
Human error is the error cause by person involved in the survey work. Common human
errors are misreading the meter value, not holding the rod in the correct position,
booking the staff reading incorrectly and making wrong data processing.

Instrument errors are the error cause by instrument that used for levelling works
such as broken level and staff, magnetic field effects on level and other. While, natural
errors are the error that cause by environmental effect such as haze, rain, temperature
and other.

2.8 Levelling application

i. Reciprocal Levelling
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In some situations, such as river or valley crossings, it is not always possible to ensure
BS and FS is balance in distance. It is advisable to use the reciprocal levelling technique
as illustrated in Figure 2.8 (i). The level is setup, and reading are taken on TP23 and
TP24. Precision can be improved by taking several readings on the far point (TP24) and
then averaging the results. The level is then moved to the far side of the river, and the
process is repeated. The difference in elevation thus obtained are averaged to obtain the
final result. The averaging process eliminates instrumental errors and natural errors,
such as curvature. Errors due to refraction can be minimized by ensuring that the
elapsed time for the process is kept to a minimum.

Figure 2.8 (i) Reciprocal Levelling

ii. Inverted staff levelling

Figure 2.8 (ii) shows inverted sights at B, C and D to the underside of a structure. The
problem of inverted sights is completely eliminated if one simply treats them as
negative (-) value.

Figure 2.8 (ii) Inverted Staff Levelling

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Figure 2.8 (iii) Example of inverted staff booking.