INDO-PAK HISTORY

Part One

ROSHAN ZAMIR
Table of Contents
Muhammad Bin Qasim ................................................................................................................................ 3
Consequences of Arab Conquest of Sind .................................................................................................. 3
Time check: Mediaeval India: Impact of the Arab conquest of Sindh.................................................... 7
Character of bin Qasim ................................................................................................................................ 8
Mahmud Ghaznavi (979-1030) ..................................................................................................................10
Motives of the invasion of Mahmud Ghaznavi on Indo-Pakistan ........................................................10
Motives of Mahmud’s invasion and effects of these invasions?..........................................................10
Sultan Shahab-ud-din Ghauri.....................................................................................................................15
Time check: Medieval India: Muhammad Ghori (1173-1206) ..............................................................16
COMPARISON BETWEEN MUHAMMAD GHORI & MAHMOOD OF GHAZNA:....................18
Qutbuddin Aibak: ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Shams Uddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 AD) .................................................................................................... 22
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban ................................................................................................................................. 26
Balban’s policy of Blood and Iron: ............................................................................................................. 31
Balban’s Theory of Kingship.......................................................................................................................33
Foundations of Khilji Dynasty in India ....................................................................................................... 35
Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-96 A.D.):.................................................................................................................35
Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316 A.D.):...............................................................................................................36
Foundations of Tughlaq Dynasty in India | History of India ..................................................................... 39
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320-25 A.D.): ..................................................................................................... 39
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D.): ..............................................................................................40
Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 A.D.): ....................................................................................................... 47
Bright and Dark-Sides of the Rule of Firoz Shah Tughlaq ......................................................................... 47
Later Tughlaqs (1388-1414 A.D.): .............................................................................................................. 52
Mongols ......................................................................................................................................................53
The North West Frontier Policy during the Sultanate Period................................................................... 53
Mongol Invasions on the North-West Frontier of India: ...................................................................... 53
The Mighty Mughals................................................................................................................................... 56
Babur’s Rule in India (1526-30)..................................................................................................................56
Early Life & Difficulties Faced by Humayun & Babur’s Legacy.................................................................. 59
Humayun’s own responsibility for most of his Difficulties:.................................................................. 60

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 Humayun’s Conflict with Bahadur Shah ................................................................................................62
Humayun’s Encounter with Sher Shah and his expulsion from India: .................................................63
The Early Carrier & Military Achievements of Sher Shah Suri .................................................................. 65
Factors Responsible for Sher Shah’s Military Achievements: ..............................................................66
Achievements of Sher Shah during Medieval India ..................................................................................68
Land and revenue administration: ........................................................................................................ 69
Why is Sher Shah Called the Fore Runner of Akbar? ................................................................................71
Mansabdari System as Introduced by Akbar ............................................................................................73
Main Features of the Mansabdari System: ...........................................................................................74
Merits of the Mansabdari System: ........................................................................................................ 75
Demerits of the Mansabdari System:.................................................................................................... 75
Land Revenue System: ...........................................................................................................................76
Akbar’s Religious Policy with Special Reference to Sule Kul ................................................................78
Important principles of Din-i-Ilahi: ........................................................................................................ 79
13 Chief Features of Akbar’s Rajput Policy............................................................................................83
Prominent Features of Jahangir’s Rule...................................................................................................... 85
Opinions in Calling the Reign of Shah Jahan as the Golden Period ..........................................................87
Results and Causes of War of Succession Fought during Shah Jahan’s Reign.......................................... 91
The Religious Policy of Aurangzeb and its Effects.....................................................................................93
Asoka’s Early Life and His Accession to Throne ........................................................................................99

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 Muhammad Bin Qasim
Muhammad bin Qasim was orphaned as a child and thus the responsibility of his upbringing fell
upon his mother. She supervised his religious instruction herself, and hired different teachers for
his worldly education. It was the uncle, Hajjaj bin Yousaf, who taught him the art of governing
and warfare. Qasim was an intelligent and cultured young man who at the age of fifteen was
considered by many to be one of his uncle's greatest assets. As a show of faith in his nephew's
abilities, Hajjaj married his daughter to Qasim.
At the age of sixteen, he was asked to serve under the great general, Qutayba bin Muslim. Under
his command Muhammad bin Qasim displayed a talent for skilful fighting and military planning.
Hajjaj's complete trust in Qasim's abilities as a general became even more apparent when he
appointed the young man as the commander of the all-important invasion on Sindh, when he was
only seventeen years old. Muhammad bin Qasim proved Hajjaj right when he, without many
problems, managed to win all his military campaigns. He used both his mind and military skills in
capturing places like Daibul, Raor, Uch and Multan. History does not boast of many other
commanders who managed such a great victory at such a young age.
Besides being a great general, Muhammad bin Qasim was also an excellent administrator. He
established peace and order as well as a good administrative structure in the areas he conquered.
He was a kind hearted and religious person. He had great respect for other religions. Hindu and
Buddhist spiritual leaders were given stipends during his rule. The poor people of the land were
greatly impressed by his policies and a number of them embraced Islam. Those who stuck to their
old religions erected statues in his honor and started worshiping him after his departure from their
land.
Muhammad bin Qasim was known for his obedience to the ruler. Walid bin Abdul Malik died and
was succeeded by his younger brother Suleman as the Caliph. Suleman was an enemy of Hajjaj
and thus ordered Qasim back to the kingdom. Qasim knew of the animosity between the two. He
was aware that due to this enmity, he would not be well treated. He could have easily refused to
obey the Caliph's orders and declare his independence in Sindh. Yet he was of the view that
obeying ones ruler is the duty of a general and thus he decided to go back to the center. Here he
became a victim to party politics. He was put behind bars where he died at age of twenty. Many
historians believe that had he been given a few more years, he would have conquered the entire
South Asian region.
Consequences of Arab Conquest of Sind
Ultimate consequences of Arab conquest of Sind
Arab conquest of Sind was of great significance and impact, politically, socio-culturally,
religiously, intellectually and even economically. Though the Arabs were not the actual conquerors
of India, they were the path finders and torch bearers. The conquest was a great give and take.
Historians attach little importance to Arab rule in Sind, but though the visible traces of Arab
ascendancy have been obliterated, its invisible effects were many and far-reaching. Most of them,

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of course, relate to the province of Sind, which has been called "the Hijaz of the Indo-Pakistan
sub-continent".
Effects of the conquest of Sind:
Lane Poole, "the Arab conquest of Sind is an episode in the history of India and of Islam, a
triumph without result".
Professor Syed Abdu Qadir Shuja-ud-Din, "After the conquest of Sind a large number of scholars,
traders inhabited in Sind. Local people embraced Islam. Today Sind is the same Islamic region
like the Iraq and Egypt, in these circumstances we cannot deny the greatness of the Arab conquest
of Sind, its historical importance and its consequences".
M.Kabir, “undoubtedly establishment of Islamic government in Sind is the greatest event in the
history of Islam and sub-continent".
1- Little effect in Political Sphere:
There is no doubt that Arab conquest was confined to Sind and Multan only and the major portion
of northern India was not directly affected. Expeditions were send against Hindu princes of the
north, but the Rajputs were too strong to be defeated. The sudden death of Muhammad bin Qasim
and fruitless help of the Khalifah had greatly shaken the Arab stability in Sind. Within the decline
of the power of the Khalifah, territories of Sind were divided into independent states.
a- Qasim’s attack revealed the political and military weakness of sub-continent:
The Indo-Pakistan sub-continent presented a chequered picture of warring dynasties and of small
kingdoms hostile to one another on the eve of the Arab invasion. There was no central government
in the country. All these states enjoyed complete independence and sovereignty. The same
situation was on the occasion of the invasion of Alexander the Great. Throughout the history of
the sub-continent they united on few occasions otherwise they were fighting for the supremacy on
one another.
It was proved from the Muhammad bin Qasim’s invasion that people of sub-continent could not
unite from against their common enemy. If they are managed to form a confederation against a
common enemy then they also cannot get their goals. Because in their army there is lack of
uniformity and discipline. They belong to different areas and princes thus could not fight bravely
and secondly their main problem was lack of leadership. Thus the attack on Sind revealed their
political and military weakness which were helpful for the establishment of Muslim Empire in the
sub-continent in the later periods.
The arrangements made by Muhammad bin Qasim with the non-Muslims provided the basis for
later Muslim policy in the sub-continent.
b- Arab soldiers settled:
Most of Arab soldiers settled in Sind for good and some of them married Sindi women. The Arab
and Hindus lived side by side in peace and amity for a long time. The Arabs left a legacy behind
in the shape of buildings or administrative or cultural institutions that might have exerted influence
on India.

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c- Legacy of Arab Administration:
The Arabs were not only great warriors and conquerors, but also good administrators. The
administration introduced by Muhammad bin Qasim in Sind leads us to believe that the Arabs
possessed experience in the art of administration and were not cruel and fanatic as it is general
supposed by the people.
The Arab governors were farsighted statesmen and great politicians. They did not disturbed the
existing system of administration in Sind. According to Chach Nama, "Reposing full confidence
in them, Muhammad bin Qasim entrusted them with high offices and placed all important affairs
of the place in their hands." Steps were taken to improve and encourage agriculture and trade.
Artisans and merchants were free from molestation.
Justice was administered without fear or favour. The Qazis who were well-versed in Islamic Law
and Jurisprudence, filled the seats of Judgment. In matter of pubic and political offences the law
made no distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims. Some cases among the Hindus were
decided according to Hundu Law by the Panchayats.
When Muhammad bin Qasim was dismissed and arrested by the orders of Khalifah the people
started worship of his statue due to his good administration and justice. The Arab administration
was based on the principles of Justice, equality, toleration and welfare. It was a role model for the
later Turk sovereigns.
d- Cantonments turned into big cities:
Muhammad bin Qasim was a genius administrator. He established many cantonments in different
places for the internal peace, law and order and for discipline. He permitted the Arab soldiers to
settle and marry with Sindi women. Mansura, Kanda, Baiza, Mehfooza and Multan were the
famous cantonments of that time. These cities proved to be the centre of culture and civilization.
Dr. Ishwari Prasad, " It may by conceded at once that the Arab conquest of Sind from political
point of view, was an insignificant event in the history of Islam" The statement is nullified by the
above mentioned facts.
2- Profound and far-reaching effect on culture:
The establishment of Muslim rule in Sind had profound and far reaching effects in the field of
culture and learning of the land. "The Arabs had brought with them a new religion and a new
civilization which they introduced among the conquered people. They brought India into direct
contact with the Islamic world and opened immense possibilities of commercial and cultural
progress". (K.Ali)
I- Social Effects:
Before the conquest of Sind the Arabs were not only nomads but also bandits. They were
uncivilized. The territory of Sind became civilized after the invasion of Arabs. They got awareness
of law, its importance and obedience.
Until recently the social pattern in Sind was largely tribal, the place of Arab Shaikh being taken
by the Sindi Wadera. The world Wadera itself is a literal translation of Arabic counterpart. Such
Arab virtues as hospitality have always distinguished Sind, and the standard of Arabic scholarship

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has also remained high. After the interaction of two different nations a new civilization came into
existence, whose vivacious example "Sindi Language" is still present today.
Arab scholars inhabited in Sind and several Hindu scholars embraced Islam and permanently
settled in Arabia. The Muslim treated the Sindi generously and granted them complete religious
freedom. In a result a lot of Sindi Brahman and Buddhist embraced Islam.
Arab had started some new kind of industries in Sind. They planted in Sind some new kind of
plants. The Arab brought horse and camels Sind and still today they inhabitants use the camel.
ii- Religious Effects:
Toleration was shown by the Arab governors of Sind to their subjects irrespective of caste and
creed. Some of the temples were no doubt destroyed during the days of war, but that was a
temporary phase, for the destruction was not due to religious bigotry or fanaticism but to the fact
that the temples were the repositories of India’s along accumulated wealth. Once a place was
occupied and peace restored or the people submitted to the ruler and sought peace, the conqueror
adopted a kind and conciliatory policy towards them. When the people of Brahmanabad, for
instance submitted to the conqueror, they were allowed to rebuild their temples which were
destroyed during the time of war.
The Brahmins were permitted to perform their rites and ceremonies in the manner prescribed by
their religion. Hajjaj bin Yousaf sent a Farman to Muhammad bin Qasim instructing him to grant
the population of Sind rights to life and property in lieu of their submission and willingness to pay
taxes to the Muslim administration. They were also given the right to perform their religious rites
as they pleased.
The Arab believed on the policy of toleration, they have given complete religious freedom. They
also given the permission to repair the ruined temples and construct the new ones. Due to the High
moral and character the Muslims attracted the local population. In a result majority of the
population of Sind accepted Islam.
Numerous Ulema, scholars, preachers, traders from Arabia settled in Sind. Ulema and Sufis had
given great importance to the propagation of Islam and majority of the Sindis embraced Islam.
iii-Intellectual Effects:
The Arab acquired from the Hindus some new knowledge in Indian religion, philosophy,
astronomy, medicine and folklore and carried it to their own country as well as to Europe.
Many of the Sanskrit works on astronomy and mathematics were translated into Arabic under the
patronage of the Abbassid Khalifahs. During the reign of Harun-ar-Rashid Hindu scholars were
invited to Baghdad to translate into Arabic Sanskrit works on medicine, philosophy, astronomy
and other subjects. Similarly many Arab savants studied Sanskrit to satisfy their thirst for
knowledge of Indian culture.
The digit system was first invented in the sub-continent. Arabs adopted that procedure. Even today
the Arabic digits form one to nine are same like written in Hindi and these are called Arabic
Numerals. Famous Arab mathematician Khuarzami translated Hindi mathematics into Arabi.
Once the Khalifah Harun-ar-Rashid fell ill. For his treatment a physician was called from the sub-
continent. Khalifah recovered with his Vedic treatment. After that Vedic physician was appointed

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in the hospital of Baghdad. Hindi herbs were imported and several books on medicine were
translated into Arabic.
Ishwari Prasad opines, "It must be admitted that Muslims soon secularized the learning they
borrowed from India and presented it to the European world in a new garb which was perhaps
more acceptable to the European mind". Amir Khusrau mentioned that the Arab astronomer Abu
Mashar came to Benares, the seat of Hindu learning, and studied astronomy there for ten years.
Thus we find that the exchange of ideas and the cultural contact between the Arabs and the Hindus
were possible as a result of the Arab conquest. To the natives, particularly to the lower class, the
Muslim rule symbolized prosperity and emancipation. This is why the Jats and the Meds accorded
welcome to the Arabs by blowing conch-shell. So from the cultural point of view, the invasion of
Sind cannot be regarded as an isolated military event.
The Arabs left a legacy behind in the shape of buildings or administrative or cultural institutions
that might have exerted influence on India. The Sindi language shows Arab influence even today.
It is wrong to say that the Arab conquest of Sind had absolutely no effect on India.(K.Ali)
K.Ali rebutted, "From the political, religious, social, cultural and literary point of view, the
invasion of Sind cannot be regarded as an isolated military event. Hence the statement, that the
Arab conquest of Sind was a triumph without results, cannot be accepted in toot".
Time check: Mediaeval India: Impact of the Arab conquest of Sindh
A group of historians believe that the Arab conquest of Sindh was an insignificant event and it did
not change the political and social structure of the country. On the other hand, there are historians
who argue that the Arab occupation left a deep impact on the political, social and economic
conditions of Sindh.
The travelogues written by the Arab travelers who visited Sindh give an account of the economic
prosperity of people. Ibn Hawqal, who visited Sindh in 967AD, mentions that there were 24
populated cities. The existence of such large number of cities shows the advancement of
commercial and social activities of people.
The prominent tribes of Sindh were Sodha, Jareja and Meds. The Jats were called in Arabic as Zat
and were sent to Iraq as slaves. As Sindh was far away from Baghdad, it became a refuge of
political and religious dissidents. The Ismaili missionaries came to Sindh in the 9th century and
converted the ruling classes. The Ismaili rule in Sindh was brought to an end by Mahmud of
Ghazna.
Debal:
It was a famous seaport of Sindh at the time of the Arab invasion. Astakhari, an Arab traveller,
observed that Debal was situated on the western side of Sindh. It was a good market for
businessmen. However, it was a barren and horror-stricken place with only a few trees. People
visited it only for business purpose.
Chach Nama (Fateh Nama)
It is an important source to study the Arab conquest of Sindh. The author is not known, however,
the book was translated from Arabic into Persian by Al-Kufi in the 13th century. Besides historical
events, many other stories are also described in the book, which have no historical evidence. These
were written from the point of view of the conqueror, Muhammad bin Qasim, who is portrayed as
a hero while Raja Dahir is contemptuously treated by the author.

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Mansurah
It was the capital of the Habbari dynasty and its ruins were found near Sangarh. Al-Muqaddas,
an Arab traveller wrote about Mansurah and mentioned it as the capital city of Sindh. Houses of
the city were built by timber but mosque was constructed with stones and bricks. A branch of the
River Sindh surrounded it and inhabitants were cultured, hospitable, generous and well-aware of
Islamic teachings. Business was profitable there. Muhammad bin Qasim as, a good soldier and a
good ruler
Hajjaj bin Yusaf was deeply mortified at two succesive failure of the expedition of Sind to take
revenge on the Sindhis, he fitted out a third expedition under the charge of his cousin and son-in-
law, Muhammad bin Qasim. Under Hajjaj's patronage, Muhammad bin Qasim was made governor
of Persia, where he succeeded in putting down a rebellion. At the age of seventeen, he was sent by
Caliph Al-Walid I on the recommendation of Hajjaj to lead an army towards South Asia into what
are today the Sindh and Punjab regions of Pakistan. S. M. Ikram pays tribute to Muhammad bin
Qasim thus, "He combined great courage and resourcefulness with moderation and statesmanship
of high order. . . he was methodical, disciplined, shrewd and humane individual displaying political
sagacity and military skill far above his years. He had a warm, humane personality ready to enjoy
the honour of new and old situations: with all this he was disciplined soldier."

Character of bin Qasim

The military and the administrative success of Muhammad bin Qasim form one of the most
brilliant chapters in the history of the Muslim rulers of Indo-Pakistan. He was a born leader and a
man of versatile genius. He was a poet, a patriot, a statesman and an accomplished administrator.
His tender age, impressive figure, his dauntless courage and noble bravery, his brilliant victories
in battles and wise method of administration and lastly his sudden and tragic end make the story
of his short and illustrious life one of the romances of history. He was strong against opponents
and tender-hearted to his friends. According to al-Marzubani, Muhammad bin Qasim was one of
the great men of all times.
An able General:
The army of Raja Dahir was inferior in technical skill and his commanders were inferior in
generalship, Muhammad bin Qasim, a young man of 17 was an intrepid and skilful general, and
the success of the Arabs in Sind was largely due to his able generalship.
Far sighted statesman:
Muhammad bin Qasim was a far-sighted statesman and great politician. He did not disturb the
existing system of administration in Sind. He placed the entire machinery of internal
administration in the hands of the natives. The people who had occupied key posts in the time of
Dahir, were expected to know all about the land. According to Chach Nama, Reposing full
confidence in them, Muhammad bin Qasim entrusted them with high offices and placed all
important affairs of the place in their hands".
Toleration to the subjects:
He was not only a great warrior and conqueror but also a good administrator. The administration
introduced by him leads us to believe that he possessed great experience in the art of

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administration. Some of the temples were no doubt destroyed during the days of war, but that was
a temporary phase, for the destruction of the temple was due not to religious bigotry or fanaticism
but to the fact that the temples were the repositories of India’s age long accumulated wealth.
He adopted kind and conciliatory policy towards the subject. The Brahmins were permitted to
perform their rites and ceremonies in the manner prescribed by their religion. He granted the
population of Sind the right to life and property in lieu of their submission and willingness to pay
taxes to the Muslim administrator.
Tragic End:
Muhammad bin Qasim met his tragic end in the prime of his life in 715. His death checked the
further progress of the Arab arms. The Khalifah Sulayman was an arch enemy of Hajjaj bin Yusuf
and Muhammad bin Qasim being his cousin and son-in-law fell a victim to his wrath. He was
arrested and sent to Mesopotamia where he was tortured to death. Thus ended the bright career of
the great hero who had laid the foundation of Muslim rule in the sub-continent.

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 Mahmud Ghaznavi (979-1030)
One of the most controversial personalities in the history of South Asia, Mahmud Ghaznavi is
known as one of the greatest conquerors the world has ever seen. He was one of the very few
leaders who were never defeated in a battlefield. Born in 979, Mahmud became the Sultan of
Ghazni in 998. He inherited the small state of Ghazni from his father Subuktigin, and turned it into
an empire that lasted for about a century. He was a brave man and use to take part in all the battles
his forces fought. Though he was interested in extending his empire toward Central Asia, the
maneuverings of the Hindu rulers of Punjab forced him to invade South Asia. He came to South
Asia seventeen times and went back to Ghazni every time with a great victory. He fought against
the strong forces of Jaipal, Annadpal, Tarnochalpal, Kramta and the joint forces of Hindu Rajas
and Maharajas but all of them were forced to flee away from the battlefield due to Mahmud's war
strategy as a general. After the conquest of Multan and Lahore, Mahmud made Punjab a part of
his empire in 1021.

Unlike other great conquerors like Alexander and Chengez Khan, Mahmud did not leave the areas
conquered to the mercy of his soldiers. After becoming the first Muslim ruler to conquer Northern
Punjab, he consolidated his rule in the area and established his provincial headquarters at Lahore.
He established law and order in the areas that he ruled, giving special attention to the people he
ruled. The department of police and post were efficient. His judicial system was very good as
everybody was equal before the law and justice was the order of the day.
Mahmud was also a great patron of learning. His court was full of scholars including giants like
Firdosi the poet, Behqi the historian and Al-Biruni the versatile scholar. It is said that he used to
spend four hundred thousand golden Dinars on scholars. He invited the scholars from all over the
world and was thus known as an abductor of scholars. Under Mahmud, Ghazni became one of the
most important and beautiful cities of the Islamic world. It was the city of mosques, madrasas and
libraries. He also established a Museum in Ghazni. During his rule, Lahore also became a great
center of learning and culture. Lahore was called 'Small Ghazni'. Saad Salman, a poet of those
times, has written about the academic and cultural life of Lahore.
Mahmud was also a deeply religious man. He himself wrote a book on Fiqh. He had respect for
other religions. A large number of Hindus lived in Ghazni, and they enjoyed religious freedom.
One of his commanders named Tilak was a Hindu. A number of soldiers in his army were also
Hindus. Mahmud attacked the Hindu Temples in India because of political and not religious
reasons.
Motives of the invasion of Mahmud Ghaznavi on Indo-Pakistan
Motives of Mahmud’s invasion and effects of these invasions?
Different Opinions about the motives of Mahmud:
Sultan Mahmud made seventeen expeditions into Indo-Pakistan and conquered a number of places
in the sub-continent. But he didn’t establish his rule over them or annex any part of the conquered
territories except the Punjab. Various opinions have been expressed by the historians about the
motives of Sultan Mahmud’s invasions.

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Dr. Ishwari Prasad in his book "Muslim Rule in India" says that, Mahmud came to India as
religious zealot accompanied by men who were prepared to sacrifice themselves in what they
deemed a sacred cause. He fully exploited the religious sentiments of his followers, though he
found no time to make conversions from among the native population".
Some say that "Mehmud was the greatest champion of Islam whose main motive in invading this
country was to preach Islam by breaking the idols and desecrating the temples". There are others
who hold the view that "his chief motive was to loot the wealth of Indo-Pakistan. He was a raider
in chief who in order to satisfy his thirst for wealth, "came, burnt, killed, plundered, captured and
went away". Still there are others who think and maintain that Mahmud was a great military general
and conqueror and it was his ambition that brought him to this sub-continent. Thus there are
different views about the motives of the Mahmud’s invasion and these views may briefly be
discussed here.
Religious Motives:
There are writers who are of the opinion that chief object of Mahmud’s Indian invasion was to
crush idolatry and spread Islam. According to them Mahmud had been especially engaged by
Khalifah Qadir Billah of Baghdad to undertake the task of spreading Islam in India and Mahmud
in his repeated invasions tried to plant Islam in India. He destroyed the great Hindu temples of
Nagarkot, Somnath and other places and compelled thousands of Hindus including many Raja’s
to embrace Islam.
The age of Mahmud was not religious in character:
The view of the historians cannot be accepted in the face of facts. The age of holy war was over
long ago. The idea of propagation of Islam had ceased to be considered a part of the duty of the
sovereign at the time of Sultan Mahmud.
Professor M. Habib says in his book "Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni" that, "the non-religious character
of his expeditions will be obvious to the critic who has grasped the salient feature of the age. It is
impossible to read a religious motive into them".
He as a Muslim never forced religion on others:
He was not a preacher, but a great conqueror. He was a pious Muslim but never forced his religion
on others. Islam sanctions neither vandalism nor plundering motives of the invader.
Dr. M. Nazim is of the opinion in his book "Life and Times of Sultan Mahmud" that, Some Rajas
are said to have embraced Islam, but they did so most probably as a political shift to escape the
fury of the conqueror and returned to their faith as soon as he had turned his back on them".
Sir W. Haig in his book "Cambrige History of India says that, "His religious policy was based on
toleration and though zealous for Islam, he maintained a large body of Hindu troops and there is
no reason to believe that conversion was condition of their services."
It is a different thing if a Hindu Raja and his followers embraced Islam either for the fear of defeat
or for enjoying privileges under Islam.
His army composed of a large body of Hindu troops:
The Hindu soldiers fought shoulder to shoulder with the Muslims against the common enemy. Had
it been a Holy War, it would not have been possible to against their co-religionists. According to

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M. Elphinstone, "It is nowhere asserted that he ever put a Hindu to death except in battle or in the
storm of a fort".
Mahmud massacred a good number of Muslims in Persia and almost all his Central Asian
expeditions were against his co-religionists. According to Dr. M. Nazim, "If he harassed the Hindu
Rajas of India, he did not spare the Muslim sovereigns of Iran and Transoxiania."
Religious liberty granted to the Hindus
Under his benign government the Hindus enjoyed complete religious freedom. He granted the
Hindus separate quarters in Ghazni where they were at liberty to perform their religious rites and
ceremonies. The Hindus were appointed to highly responsible posts and the names of Tilak Rai,
Hazari Rai and Sonai stand out prominently in the military history of Ghazni. He also instituted a
college and a market in Ghazni for the propagation of Hindu culture and Sanskrit works. If he was
a fanatic, how could it be possible for him to do these things?
Destruction of temples was due to military programme:
Mahmud of course, destroyed some of the temples of the Hindus. This destruction of Hindu
temples was a part of his military programme, for the temples were the repositories of accumulated
wealth. There certain writers who blame Mahmud for "wanton destruction of temples". But they
have forgotten that it was only during war that the temples were destroyed. He never destroyed
any temple in peace time nor did any temple suffer desecration at his hands, if he had not been
aware of its riches. He was not actuated by a desire to punish the idolators nor to spread the faith
of Islam.
The famous historian al-Beruni who was an eye witness says, "The treasurers were accumulated
in the temples by the bounty of pious Hindus who had grown rich by selling their surplus produce
to foreign merchants."
Charge of invading India on religious ground was base less:
The temples were regarded as inviolate and sometimes even monarchs kept huge wealth in the safe
custody at these temples.
According to Dr. Iswari Prasad, "The temples of India which Mahmud raided were store-houses
of enormous and untold wealth and also some of these were political centers".
Hence, the view of the critics that Mahmud invaded India again and again to preach Islam by
breaking the idols and desecrating the temples is historically wrong and psychologically untrue.
Political Motive:
According to some historians Mahmud’s motive in invading India was to satisfy him ambition of
conquest and to extend his empire to this country. There is no doubt that Mahmud was an ambitious
man and it was but natural for him to cherish the idea of extending his empire to the east.
Invasions of India arouse out of political necessity:
This idea arouse out of necessity. The North-West Frontier of India occupies a strategic position
and its occupation is of vital importance to the Kingdom of Kabul and Afghanistan. It may be
mentioned here that Jaypal, the King of the Hindushahi kingdom of the Punjab, viewed the rise of
the Ghaznavid power with great alarm and it was he who first invaded Ghazni during the time of

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Sabuktigin. Though he drank the cup of humiliation at the hands of Sabuktigin, the issue remained
unsettled and when Mahmud ascended the throne, he took up the issue.
His motive to establish a Central Asian Empire:
Sultan Mahmud wanted to establish a Central Asian Empire and for this, he followed a policy of
conquest and consolidation in the west. But in east Mahmud remained satisfied with the annexation
of the Punjab and some other places such as Sind and Multan. These places formed the second line
of his defense in the east and south-east. His Indian invasion was one of the political rather than
religious interests.
Disloyalty of the Hindus:
In addition to the occupation of North-West Frontier in the interest of his kingdom, the violation
of the terms of the treaty by the Hindu Rajas, the renouncing of allegiance to the Sultan, the
political betrayal in the form of help to his enemies, the molestation of his Indian allies by their
hostile neighbours and the rebellion of the Indian vassals compelled Mahmud to invade Indo-
Pakistan.
Economic Motives:
According to S. M. Jaffar and Professor Habib, the real motive of Mahmud’s invasion of India
was economic and not religious.
R.C. Majumdar in his book, "An Advanced History of India" says that, "Mahmud was neither a
missionary for the propagation of religion in this country nor an architect of empire. The main
object of his eastern expeditions seems to have been the acquisition of the "wealth of India" and
the destruction of morale of its custodians.
Economic Necessity:
Mahmud was in need of Money and the fabulous wealth of India might have attracted him to the
fertile plains of Hindustan. Whenever he led an expedition, he went back with enormous money
in order to finance his campaigns against his Central Asian enemies and to build Ghazni into a
great empire. Hence, it can be concluded that the real motives of Mahmud’s Indian invasions were
economic-cum-political and not religious.
Was Mahmud a Raider?
Unlike other Central Asian rulers, Mahmud of Ghazni did not like to live here permanently. So
after conquering the land and destroying the power of his enemies he went back to his own country.
His invasions seem to be merely plundering raids and he appears to the historians of India more as
raider than a conqueror. But his conquests in other direction and those in the sub-continent, though
the later had little permanent result, speak positively of Mahmud as a great conqueror.
Mahmud availed the opportunity:
Mahmud fully realized the importance of wealth in attaining political power and when India
offered him that chance, he availed himself of it. The money which he took from India was
properly spent for the improvement of the capital. But one thing seems to be certain. His frequent
raids must have caused hardship to the population of the north-western part of this sub-continent.

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Conclusion:
Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi was a man of ambition. Early in life he formed the resolve of spreading
the faith of Prophet in distant lands his investiture by the Khalifah further sharpened his zeal and
he made it obligatory on himself to undertake every year an expedition to Hind. According to Sir
Henry Elliot, he led as many as seventeen expeditions. India with her myriad faiths and fabulous
wealth presented a favorable field for the exercise of his religious and political ambitions. He was
a pious Muslim who observed all the injunctions of Islam in his daily life, but he never forced
religion on others. He knew the Quran by heart and possessed sufficient knowledge of the Hadith.
He was a true Mujahid who worked for the cause of Islam. He crushed the idolatry and polytheism
in India. As rightly said by M. Habib, "When he was breaking the idol of Somnath, the priests
offered him immense wealth, only if he spared that remained of their god, but he replied that he
wished to be known in the world as the Mahmud the breaker of idols and not as Mahmud the seller
of idols". (farishta) Mahmud paved the way for the propagation of Islam and Islamic empire in
future. "The expedition of Somnath" says Dr. M. Nazim, "is one of the greatest feats of military
adventure in the history of Islam." Ishwari Prasad, "to the Muslim of his days, he was a Ghazi who
tried to extirpate, infidelity in heathen land. He was an orthodox Sunni and took a keen interest in
religion

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 Sultan Shahab-ud-din Ghauri
Moiz-ud-Din Mohammad bin Sam (Shahab-ud-Din Ghauri) is rightly called the true founder of
the Muslim empire in India as it was he who compressed the political muscle of the Rajputs and
laid the foundations of a strong Muslim India. Ghaur is the name of a Turk tribe in the White
Mountain Range in the north and east of Ghazna.
In the 12th century AD when the Ghaznavids were on the verge of collapse, Ghauris headed
towards Ghazna. The Ghauri tribe was led by Ghiyath-ud-Din who was made the king of Ghaur in
1160 AD. Shahab-ud-Din, his fourth brother invaded the west of India in the get-go and then
attacked the north of India. Following it, he turned his face to Ghazna in 1173 AD and reconquered
it. He conquered Multan in 1175 AD while Sindh and Lahore came under his rule in 1182 AD and
1184 AD respectively. Moiz-ud-Din Mohammad Ghauri could not succeed as Muhmud Ghanavi
did some 200 years ago.
Mohammad Ghauri marched towards India in 1178 AD but was defeated in Anhalwara. Khusrau
Malik, the last Ghaznavid king mutinied in Lahore and Mohammad faced him in the next year
snatching Peshawar from him followed by a fort built at Sialkot. Pushed by Ram Chakar, the ruler
of Jammu, he launched another expedition against Khusrau Malik whose authority was already on
the wane. Mohammad captured Bathenda and Sirhind and appointed Zia-ud-Din the governor of
Bathenda who made the history in the face of Prithvi Raj later.
First Battle of Tarain (1191)
On hearing the news of Mohammad Ghauri’s arrival, Raja Prithvi Raj of Ajmer and Delhi planned
to meet him. Sultan stepped ahead to reach Punjab crossing the Khyber Pass and faced Prithvi Raj
in the battle field of Tarain in 1191. Severely wounded Mohammad had to retreat from the battle
field and Prithvi came up as the man of the day. He captured the fort of Sirhind.
Second Battle of Tarain (1192) and the aftermaths
To brush off the humiliation of the first battle of Tarain, Mohammad left for India against 150
Hindu rajas who solicited an alliance against him. A huge Hindu army consisting of 3 lac
pedestrians, 3 lac horse riders, and 3000 elephants while Sultan’s army was constituted by 120,000
armed soldiers met in the battlefield of Tarain again. Mohammad invited Prithvi to embrace Islam
but he refused. Ghauri attacked his army and Prithvi had to lose this time when he left the elephant
and rode a horse. He was arrested, blinded and later killed. The victory of Sultan led to his upper
hand on the areas of Ajmer, Hansi, Sarsoti, and other districts. The second battle of Tarain takes a
remarkable place in history as it founded the Sultanate of Delhi in India. Qutab-ud-Din Aibak was
appointed the viceroy of Delhi when Shahab went back to Ghazna. Aibak occupied the areas of
Koel (Ali Garh) and Meerath and looted Ajmer which was given to the son of Prithvi Raj.
Mohammad Ghauri plundered the empire of Jai Chand Rathore (Prithvi Raj had forcibly wedded
his daughter Sanjogta) in 1196 AD and massacred the men therein sparing ladies and children. Jai
Chand, wounded in his eye, could not survive. After it, Ghauri looted Benaras (which was
considered the center of Hindus) and carried the booty on 14,000 camels to Ghazna. Beyana and
Gwalior also came under Ghauri. Provoked by the ruler of Anhalwara, the Raja of Ajmer stood
against Ghauri. Ghauri sent two expeditions to crush the rebellion of Raja Bhem, the ruler of

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Anhalwara. First expedition in 1195 AD met with failure whereas the second one in 1197 AD
resulted in the humiliating defeat of Raja Bhem. Ghauri, then, marched towards the Chandel rulers
of the central India and captured the forts of Kalinjar.
Behar and Bengal (1197, 1199 AD)
Bengal and Behar were being occupied under Ikhtiyar-ud-Din Mohammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, a
Turk slave. He captured Behar in 1197 AD and in 1199 AD he forced Rai Lakhshmania, the raja
of Bengal to flee, looted the treasure and captured the city. When the generals of Ghauri were
making history with their conquests in India, he himself had to face an embarrassing defeat at
Andkhoi at the hands of Turks in 1205 AD. A rumor of his death exploded and the Khokhars on
the boundary rioted and marched ahead defeating the ruler of Multan. They blocked the passage
to Ghazni from Lahore. Finding Qutab-ud-Din Aibak unable to handle the deteriorated situation,
Sultan Mohammad Ghauri himself reached India and crushed the Khokhar forces between River
Jehlum and Chenab. Khokhars were massacred and enslaved on a large scale
Death of Mohammad Ghauri
Sultan Mohammad Ghauri came to Lahore on February 25, 1206 and left for Ghazni but was killed
on March 15, 1206 on the bank of the River Indus. His killer is a myth even today. Some historians
say that he was avenged by the Khokhars and according to some, Hindus murdered him. His dead
body was carried to Ghazna where he was buried. He had no issue but he was proud of tens of his
loyal companions who fought for him. He was succeeded by two of his peers but his real legacy
were the four Turk slaves who jazzed his rule up with their devotion and loyalty. They included
Taj-ud-Din Yaldoz, the ruler of Ghazni, Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha, the governor of Multan, Ikhtiyar-
ud-Din, the ruler of Lakhnowti and Qutab-ud-Din Aibak, and the ruler of Delhi. The slaves
especially Qutab-ud-Din Aibak earned historical status by elevating himself from the slave to the
king and founded the Slaves’ Dynasty in the days to come.
Time check: Medieval India: Muhammad Ghori (1173-1206)
After Mahmud of Ghazni the next invader in India was Muhammad Ghori, whose royal title was
Mu'izzuddin. As a prince, he was known as Shahab-ud-din. He belonged to the Ghorid dynasty
which replaced the Ghaznavids in Afghanistan.
He assisted his elder brother Ghiyas-ud-din and remained a loyal subordinate until his death in
1202 and became the ruler of his empire and ruled until his assassination in 1206. His dynasty is
known as Ghori because his family belonged to the territory of Ghor in Afghanistan.
After the death of Mahmud of Ghazni, for nearly hundred and fifty years there was no Turkish
invasion in India. Shahab-ud-din Ghori's first invasions were on the Muslim states of Multan and
the fortress of Uch.
In 1179, he attacked Gujrat but was defeated by its raja. His next attack was on Lahore in 1181,
which was a successful one and this ultimately ended the Ghaznavids Empire, bringing the
remaining territory under Ghori's control.
In 1191 he fought against Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the ruler of Delhi, Ajmer and its allies, and
was one of the most powerful rajas of India; Ghori was defeated in this battle which is called the
first battle of Tarain 1191.

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However, he was not dishearten and prepared his army for the next attack — this time with much
strategy and power. His efforts made him defeat Prithviraj Chauhan in the second battle of Tarain,
1192. The victory paved the way for Ghori to push Muslim rule further in India.
After Prithviraj's death, there was no strong and brave ruler who could fight and hold back Turkish
invasions with such great valour as that of Prithviraj's.
Ghori treated his slaves very nicely and sometimes with as much affection as a father would have
for his son. One of his slaves was Qutb-ud-din Aibak. With the time, he rose through the ranks to
become the most trusted general of Ghori. His greatest military successes occurred while working
directly under Ghori's leadership. He was left with independent charge of Indian campaigns and
thus became the first Muslim emperor of Northern India. He also established Turkish rule in India
and made Delhi and Lahore his capital cities.
In 1206, a rebellion rose in Punjab so Ghori returned and crushed the rebels and on his way back
to Ghazni he was assassinated by someone which is still arguable as some say it was a Hindu
Ghakars while others say it was a Hindu Khokers — both different tribes.
Shahabuddin Ghori did not have any offspring who could inherit his empire. But he treated his
Turkic slaves as his children, he provided them with education and trained both as soldiers as well
as administrators. Many of his loyal slaves got positions in government as well as in army.
In India Qutb-ud-din Aibak became his successor and ruled over Delhi. Another slave, Nasir-ud-
din Qabacha became the ruler of Sindh and Multan. In fact, Qutb-ud-din Aibak laid down the
foundation of slave dynasty in India. Nasir-ud-din Qabacha was finally defeated by Shams-ud-din
Iltutmish and Sindh and Multan became part of the Delhi kingdom.
Mahmud of Ghazni opened the gate for the Turkish conquests in India but the task of consolidation
was done by Shahab-ud-din Ghori and his successors led to the establishment of Muslim
settlements in the subcontinent for many hundred years.

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COMPARISON BETWEEN MUHAMMAD GHORI & MAHMOOD OF
GHAZNA:
These two conquerors and kings have been compared in following respects.
i-As General & Soldier:
Mahmood was far more a great general than Muhammad Ghori and the military career of the
former was far more brilliant that that of later. Sultan Mahmood never suffered a defeat in his
seventeen campaigns of India. Whereas Ghori suffered many crushing defeats and his successes
were mainly due to his able lieutenants Qutbuddin Aibak and Ikhtiyaruddin Muhammad bin
Bakhtiyar Khalji.
ii-As Founders of Muslim Empire in India:
Muhammad Ghori has been called the founder of the Muslim empire in India. He took great care
i consolidating his conquests. He rendered a great service to the cause of Islam in the sub-continent.
Whereas Sultan Mahmood invaded India either to collect the wealth of HIndu Temples or to
chastise the disaffected Hindu Rajas. With the exception of Punjab his invasions did not last longer.
iii-As Statesmen:
They both were great statesmen. Ghori found India suitable for making his empire in India due to
his failures against Khwarism Shah in Afghanistan. Whereas Sultan Mahmood of Ghazna built the
Ghaznavid empire in Afghanistan and enriched it with the wealth of India. Both of conquerors
acted like a real statesman.
iv-As Patrons of Art & Learning:
The chief work that has immortalized Mahmood of Ghazna's name was his patronage of learning
and literature. He gathered a large number of poets and scholars in his court like al-Beruni, Utbi,
and Firdausi. He built museum and many magnificent buildings. On the other hand Ghori had
interest in the patronage of art and laearning but lesser than Sultan Mahmood of Ghazna. The
celebrated philosopher and savant Fakhruddin Razi and the famous classical poet Nizami Uruzi
adorned the Ghorid court. Sultan Mahmood built "Celestial Bride" and Jam-i-Masjid of Ghazni.
He had a library a museum and many other buildings.
5-Conclusion:
Both Sultan Muhammad Ghori and Mahmood Ghaznavi had great and rare qualities of head and
heart. As Ghori was a steady builder and master of art of selecting the best man for the job,
Ghaznavi as a general is rated as one of the greatest generals of Muslim History. But the
contribution of Sultan Muhammad Ghori towards establishing Muslim rule in Indo Pakistan region
is something that has had far reaching results and all the Muslims of Indo Pak region owe him very
much in this respect.

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 Qutbuddin Aibak:
Life, Career & Achievements
Muhammad Ghori had no son and, therefore, he had distributed his vast empire among his nephew
and faithful lieutenants Qutbuddin- Aibak as he was his most trusted lieutenant got his Indian
possessions by his own choice. Muhammad’s nephew Ghiyas-ud-din succeed him at Ghur and his
other two lieutenants such as Taj-ud-din Yeldoz and Nasir-ud-din Qabacha got the area from
Afghanistan to upper Sindh and Uch and Multan respectively. After his death all of them became
independent in their respective territories.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who was the governor of Ghori’s Indian possessions became independent after
his death and began his rule in 1206 A.D. in the title of Delhi Sultan. He has been regarded as the
real founder of Turkish rule in India. Of course, Muhammad of Ghur had included the territories
of India in his empire but his seat of power was not in India. He was the Sultan of Ghur and after
his death, Qutb-ud-din had cut off his connections with Ghazni and Ghur. He was fully
independent by the time he become the Sultan of Delhi. He, therefore, is rightly regarded as the
first Turkish Sultan of Delhi.
Slave Dynasty:
It is said that the early three Sultans of Delhi were slaves in their early life. So they belonged to
one dynasty called the slave dynasty. The early three rulers such as Qutbud-din-Aibak, Iltutmish
and Balban were all slaves. But in fact neither they belonged to one dynasty nor was any of them
a slave when they occupied the throne of Delhi. Qutb-up-din had formed the Qutbi dynasty while
Iltutmish and Balban had formed the Shamsi and the Balbani dynasty respectively.
Each of them had ceased to be a slave before they became Sultans and, except Qutb-ud-din all
others had obtained their formal manumission (Freedom from Slavery) long before their accession.
Therefore, it is correct to call them early Turk Sultans or the Mameluk Sultans of Delhi.
Career of Qutb-ud-din:
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was born of Turkish parents in Turkistan. He was sold as a slave in his
childhood and after passing through few hands was purchased by Sultan Muhammad of Ghur.
Very soon he drew the attention of his master by his talent and superb swordsmanship. He was
offered with several responsible posts gradually. He was very faithful to his master Muhammad
Ghori and was with him throughout his Indian campaigns.
Owing to his meritorious services, he was assigned with the charge of his Indian conquests after
the second battle of Tarain in 1192 A.D. It was Qutb-ud-din who consolidated and extended his
conquests in India. In 1206 A.D., Qutb-ud-din was formally invested with viceregal powers and
promoted to the rank of Malik by Sultan Muhammad of Ghur.
After the death of Muhammad, the people of Lahore invited Qutb-ud-din to ascend the throne. The
title of Sultan was conferred upon him later on by Ghiyas-ud-din, the Sultan of Ghur. Of course
formal letter of manumission was not granted to him. Though he did not struck coins or read the
khutba in his name but remained as the defacto Sultan of his master’s territories in India.

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Qutb-ud-din as a Sultan:
Qutb-ud-din ascended the throne of Delhi in A.D. 1206 and became the first Turkish Sultan of
Delhi. But, the throne of Delhi was not a bed of roses for him. He had to face many challenges
from in and outside the country. He could not depend on the loyalty of all his Turkish officers who
were jealous of him. The Rajput’s, on the other hand though vanquished in north India were eagerly
waiting for a possible opportunity to strike.
Moreover, he had to face strongest opposition from Taj-ud-din Yeldoz and Nasir-ud-din Qubacha,
the two more contenders for the throne of Delhi. Yeldoz was the ruler of Ghazni and Qubacha was
of Uch and both had matrimonial relations with Qutb-ud-din. Yeldoz was his father-in-law and
Qubacha was his brother-in-law as he had married one sister of Qutb-ud-din.
Besides, there were two more contenders also for the throne of Delhi. They were nobles like Baha-
ud-din Tughril Khan and Bakhtiyar Khalji but to the good fortune of Qutb-ud-din they were dead
by then. According to historians like Professor K.A. Nizami, this was due to the weak position of
Qutb-ud-din over the throne of Delhi as Muhammad of Ghur did not decide anything about his
succession in India before his death; therefore each of his governors and lieutenants was left free
to decide his own course of action.
This may be a fact but as the struggle for supremacy was the order of the time, the question of
legal sanction behind the throne of Delhi has nothing to do with that. Besides, there was another
great danger for him from outside. Khwarizm Shah Ala-ud-din Muhammad, the ruler of persia had
desired to capture Ghazni and Delhi.
His Achievements:
In the face of these difficulties, Qutb-ud-din stood with determination. After all he himself was a
gifted soldier and a great military leader. He decided to keep himself free from the policies of
Central Asia. He had to move with caution. He first strengthened his position in Delhi and Lahore.
He tried to persuade some Turkish nobles to accept his subordination. He gave his sister in
marriage to Qabacha and his daughter to Iltutmish and secured their support. Yeldoz who was his
father-in-law did not accept his claim over Delhi. In the meanwhile an interesting situation arose
which went in favour of Qutb-ud-din.
Yeldoz who was the ruler of Ghazni, was pressurized by Khwarizm Shah to leave the throne of
Ghazni. Yeldoz had no way out. He left Ghazni and proceeded towards Punjab. Qutb-ud-din faced
him and forced him to return back. Qutb-ud-din even occupied Ghazni but was forced to leave it
after forty days when Yeldoz reached back there. But he did not allow Yeldoz to occupy any Indian
territories further.
Qutb-ud-din had to face some internal problems as well. Ali Mardan Khan, the ruler of Bengal and
Bihar was dethroned and imprisoned by some Khalji nobles and they had offered the throne to
Muhammad Sheran who had promised to rule Bengal independently. However, Ali Mardan
escaped from prison, reached Delhi and requested Qutb-ud-din to interfere in the affairs of Bengal.
Qutb-ud-din accepted his prayer and deputed Qaiwaz Rumi Khan, a noble to settle the matter.
Rumi Khan used both force and diplomacy to win over the Khalji nobles of Bengal. He convinced

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them to accept Ali Mardan as the governor of Bengal under the Suzerainty of Delhi. Thus, finally,
Ali Mardan became the governor of Bengal and agreed to pay annual tribute to Qutb-ud-din.
However Qutb-ud-din could not pursue the policy of extension of his kingdom. He remained busy
in defending his independent position. The affairs in the north-west and Bengal in the east were
his primary concerns. That is why mostly he remained at Lahore instead of Delhi. But he could
not live long. While playing polo, he fell from his horse and shortly died in 1210 A.D.
Estimate of Qutb-ud-din:
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the real founder of Turkish rule in India. He was the key man behind
Muhammad’s success in India. After the death of Sultan Muhammad, he” consolidated his Indian
conquests by adding some more victories to his credit. He established his supremacy over his
Turkish nobles by following a policy of war and diplomacy. He succeeded in putting down Yeldoz
and Qubacha, the two contenders for the throne of Delhi.
Qutb-ud-din rose to a high position from the life of a slave. He proved to be the most capable slave
among the slaves of Sultan Muhammad. He was a self-made man who rose to the status of Sultan
by his own merit and services. He possessed the qualities of both head and heart. He had the good
qualities of loyality, generosity, courage and sense of justice.
He was a good diplomat and possessed practical wisdom. He saved the infant Turkish kingdom by
following a policy of war and diplomacy. He was also a seasoned soldier and a military leader of
high ability. As an individual he was both generous and cruel. But he was not a good administrator
as he ruled the country as a military jagir which lacked the elements of stability.
He was intolerant in the matters of religion. He had destroyed some Hindu Temples and had
constructed mosques out of the materials of the temples. However he had left his tasks unfinished
as he died shortly in 1210 and perhaps could not provide stability to his rule. He also could not
make Delhi entirely free from the coveted eyes of Yeldoz and other Turkish nobles. These tasks
were completed by Iltutmish, his son-in-law and successor. But he had paved the way for the
independence of Delhi and had claimed to be the founder of Turkish rule in India.

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 Shams Uddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 AD)
Iltutmish was the first real Turkish Sultan of Delhi. After the death of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, his
inefficient Son Aram Shah was placed on the throne by his officers at Lahore. But his candidature
was opposed by the nobles of Delhi. High officials including Turkish nobles at Delhi decided to
invite Iltutmish, the Son-in-law of Aibak to succeed him. Iltutmish was more efficient as well as a
capable military commander. He was by then the governor of Badaun.

Iltutmish who was eagerly awaiting this opportunity, responded to their call very promptly and
reached Delhi and assumed sovereign powers. Aram Shah marched towards Delhi with a vast army
but Iltutmish defeated and killed him. He is said to have ruled only for eight months. After this
inglorious period of eight months rule of Aram Shah, there started a glorious period of Iltutmish
in 1211 A.D. which continued for a long period till he died on 1236.
To his credit, he was the first Sultan of India who was recognized by the Khalifa. He was successful
in keeping the throne of Delhi safe from the danger of Mangol invasion as well as from the attacks
of both Yeldoz and Qubacha. He broke up the Rajput powers in the north and established his
supremacy over them. He made his rule hereditary, issued coins in his name and made Delhi a
beautiful capital.
Early Career:
Iltutmish’s full name was Shams-ud-din Iltutmish and was born in a Turkish family in Central
Asia. His family belonged to the Ilbari tribe of the Turks. He was handsome and intelligent and
loved by his parents. His brothers being envious had sold him as a slave to a slave merchant named
Jamal-ud-din. He took him to Delhi and sold him again to Qutb-uddin-Aibak.
He received training as a soldier and learnt reading and writing as well. Very soon he proved his
talent and became a great warrior. It is said that Muhammad of Ghur was much impressed and
recommended him to Qutb-uddin-Aibak in these words: Treat Iltutmish well, for he will
distinguish himself. His words become true. Under Aibak, Iltutmish rose from position to position
and just before his Sultan-ship he was the governor of Badaun. Aibak made him his son-in-law by
giving him his daughter in marriage. However with a stroke of good fortune and hard work he
became the Sultan of Delhi and ascended the throne in 1211 A.D. after the death of his great
master.
His Early Difficulties:
Iltutmish ascended the throne of Delhi at a time of crises. The difficulties which his master Aibak
had faced were not yet over. Therefore, he did not find the throne a bed of roses. He had to face a
number of difficulties at home and from outside. After Aram Shah there were dangerous rivals like
Taj-ud-din Yeldoz of Ghazni and Nassiruddin Qubacha of Uch’s upper Sind & Multan.
Yeldoz reasserted his sovereign power over Hindustan and treated Iltutmish as his vassal.
Qubacha, the governor of Multan had marched upto Lahore by declaring his independence. Ali
Mardan, the governor of Bengal and Bihar had declared his independence immediately after the
death of Qutb-uddin.
The Rajput states like Ranthambhor, Jalor, Ajmer, Gwalior and others had stopped paying tributes
and also had declared their independence. Thus the Sultanate of Delhi was in a precarious position
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when Iltutmish ascended the throne. It looked like almost non-existent. But Iltutmish was a man
of high courage and determination. He accepted the challenge and faced the problems bravely.
Defeat of Yeldoz:
The most formidable enemy of Iltutmish was Taj-ud-din Yeldoz of Ghazni. At first owing to
internal problems he did not like to direct conflict with Yeldoz. He admitted him as his-overlord
and remained in his book for some time. After Aram Shah issue was over, he made preparations
to face Yeldoz. In the mean while Yeldoz was defeated by Khwarizm Shah and fled to India. In
India, Yeldoz defeated and drove Qubacha and occupied Lahore and Punjab. According to
Ferishta, he succeeded in occupying the Punjab upto Thaneswar.
Iltutmish considering it as the right time attacked Yeldoz and a battle between the two took place
in the historic battle field of Tarain in 1215 A.D. Yeldoz was defeated and put to death. With this
all connections with Ghazni were cut off and Iltutmish felt more secured. But he did not attack
Qubacha and allowed him to rule over Multan. Punjab only came to the occupation of Iltutmish.
The Mongol Invasion:
During the reign of Iltutmish, the greatest danger to the country was the possible invasion of
Mongols under the leadership of Chengiz Khan. It was in 1221 A.D., Chengiz Khan; the Mongol
hero appeared at the border of India by following Jalal-ud-din Mangbarni, the defeated Shah of
Khwarizm empire. Mangabarni fled into Punjab, took shelter there by making a matrimonial
alliance with the khokhar chief of Punjab. Chengiz Khan on the other hand halted on the bank of
the river Indus and observed the activities of Mangabarni. He also sent a message to Iltutmish not
to give shelter to Mangabarni.
Mangbarni proceeded towards Lahore and sent an envoy to Iltutmish with an appeal for help and
shelter. Iltutmish was a very wise and clever ruler and he knew this would provoke Chengiz Khan
and as a result the country would face a great Mongol invasion. So he refused to give any help or
shelter to Mangbarni and requested to withdraw from the Punjab.
So he diverted his attention and proceeded towards Multan and inflicted a crushing defeat upon
Qubacha. This attitude of Iltutmish perhaps gave satisfaction to Chengiz Khan who withdrew
instead of invading India. And due to this wise policy of Iltutmish, not only Delhi was saved from
Mongol raids but also Qubacha was punished by Mangbarni.
Defeat of Qubacha:
Nasir-ud-din Qubacha was another formidable enemy of Iltutmish. But by the time his power had
been reduced due to the reverses. He was severely suffered by the attack of Yeldoz and Mangabarni
one after another within a very short period. After the attack of Mangabarni, Qubacha was almost
ruined. Iltutmish, thought it the right time to attack and finish Qubacha once for all.
For this purpose, he sent two armies, one from Lahore to attack Multan and the other from Delhi
to invade Uch. During the capture of Uch, Qabacha being defeated took shelter in the fort of
Bhakkar which was besieged by the Delhi Army. At last finding no way out, he committed suicide
by drowning himself in the river Indus. As a result Sind and Multan were annexed to the empire
of Delhi Sultanate.

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Suppression of Revolt in Bengal:
Bengal another distant province in the east was under the authority of Delhi Sultan during the reign
of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. But she had declared her independence soon after the death of Aibak.
Iltutmish on the other hand was busy in the Frontier provinces in west and had no time to divert
his attention to Bengal. But soon after the completion of his work in the west with the death of
Qubacha, he thought of invading Bengal.
By then the ruler of Bengal was Sultan Ghiyasud-din. Iltutmish sent an expedition against Bengal
and himself followed the same. Sultan Ghiyasuddin submitted without any fighting recognised the
suzerainty of Delhi and agreed to pay the annual tribute. But within a very short period of this
Glriyasuddin again revolted and declared Bengal independent.
This time Iltutmish by sending an Expedition to Bengal defeated and killed Sultan Ghiyasuddin.
He appointed his son Nasir-ud-din Muhmud as the governor of Bengal. After Nasirud-din’s
departure there was again another rebellion in Bengal under the leadership of Balka Khalji. This
was in 1230 A.D., Iltutmish proceeded to Bengal in person defeated and killed Balkha Khalji and
Bengal was annexed to Delhi Empire.
The Conquest of Rajput Kingdoms:
After the death of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the Rajput states had declared their independence. Iltutmish,
as he was busy in northwestern frontier had no time to pay his attention to the Revolts of Rajput
states. The Rajput Kingdoms such as Ranthambhor, Jalor, Mander Kalinjar, Gwalior, Ajmer,
Bayana, Thangir and many other had raised the standard of rebellion and put an end to the Turkish
supremacy. Iltutmish dealt with them one after another and re-annexed those states.
Investiture of Khalifa:
Iltutmish was the first Sultan of Delhi, who received the Investiture of Khalifa. In 1229 A.D. the
Khalifa of Baghdad, A1 Mustansir Billah, bestowed on Iltutmish the titles of “Sultan-i- Azam” or
the Sultan the great and “Nasir-amir-al-Mommin” or the Deputy of the leader of faithful. This
investiture not only guaranteed his right to the throne but also increased his power and prestige in
the Muslim world. As a mark of commemoration of this event, Iltutmish introduced a coin
inscribing his name thereon as the representative of Khalifa. This was a great achievement of his
life.
Some other Conquests of Iltutmish:
Iltutmish is said to have conquered some more kingdoms such as Ajmer, and Gwaliar which were
left unconquered during his campaign against Rajput states. Kanauj and Benaras were reoccupied
in 1231 A.D. In 1239 A.D. he annexed Malwa and Ujjain to his empire. As a result, Iltutmish made
the Turkish empire in India as vast as it was during the time of Aibak.
His Last Days and Death:
Iltutmish fell ill in 1235 A.D. due to continuous military operations. During his last expedition
against Bayana, he was attacked by severe illness and was brought to Delhi immediately for
treatment. But he could not recover from such illness and struggling with life for about a year he
breathed his last 1236. With his death the country lost a great ruler and also there came to an end
the long twenty-five years glorious reign of Delhi Sultanate.

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Character and Achievements of Iltutmish:
Iltutmish has occupied a place among the outstanding rulers of Medieval India. From the life of a
slave he rose to the status of the Sultan of Delhi by his talent, meritorious services and good luck.
When he ascended the throne, the Sultanate of Delhi was almost non-existent as most of the states
under the Sultanate had declared their independence and the politics at Delhi had plunged into
crises. But as he was a brave soldier and shrewd statesman, he could easily save the Sultanate from
the impending dangers.
He destroyed the powers of Yeldoz and Qubacha and made his position safe on the throne of Delhi.
He saved the country from a great Mongol invasion by adopting wise policy and not allowing the
enemy of Chengiz Khan to take shelter at Delhi. After making his position safe at Delhi, he made
a series of campaigns against Rajput States and the ruler of Bengal and Bihar and annexed those
kingdoms to the empire of Delhi Sultanate. As a result of his conquests and annexation, the Turkish
empire of Delhi became vast and the political unity of the country was achieved.
According to Dr. R.P. Tripathy, ‘The history of Muslim sovereignty in India, properly speaking,
begins with Iltutmish. It was he who gave the country a capital, an independent state, a monarchical
form of government and a governing class. Among his other achievements, beautification of the
city of Delhi as well as execution of a better administration in the country were important.
He decorated the city of Delhi with construction of mosques and the famous Qutub Minar. He also
invited scholars, Muslim saints, artists and artisans to Delhi to make the city developed both
culturally and industrially. Iltutmish trained a band of good slaves numbering forty and placed
them in responsible posts for better and efficient administration. He is said to have introduced new
silver and copper currency which were two basic coins of the sultanate period. He was very much
religious in his personal life and observed the Islamic rites with a sense of respect and devotion.
His greatest achievement was the grant of Investiture by Khalifa to him. This not only gave a
guarantee to his right to throne of Delhi but also made him one of the prestigious men in the
Muslim world. However, he was intolerant towards the Hindus. He destroyed some famous Hindu
Temples like Mahakala Temple of Ujjain and hurt the religious sentiments of the Hindus. But his
deeds for the establishment of Muslim rule in India have made him the founder of Delhi Sultanate.

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 Ghiyas-ud-din Balban
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban who ruled India as the Sultan of Delhi from 1266 to 1287 A.D. was one of
the greatest Sultans of the Mediaeval period. He like his master Iltutmish rose to power and became
the Sultan of Delhi. His period has been marked as an illustrious chapter in the history of the Delhi
sultanate.
Early Career:
Balban like his master Iltutmish was born in a Turkish family of Ilbari Tribe. He was kidnapped
by the Mongols in his early youth and was sold to a slave trader named Khwaja Jamal-ud- din. He
took him to Delhi where he was purchased by Iltutmish. During his stay at Delhi, Iltutmish was
very much impressed by the intelligence and ability of Balban and enrolled him as a member of
the famous corps of the forty slaves.
During the reign of Raziya Sultana, he was promoted to the post of Amir- i-Shikar (Lord of the
Hunt). He was loyal to Raziya in his early days. But later on he joined hands with the nobles who
deposed Raziya Sultana from the throne of Delhi successfully. The next Sultan was Bahram Shah
who gave him the Jagir of Rewari and Hansi in lieu of his service to him.
He played the role of a kingmaker. As a great warrior, he also successfully repelled a Mongol
invasion during the period of Bahram Shah. Similarly he was instrumental in deposing Masud and
raising Nasir-ud-din Mahmud to the throne of Delhi. Nasir- ud-din rewarded him by offering the
post of principal adviser to the Sultan. He also strengthened his relations with Sultan by his
daughter in-marriage to him.
The Sultan being pleased with the loyalty and devotion of Bulban, bestowed on him with the title
of Ulugh khan and made him Naib-i-mamlikat or the Deputy Sultan. This was perhaps due to the
fact that Nasir-ud-din was weak and incompetent and was relying more on him for the management
of state affairs. As a result, the real power gradually passed into the hands of Balban.
His power and popularity grew more and more. He put down a number of internal rebellions and
also checked the external aggressions especially of Mongols. The Sultan Nasir-ud-din felt him
indispensable. As Nasir-ud-din had no heir to the throne, he had nominated Balban to be his
successor. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud died in 1266 and Balban ascended the throne by assuming the
title of Ghiyasuddin Balban.
His Early Difficulties:
Balban had to face a number of problems after his accession to the throne. The affairs of the state
had fallen into confusion as well as the prestige of the crown had sunk low due the misrule of weak
and incompetent successors of Iltutmish. The powers of the nobles had increased and the majority
of the members of the famous Forty had become disloyal to the throne.
They were proud, arrogant and were jealous of Balban. In the words of Barani, “Fear of the
governing power which is the basis of all good governments and the source of the glory and
splendor of the state, had departed from the hearts of all men, and the country had fallen into a
wretched condition.”
The royal treasury was empty and the army was not well-organised. The Mongol invasion was
imminent as well as the internal rebellions were raising their heads at regular intervals. Such was

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the critical stage, when Balban had been given the responsibility to face and fight. However he
proved himself to be more than an equal for them.
Restoration of the Crown’s Prestige:
Balban had realized that without the restoration of crown’s prestige which had sunk low during
the rule of weak successors of Iltutmish, no better and effective government could be possible. He
also knew that this could be restored through the policy of absolute despotism. He believed that
absolute despotism alone could exact obedience from his subjects and ensure security of the
country.
He also knew that in order to be a successful despot one must follow the policy of theory of
kingship. The concept of theory of kingship is that the right to rule is given by the God and not by
the people and for his actions whether good or bad, the ruler is answerable and accountable to God
but not to the people he rules.
Balban at first made out his concept of theory of kingship to his subjects. Secondly he emphasized
on external dignity and prestige as essential for kingship. He maintained a great distance from the
people and denied to meet the common people. He organised his court on the Iranian model and
followed the etiquette and Ceremonials of the Persians very strictly.
Having a long beard on his long face and wearing a very big crown on his head, he sat on the
throne with the dignity of the great Sassanid kings. He maintained his dignity by grim and serious
looks. He appointed tall and fearsome body-guards who stood round him with their swords drawn
and dazzling in the sun.
He ordered for Sijda (prostration) and paibos (feet- kissing) as the normal form of Salutation for
the king. He prohibited drinking, jokes, laugh and even smile among the courtiers and officers. He
himself also gave up wine and merry-making. He also dismissed all low-born persons from
important offices of his administration. Thus Balban by displaying his power, authority and dignity
struck terror in the hearts of the people and made them submissive. This was a right step at that
time for the restoration of the crown’s prestige.
Destruction of the Forty:
The Forty a select body of Turkish nobles was created by Iltutmish for better and effective
administration. The members of this body were chosen on the basis of loyalty and meritorious
service. But after Iltutmish, the members of the Forty enjoyed unlimited power due to his weak
and incompetent successors. They considered the Sultan just a puppet in their hands. Balban
clearly knew that in the path of his despotism, the Forty would be a great obstruction.
And without its destruction, he could not achieve his goal. So he planned to bring them under
control by destroying their organisation. At first, he promoted the junior Turks to important
positions and placed them on par with the Forty. Secondly, he inflicted severe punishments on the
members of the Forty for minor offences and reduced their importance in the eyes of the people.
He flogged Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Badaun and a member of the Forty, publicly for beating
his servant to death. Haibat Khan, another influential member of the Forty and governor of Awadh,
had killed a man while he was drunk with wine. He was flogged with 500 stripes and was handed
over to the widow of the deceased whom he paid 20,000 tankas to get himself liberated.

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He was so much insulted that he never came out of his home till death. Similarly Amir Khan,
governor of Awadh was hanged at the city gate for his failure to curb a rebellion in Bengal. Sher
Khan, another influential member of the Forty, excited jealousy of Balban who poisoned him to
death. In this way he finished some of his great enemies and others surrendered at his feet for the
safety of their life and honour. This was in fact a bold step in the direction of his royal despotism.
The Spy system:
Balban organised an efficient system of espionage as an instrument of his despotism. He appointed
reporters and news- writers in every department, in every province and district to collect
information’s of various happenings in the state. They did it with utmost honesty and secrecy.
They were severely punished if they failed in their duties.
The news reporter of Badaun was hanged over the city gate because he failed to report in time
regarding the misconduct of Malik Baqbaq. They were highly paid and were independent of the
control of the governors and commanders. They were also rewarded for their daring services. With
the result, internal rebellions could not take place and even the nobles could not meet for
discussions. Balban through this system of espionage could keep effective control over the
government and people. Law and order was perfectly established throughout his reign.
Re-organisation of Army:
Balban re-organised his army and made it strong and efficient as it was the main pillar of his
despotic government. He appointed Imad-ul-Mulk who was a competent vigilant officer, as the
Diwan- i-Ariz (minister of war) in charge of the army. The minister in charge of the army was
made independent of the financial control of the Wazir and he enjoyed full confidence of the
Sultan.
The lands, given in Jagir to the military personnel since the time of Aibak and now enjoyed by
their widows, sons and successors were taken back and they were paid pensions in cash. Of course,
the young men whose predecessors were in military service were asked to retain their Jagir but
they were not allowed to collect revenue. They were also paid in cash but the revenue from their
land was collected by the government. But it is said there was a lot of reactions against this order.
However, Balban did not introduce any revolutionary change in the military organisation. But
certainly he raised the efficiency and morale of the Army. With the help of a strong and powerful
army he could successfully suppress the internal rebellions and external aggressions.
Suppression of Rebellions:
During the reign of Balban, Some severe rebellions took place which he put down with a strong
hand. The most dangerous rebellious men were the Mewatis, the people of Mewat, who were very
often plundering the vicinity of Delhi. As there were jungles around Delhi, it was covenant on their
part to plunder and escape.
Balban closed the western gate of the capital and cleared off the jungles around Delhi and built
roads to facilitate movement. He sent his army against the Mewatis and massacred them. He
constructed four forts around Delhi and garrisoned them with Afghan soldiers. Similarly he
crushed the rebellions of the Hindus of the Doab region and their chiefs were cowed down.

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The people of Katehar also revolted against him. Balban ordered his soldiers to attack and set fire
to their houses and to wipe out their adult male population. Their women and children were made
slaves. Barani says, after this incident, the kateharias never raised their heads and the entire region
became safe for the travellers.
Rebellion in Bengal:
Bengal was a part of the Delhi Sultanate and its governor, Tughril Khan was a slave of Balban.
Tughril Khan was very courageous and ambitious and was loyal to the Sultan in the beginning.
But in 1279 he declared the independence of Bengal and defied the authority of Balban. Most
probably, he was encouraged by the old age of Balban as well as frequent Mongol invasions. But
Balban was not the man to leave him so easily. He sent an expedition under Amin-Khan against
him. But Amin-Khan was defeated by Tughril. This enraged Balban so much that he ordered
Amin-Khan to be hanged publicly.

Balban also sent another army under a military officer named Bahadur. He was also driven back
by Tughril Khan. At last Balban proceeded in person against Tughril. When Tughril heard of the
approach of Balban, he fled away towards east but was captured and put to death. His followers
were also mercilessly put to death. Then he appointed his own son Bughra Khan as the governor
of Bengal and returned back to Delhi.
Mongol Invasion:
The Mongol invasion was frequent on the border and it was a constant headache to Sultan Balban.
In the western border, Lahore was then under the sphere of Mongol influence and Sind and Multan
were always exposed to their invasion. Sultan Balban, therefore, adopted a number of measures
for the safeguard of the western borders.
He built a line of forts along the frontier and garrisoned them with able-bodied Afghan soldiers,
secondly he appointed Sher Khan, a distinguished warrior as the commander of the army at the
border. She Khan was successful against the Mongols on a number of occasions. But due to the
unfortunate death of Sher Khan in the year 1270, the Mongols started their plundering raids without
any fear. Balban appointed experienced Amirs in charge of frontiers, but they failed to check the
Mongols.
At last he divided the frontier region into two parts. One part which consisted of Sind, Multan and
Lahore was kept under the charge of his eldest son, Prince Muhammad Khan. The second part
which consisted of the province of sunam and Samana was given to his second son Bughra Khan.
Prince Muhammad though successfully repelled the Mongol invasion twice in 1279 and 1285, but
he himself became a victim of the Mongols in his third encounter with them. Prince Muhammad
died fighting in the battle field in the year 1286. This was the greatest shock to Balban. Though he
re-occupied Lahore from the Mongols, but he could not recover himself from the shocks of his
son’s death. Prince Muhammad was his most favorite son.
Death of Balban:
Balban’s health gradually declined after the shock of his son’s death. He was old and was at quite
advance stage of his life. Realizing his end he summoned his youngest son Bughra Khan, the

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governor of Bengal to Delhi. But Bughra apprehending some danger did not turn up. Balban then
nominated Kai Khusrav, the son of his eldest son prince Muhammad as his heir. He died in 1287
at the age of eighty.
Estimate of Balban:
It can be said undoubtedly that Balban was one of the greatest Sultans of Delhi. He to his credit,
guided the destinies of the Sultanate for a long period of forty years, twenty as prime minister and
twenty as Sultan. By ascending the throne at a time of confusion and crises, he did everything right
and appropriate for the restoration of crown prestige and good governance of the state.
By following the divine right theory of kingship he maintained a great distance from the common
people. He set up a magnificent court and displayed his power and authority with kingly dignity.
He did everything to strike fear in the heart of the people and officers in the administration. Thus
he could restore the status and prestige of the Sultan.
Next he was successful in destroying the power and influence of the corps of forty which was the
greatest obstruction in the path of his royal despotism. He even did not mind to inflict severe
exemplary punishments to them for their slight offence and mistakes. Further by organizing an
efficient espionage system, he was successful in establishing law and order in the country.
He kept the nobles under control and strengthened the Central Government. He was also a good
administrator and he had strong sense of justice. Peace, protection and consolidation of the empire
were the prime objectives of his administration. According to Dr. Iswari Prasad, “A great warrior;
ruler and statesman who saved the infant Muslim state from extinction at a critical time, Balban
will ever remain a great figure in medieval Indian history.
It was Balban who saved the country from the frequent Mongol raids. It was he who consolidated
the empire by bringing Rajput States to the fold of Sultanate of Delhi and by rendering a good
administration. Dr. Iswari Prasad has remarked further that the successful career of conquest of
the great Ala-ud-din was possible because of the consolidation work of Balban.
Balban was a great patron of learning and education. He had provided scope and facilities to a
large number of learned men migrated from Central Asia. The great Persian poet Amir Khusru and
Amir Hosan flourished during his time. His son Prince Muhammad was a learned man and was
greatly inspired by those two great poets. Besides he was a very affectionate father. He dearly
loved his sons and relations. The shock of his son’s death practically killed him. He was also very
much religious and had great respect for the Ulemas.
Nevertheless he had some grave defects in his character. Balban was often harsh and cruel. He did
not forgive anybody even for small offence. He did not care for the means for the achievement of
his goal. Balban did not live the men of low birth and he had great hatred for Indian Muslims. He
always insisted on high birth and appointed the men of Turkish origin in army. For that he could
not raise a vast and strong army. However he was one of the greatest Sultans of Delhi Sultanate.

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 Balban’s policy of Blood and Iron:
It is not without significance that out of about 84 year’s rule of the Slave Dynasty, Balban’s rule
lasted for about 40 years i.e. 20 years as ‘Naib’ or Prime Minister but virtually the Sultan and 20
years as the Sultan of Delhi. Other 10 Slave rulers ruled for 44 years i.e. just 4 years more than the
rule of a single Sultan i.e. Balban. It became possible to achieve this distinction by Balban on
account of the successful execution of his policy of blood and iron.
Balban displayed great vigor and energy to follow this policy and saved the Delhi. Sultanate from
the shocks of internal revolts and external invasions. He enhanced the prestige of the king. His rise
from the low position of a water carrier to the rank of the Sultan speaks of his extraordinary
qualities.
Meaning of the policy of blood and iron:
This policy implied being ruthless to the enemies, use of sword, harshness and strictness and
shedding blood. It allowed use of all sorts of methods of terrorisms the enemies and inflicting
violence upon them. Even before becoming the Sultan of Delhi, Balban had tried these measures
to some extent to rise to high posts. He had betrayed Razia and engineered revolts against her. He
was responsible for the dethronement of Bahram Shah and installment of Masud as a King.
Later he conspired and removed Masud and enthroned Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud and usurped all the
powers of the Sultan by becoming his Prime Minister. By all means Nasir-ud-Din was a sort of
captive of Balban. Thus even before assuming the reigns of administration, Balban had gained
sufficient experience to make use of the power of the sword against his enemies.
A few example of Baiban’s policy of blood and iron:
1. Prof. S.R. Sharma states that when Amir Khan, one of his generals who was defeated by a rebel
came back with this news, “the infuriated Sultan in his paroxysm of rage ordered the defeated
generals to be hanged over the gates of Ayodhya.”
2. After killing a rebel Tughril Khan, the Sultan ordered the killing of all his friends and rebels.
The situation has been described by Lane-poole as, “Even a beggar to whom the usurper had been
kind was not spared.”
3. According to Barani, “Such punishment as was inflicted on Lakhnauti had never been heard of
in Delhi nor could anyone remember such a thing in all Hindustan.”
4. Several members of the ‘Corps of Forty’ were poisoned to death secretly.
5. Dr.V.S. Smith states, “By royal command many of the rebels were cast under the feet of
elephants… Skinned from head to feet… some of them were hung over every gate of Delhi… One
never heard such a tale of terror.
Following were the backgrounders which necessitated the policy of blood and iron:
Theory of Kingship:
Balban realized that problems arose on account of the weak position of the king. He therefore put
forward the concept of Divine Right of Kings i.e. the king was the representative of God on earth.
None could challenge him. The king was there to rule and the nobles and others were there to obey
him. The powers of the king were absolute and he was a despot.
Loose administration:

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The administration needed a strong ruler to bring about order out of chaos.
Corps of Forty:
Balban himself belonged to the ‘Corps of Forty’ an institution or the group created by Iltutmish
for strengthening his position. Iltutmish used this group to get all sort of information about his
nobles. Balban was fully aware of the destructive activities of these. In due course, these slaves
became so powerful that the rulers became captives in their hands. Balban realized that they were
responsible for the chaotic and unstable condition of the state. Balban considered them as trouble
shooters and realized the necessity of getting rid of them through stern measures.
Revolts:
There was the danger of revolts of some sections of Muslim chiefs and Rajput rulers.
Mongol invasions:
The Mongols posed a serious threat to the empire.

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 Balban’s Theory of Kingship
The stern, harsh and violent policy adopted by Balban to suppress the internal revolts and meeting
with the challenges posed by foreign invaders of Mongols is known as the policy of blood and
iron. The theory of kingship propounded by Balban led to the adoption of the policy of blood and
iron. Balban was convinced that the only way to face the internal and external dangers was to
increase the power and prestige of the Sultan (King).
‘Sword’ was the chief weapon of Balban to achieve his objectives. He used this weapon with a
great vengeance against his rivals, rebels, robbers, thieves and the invaders. By following this
policy, he wanted to create terror in the minds of the people that whosoever dared to challenge the
authority of the Sultan, he would not be spared.
On account of this policy he was able to remain at the helm of affairs for about 40 years i.e. 20
years as the Naib/Prime Minister of Nasir-ud-din Mohmud and then after as the Sultan of Delhi.
He executed his policy of blood and iron very successfully and raised the prestige and power of
the Sultan in the eyes of the nobles and his subjects.
Main principles of Balban’s theory of Kingship:
Main principles of the theory of Kingship were as under:
1. Divine right of Kings:
Balban said that the king was the representative of God on the earth and Kingship was a divine
institution. He declared this to make the nobles believe that he got the crown or the Kingship not
through their mercy but by the mercy of God.
2. Royal descent:
Balban realized that people at that time believed that it was only the prerogative of the ancient
royal families to rule and exercise power, he therefore declared that he was the descendant of the
legendary Turkish warrior Afrasiyab and that circumstances only had made him a slave.

3. King as a despot:
He said to his son Bughra Khan that “Kingship is the embodiment of despotism”. He believed that
it is the “King’s superhuman awe and status which can ensure people’s obedience.
4. Word of difference between descendants of noble lineage and commoners:
Historian Zia-ud-Din Barni has gone to the extent of remarking that whenever Balban saw a man
of low birth, his eyes started burning with rage and anger and his hands reached his sword to
murder him. This view seems to be on the extreme side. However this much is believable that
because of this outlook of Balban, he dismissed all officials not born of noble families, from all
important posts.
5. Recognition of tripartite relationship:
Balban emphasized the relationship between God and the Sultan, Sultan and the people and the
God and the people. He considered himself the representative of God on the earth to look after the
welfare of the people—people created by God. Accordingly he emphasized that treasury should
be used for the benefit of his subjects. Likewise the king should be impartial in dispensing justice.
Practical measures to translate the theory of Kingship into operation:

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1. Decorum and grandeur of the court:
Balban enforced strict discipline in the court. No one was allowed to indulge in humour or loose
talk. He maintained considerable distance from the courtiers. He prescribed the court dress.
2. Adoption of several ceremonies:
Balban introduced the practice of ‘Sijada’ in which the people were required to kneel and touch
the ground with their forehead in salutation to the king.
3. Appointment of guards:
Balban appointed fearsome and tall guards who were to stand round the king’s person with naked
swords in their hands. Whenever he used to go outside the palace, his bodyguards marched with
him with naked swords and shouting ‘Bismillah-Bismillah.’
4. Following Persian traditions:
Balban was convinced that the glory of Kingship was possible only by following the Persian
traditions and he very carefully followed these traditions in his personal and public life. He named
his grandsons on the pattern of Persian kings. He introduced several Persian etiquettes in his court.
5. Always reserved:
Balban never expressed unusual joy or sorrow in public. It is said that even when the news of the
death of his eldest son, Mohammad was conveyed to him, he remained unmoved and carried on
the administrative work though in his private apartment, he wept bitterly.
6. Strong army:
These is no doubt that a strong army is needed for the sustenance of a powerful monarch. Balban,
therefore, strengthened his army.
7. Policy of blood and iron:
A strong and absolute monarch is expected to follow a strict policy in dealing with his enemies.
Balban accordingly adopted this policy.
8. Protection from foreign invaders:
The strength of a despotic ruler is also measured by his ability to protect his subjects from external
danger. Balban in this regard took effective steps.

Impact/Achievements of Balban:
Baiban’s theory of Kingship coupled with his policy of blood and iron paid him good dividends.
He enhanced the prestige of the Sultan. He crushed the powers of his opponents. He brought about
peace and order. He saved the country from the invasions of the Mongols.

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 Foundations of Khilji Dynasty in India
Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-96 A.D.):
The Khiljis were another group of Turks who had settled in the Khilji region of Afghanistan. With
the accession of Jalaluddin Khilji on the throne of Delhi, the supremacy of the Turks ended in
India. It established the strong position of the Indian Muslims. Kind by nature, Jalaluddin Firuz,
the first Khilji ruler, was lenient in his treatment of the rebels.
When the rebels were brought before him he excused them and treated them with respect.
Likewise, he ordered that thugs who were a serious menace to the people and property around
Delhi should be taken to far off places and set free. Only in the case of Sidi Maula he showed no
clemency.
Jalaluddin ascended the throne at the ripe age of seventy years and the weakness of old age affected
his attitudes and activities. In 1290 AD he attacked Ranthambhor. On the way he attacked Jhain.
On reaching the fort the sultan realized the futility of attempting to capture the fort.
He withdrew the same day and told his nobles that he did not consider ten such forts worth a single
hair of a Muslim. In 1292 AD, Mandawar was captured from the Rajput’s. The same year the
Mongols under the command of a grandson of Halaqu, Abdullah attacked Punjab and reached near
Sunam. Jalaluddin immediately marched against them and reached the banks of the river Indus.
The sultan succeeded in defeating an advance guard of the Mongols and captured many of their
officers. But afraid to face the main force of the Mongols, he tried for peace that was agreed upon
by the Mongols. The invaders agreed to withdraw but Ulugh, a descendent of Chenghiz Khan
accepted Islam and decided to stay in India.
Jalaluddin’s ambitious nephew, Alauddin who had succeeded Malik Chajju at Kara, began to
establish an independent kingdom for himself. In 1292 AD Alauddin had attacked Bhilsa and a
part of the booty was sent to the Sultan. As a reward Alauddin got the governorship of Awadh in
addition to that of Kara and Manikpur. This increased his desire for power. All those nobles who
were dissatisfied with the weak policy of Jalaluddin had gathered round him. Alauddin needed
wealth to strengthen his position.
He had heard about the fabulous wealth of Devagiri during the campaign of Bhilsa. Ramchandra
Yadav, the ruler of Devagiri had not anticipated an attack from the north. In 1296 AD he proceeded
towards the South and passing through Chanderi and Bhilsa he reached Ellichpur, the northernmost
outpost of Devagiri. Ramchandra was completely taken unawares.
His son had gone with a large army to a neighbouring kingdom. On his return the two armies of
Alauddin and Singhana; Ramachandra’s son met each other. At the site of the approaching Muslim
army, the troops of Singhana retreated in confusion.
Alauddin got a huge indemnity. The enormous booty that Alauddin got from Devagiri helped him
become the Sultan of Delhi. Jalaluddin was later murdered by a planned action by Alauddin in
1296 AD.

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 Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316 A.D.):
Foundation of Khilzi Dynasty:
With the passage of time, the course of the history of the Delhi Sultanate changed and the power
transferred from the hands of the Balbari dynasty to Khilji dynasty. It is said that in his death,
Balban heard the death knell of his dynasty. After the death of his eldest son prince Muhammad,
Balbon had realized the end of his dynasty in near future as his other successors were weak and
incompetent.
His youngest son, Bughra Khan, the governor of Bengal, had become disobedient and he did not
turn up to Delhi when he was summoned by his father. So a few days before his death, Balban
nominated Kai Khusrav the son of his eldest son Muhammad as his heir. He died in 1287. Soon
after his death the nobles and officers of Delhi set aside the nomination Kai Khusrav and put
Kaiqubad, son of Bughra Khan, on the throne.
Kaiqubad was weak and incompetent and he used to spend most of his time in merry-making. The
young Sultan, being indulged in wine and women utterly neglected the administration. This gave
the nobles a golden opportunity to play their foul games. There was chaos and confusion in the
kingdom.
The nobles were divided into two groups. One group was Khilzi party headed by its leader
Jalaluddin Firoz. The other one was a group of Turkish nobles called Turkish Party. There was a
bitter quarrel and rivalry between the two groups for power and supremacy. At last the Khilzi Party
came out victorious and its leader Jalal-ud-din is said to have killed many Turkish nobles.
He also killed the Sultan Kaiqbad and his infant son Kayumars and declared himself as the Sultan
of Delhi in 1290. The Sultan Kaiqubad only ruled for three years and after his death the Balban
dynasty came to an end. With the accession of Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilzi in the throne of Delhi,
there began the rule of Khalzi dynasty. Ala-ud-din Khilzi, the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-
din Khilzi was one of the most outstanding rulers of this dynasty.
Ala-ud-din’s Early Career and Accession:
Ala-ud-din Khilzi was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din Khilzi, the founder of Khilzi
dynasty. He was young, bold courageous and ambitious. He had not got much education but he
was good at display of sword. When Jalal-ud-din became Sultan, he offered Ala-ud-din the title of
Amir-i-Tuzak and also made him the governor of Kara and Manikpur. Jalal-ud-din was impressed
by his military talent and gave his daughter in marriage to him.
Jalal-ud-din was the greatest benefactor of him on earth and also desired him to succeed him after
his death. But Ala-ud-din on the other hand was very ambitious and was impatient for the throne.
He was also tempted by some of his followers to capture power. Ala-ud-din was dissatisfied with
his personal life as he was not in good terms with his proud wife and mother-in-law.
He also knew that it would be much delay to get the throne if he waits for the same till the natural
death of his uncle. All those factors encouraged him to strike. But he was waiting for an
opportunity for this and to get his ambition fulfilled. In 1292 A.D. he successfully attacted Bhilsa
and was awarded governorship of Awadh.

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In 1296 he invaded Devagiri and got enormous booty which helped him in bringing the supporters
of the Sultan to his side and ultimately in capturing the throne of Delhi. The same year, he trapped
Jalal-ud-din and murdered him at Manikapur when the latter had come to greet him for his success
in conquering Devagiri.
In this mission, he was helped by his own brother Alma begs alias Ulugh Khan who duped the
Sultan by his sweet words and assured him of the loyalty of Ala- ud-din. After murdering his uncle
Sultan Jalal-ud-din, Ala-ud- din raised the royal umbrella over his head and proclaimed himself
the Sultan on 19th July, 1296 at Kora Manikpur.
Occupation of Delhi:
After murdering Jalal-ud-din, Ala-ud-din was not entirely free from problems and difficulties. And
in order to be the Sultan, he had to capture Delhi which was by then in the hands Rukn-ud- din
Ibrahim, the second son of Jalal-ud-din. The Widow queen, Malak-i-Jahan, on getting the death
news of her husband, immediately raised her second son Qadr Khan to the throne of Delhi under
the title of Rukn-ud-din Ibrahim.
Secondly he was hated by the people as an ungrateful usurper as he had treacherously murdered
the man who was his greatest benefactor and well-wisher.
Thirdly, the Jalali nobles who were the followers of the deceased Sultan were determined to take
revenge of their master.
Fourthly the Hindu Kings had asserted their independence taking advantage of the situation.
Lastly there was a constant danger of Mongol raids of Delhi.
All these factors made him weak at that moment. He was disheartened and wanted to retire to
Bengal. Just at that moment a faction of the Jalali nobles joined him. Ala-ud-din took this
opportunity and proceeded towards Delhi without wasting time.
On the way he lavishly distributed gold and silver coins and won for him a number of followers.
The task became easy for him. Ibrahim, who came out of Delhi to resist Ala-ud-din, was deserted
by his own troops. He fled to Multan with his mother. Ala-ud-din captured Delhi without any
resistance. He was crowned in the Red Palace of Balban on the 3rd October, 1296.
Soon after his accession, Ala-ud-din wanted to make his throne safe and secure. He lavishly
distributed wealth among his subjects so that they soon forgot his cruel deed of murdering his
uncle and benefactor, Jalal-ud-din. He offered important posts to his loyal nobles and allowed the
Jalali nobles to enjoy their previous posts. He pursued Ibrahim and other claimants to the throne
and put them to death one after another.
He also successfully repulsed two Mongol invasions in the year 1297 A.D and 1299 A.D and
earned faith of the people. After making his position safe on the throne, he punished some Jalali
nobles who had joined him for money.
His Ambition:
Ala-ud-din was very ambitious. He had a dream to conquer the world like Alexander the great and
even thought of starting a new religion. He was so much encouraged by his success and conquests
that he assumed the title of Sikandar-i-savi. He had it recited in the Khutba and super-scribed it on

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his coins. However, on the advice of his friend and city-kotwal, Ala-ul-mulk, he gave up these
wild schemes and decided to establish an extensive and firm empire in India alone.

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Foundations of Tughlaq Dynasty in India | History of India
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (1320-25 A.D.):
Ghiyas-ud din Tughlaq laid the foundation of the Tughlaq dynasty. It is stated by some writers that
the Tughlaqs belonged to the race of Qarauna Turks and were a people of mixed breed. The
Sultanate at this time was suffering from unsettled political conditions and demanded attention of
the new ruler. The administrative setup established by Alauddin was destroyed by his successors
and Ghiyas-ud-din had to address these problems urgently.
He pursued a policy of reconciliation with the nobles and the people who were severely restricted
under Alauddin. He succeeded in getting the support of the Turkish nobles on the basis of his race.
He resumed the grants that were revoked and allowed them to enjoy their privileges. Ghiyas-ud-
din succeeded in getting the support of the nobles and the people through these measures.
Ghiyas-ud-din attempted to improve the finances of the state and perused a policy to encourage
agriculture. His twin object was to increase land under cultivation and improve economic condition
of the cultivators. The state demand of revenue was fixed between one-fifth and one-third of the
produce.
He ordered the revenue to be increased only gradually and in no case could increase beyond one-
eleventh to one-tenth. The privileges of the previous Hindu rulers were restored. The practice of
measurement and survey of land was abandoned. The measures of Ghiyas-ud-din succeeded and
the area under cultivation increased and the condition of the farmers improved.
Ghiyas-ud-din continued the system of dagh and chehra instituted by Alauddin. However the
market regulations were also abandoned under him He insisted on paying the army better to
increase its efficiency. He was successful in increasing the strength of the army.
He also pursued a policy of annexation. Prataprudra Deva, ruler of Warangal had reasserted
independence and not paid the annual tribute. In 1321 A.D. he sent his son Prince Jauna to
Warangal to suppress Prataprudra Deva.
He moved swiftly and besieged the fort. After a period of six months, Prataprudra Deva
surrendered and agreed to pay the annual tribute. The name of Warangal was changed to Sultanpur.
Telangana was annexed into the territories of Delhi Sultanate. Jauna Khan next attacked Orissa
(Jajnagar). The expedition in the eastern part was a consequence of the wars in the south.
Bhanudeva II the ruler of Jajnagar in Orissa had supported the ruler of Warangal at the offensive
by the Sultans. Ulugh Khan in 1324 marched against Jajnagar. After plundering it the region was
annexed to the Delhi Sultanate.
In 1323-24 as a response to the request by nobles of Firuz Shah, the independent ruler of Lakhnauti,
Ghiyasuddin marched into Bengal. In the ensuing battle, Bengal ruler was defeated. On his way
back from Bengal, Ghiyas-ud-din also defeated the Raja of Tirhut in north Bihar.
East and south Bengal was also annexed to the Sultanate. Ghiyas-ud-din patronized literary men
as Amir Khusrau. He also built a strong fort called Tughlaqabad near Delhi, the third city of Delhi.

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 Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D.):
Jauna Khan succeeded his father in 1325 A.D. with the title of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He was
a very learned man and proficient in many branches of learning. He began his career with the
expedition of Khurasan. Ultimately the project was abandoned as an unrealistic scheme and the
army was disbanded. It led to a tremendous financial loss to the state exchequer. He did not take
into account the geographical and transportation difficulties.
His first administrative measure was to enhance land tax in the doab that led to wide spread
discontent as it was introduced at a time when the entire region was in the grip of a severe famine
due to failure of rains. The Sultan raised the tax from five to ten percent. Therefore the peasants
instead of paying the taxes abandoned their lands and adopted highway robbery. The tax collectors
continued to collect taxes by oppression. It resulted in extensive revolts. The Sultan suppressed
the revolts severely.
The next venture of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was the shifting of the capital to Devagiri that was
renamed Daulatabad. In 1326-27 he involved almost a wholesale transfer of the population.
Muhammad wanted to locate his capital in the central part of the empire and he also wanted to
make it safe from the Mongol invasions. Every care was taken to provide a comfortable travel to
the people to the new capital.
But when some of the people resisted to the transfer, the Sultan ordered everyone to shift as a
punitive measure without realizing the sufferings carved due to this complete evacuation. Soon the
Sultan discovered the unsuitability of the new capital. He ordered back the people to shift back to
Delhi once more. Daulatabad was abandoned largely because he soon found that he could not
control north India from Daulatabad. The order of going back to the old capital caused much
distress to the people.
Another of his novel and daring experiment was the introduction of the token currency of bronze
coins in 1329-30 AD. He was inspired by a similar system prevailing in Iran and China.
The Sultan made these token coins legal tenders and kept their value at par with the gold and silver
coins. Now the Sultan issued tanka (rupee) of a silver and copper coins. People soon began to
manufacture counterfeits of bronze in large numbers.
As a result bad money drove out good money. Trade came to a standstill and business was
paralyzed. Finally Muhammed Tughlaq decided to withdraw the token currency. The Sultan
readily gave gold and silver coins in exchange for bronze coins. The loss to the exchequer was
immense. As a result the treasury that he wanted to fill was completely empty.
Muhammad Tughlaq carried out many measures for improvement of the administration of revenue.
One of these was the preparation of a register in which income and expenditure of all provinces
were recorded. All provincial governors were asked to submit the reports of income and
expenditure to the centre.
Tughlaq established a separate department of agriculture called Diwan-i- Kohi. A special scheme
was extended to improve cultivation in the doab. In 1333-34 A.D., loans were provided to peasants.

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However the scheme failed miserably because the men chosen for the purpose proved to be
inexperienced and dishonest. He laid the foundation for the construction of Jahan Panah, the fourth
city of Delhi.
Begining with an uprising in Mal’abar, the eastern coast of the extreme south peninsula in 1335
whereby Ahsan Shah, the governor, founded the Sultanate of Madurai, the sultan faced as many
as 16 rebellions till his death in 1351. In 1336, Hariharand Bukka laid the foundation of
Vijayanagar kingdom. In 1341, Fakhruddin became independent in Bengal.
The revolt of Amiran-i-sada (the foreign nobles in the imperial service in Malwa, Gujarat) sealed
the fate of the sultanate in the south. Hasan Gangu, the most accomplished leader of the rebels,
established the Bahmani kingdom in 1347. On his way to Thatta in Sind to punish Taghi, the rebel,
Muhammad bin Tughluq died on March 20, 1351. Badauni observed: “And so the king was freed
from his people and they from the king.”
Biography of Muhammad-Bin-Tughluq
Muhammad bin Tughlaq was well known for his wisdom and character. People had a lot of
expectations from him and he on the other hand, had the desire for more valuable contribution for
his countrymen than his predecessors. That is why right from the beginning of his rule; he decided
to take some bold reformative measures for the improvement as well as safeguard of the country.
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq next to Alluddin Khilzi was the greatest sultan of Delhi who is best
remembered for his bold experiments and innovative thought in the field of administration as well
as in agriculture. He was one of the most remarkable rulers of his time. He was highly educated
and was well versed in Arabic and Persian language. He was well read in the subjects of religion,
philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, medicine and logic.
He was also a good calligraphist. Further from military point of view, he was an excellent
commander and during the time of Sultan Mubarak Shaha Khiliji he was promoted to the rank of
the master of the horse from an ordinary soldier. And again during the time of his father Sultan
Giyasuddin Tughlaq he led the imperial forces to Telengana and Warrangal. He was highly
ambitious and was a man of high moral character. He was very much faithful to his own religion
and obeyed the religious rites and was regular at his daily prayers. He abstained himself from
drinking in public. He was very kind and generous to the poor and pandits and was very unkind
and cruel.
In spite of high qualification and knowledge, Sultan Muhamad-bin- Tughlaq suffered from certain
qualities of hastiness and impatience that is why many of his experiments failed and he has been
called an ill starred idealist. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq ascended the throne just three days after the
sudden death of his father, Giyasuddin Tughlaq. When he was inspecting an elephant parade
standing on a pavilion at Tughluqabad, the Pavilion collapsed and the Sultan along with his second
son Muhammad Khan crushed under it and died. It is said that it was a conspiracy on the part of
Muhammad-bin Tughlaq who was impatient for power.
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq just after the death of his father, declared himself as the Sultan in
Tughlaqabad and after staying 40 days there, he proceeded to Delhi where he was greeted by the

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people as well as the Nobles. His coronation ceremony was duly performed in the Red Palace of
Balban.
Domestic measures:
Muhammad bin Tughlaq was well known for his wisdom and character. People had a lot of
expectations from him and he on the other hand, had the desire for more valuable contribution for
his countrymen than his predecessors. That is why right from the beginning of his rule; he decided
to take some bold reformative measures for the improvement as well as safeguard of the country.
Revenue Reforms:
At first Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq wanted to make an assessment of the total income and
expenditure of the country. He therefore issued an ordinance for the compilation of a register
showing the incomes and expenditures of the provinces. The governors of the provinces were
directed to submit the documents showing their incomes and expenditures and other necessary
materials for the compilation work.
He opened a separate office where a large number of clerks and officers were appointed to do the
compilation work. He did it in-order-to introduce a uniform standard of land revenue as well as to
assess every village of his kingdom. It was definitely a praise-worthy step of Muhammad-bin-
Tughlaq.
Taxation in the Doab:
The increase of taxation in the Doab Region was an ill measured step on the part of the Sultan
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. No doubt the Doab region between the Ganga and Yamuna was highly
fertile and production was more than any other part of the country, but hike in the tax came at a
wrong time and assessment of revenue was not based on the factual report. Peasants were paying
the land revenue tax almost the half of the produce since the time of Ala-ud-din Khilzi. Therefore,
another increase in the land revenue tax upto ten percent more in the Doab by the Sultan
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, definitely created serious peasant discontentment.
This also came at a time when the Doab was at the verge of a famine. This made the situation more
deplorable. On the other-hand, the officers engaged in the duty of tax collection could not try to
understand the situation and went on collecting the taxes. They even did not hesitate to use force
while collecting the tax. Peasants unwilling and unable to pay tax, fled away from the villages and
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq took harsh measures to capture and punish them.
Many of them went to jungles and joined the Gang of robbers. Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq realized
the problem but it was too late. He made all possible efforts to restore them to their houses and
supplied all sorts of agricultural helps and loans to revive their economic standard. In spite of this
he was misunderstood by his subjects. The object of his taxation policy in the Doab was to increase
the military resources. This was not achieved rather he was mistaken by the people as a lunatic
person.
Establishment of Agriculture Department:
In order to bring an improvement in agriculture, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq decided to undertake a
number of measures and he, therefore established a department of agriculture called Diwan-i-kohi.
The department’s main work was to find out uncultivated lands and make all sorts of arrangements

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for the cultivation of horse lands. At first a large area of land say sixty square miles in area was
taken up in the project.
A large number of peasants were engaged in the work of cultivation. They were supplied with all
sorts of agricultural instruments and seeds. They were asked to grow different crops in rotation. A
large number of officers and guards were appointed to look after the project. The government spent
over it more than seventy lakhs. In spite of this, the scheme failed miserably. The target amount
of production could not be achieved. The expenditure in it outstripped the income from it. It was
due to several reasons.
Firstly, the land chosen for cultivation was not fertile. Secondly, the officers lacked experience
which accounted for bad planning or faulty implementation. There were also some corrupt officials
who misappropriated a huge amount of production and money.
Lastly, it was a novel experiment, therefore, required more time and attention on the part of the
Sultan which he could not give. He could have tried more to improve it. Though the scheme failed
disastrously during his reign, yet it had a long term impact. But he was misunderstood by the
people.
Transfer of the Capital:
Transfer of the capital from Delhi to Devagari (Daultabad) has the most controversial step of
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Several factors prompted him to take this decision.
Firstly Devagiri had been a base for the expansion of Turkish rule in India. It was not always
possible to operate army from Delhi for the occupation of Southern states. Muhammad-bin-
Tughlaq himself had spent a number of years as prince to occupy and guard the southern states
during the time of his father.
Secondly as Devagiri was situated at a central place so the administration of the north and the
south could be possible. He also did it in order to consolidate the newly conquered states of south.
Further the people of the south were under the feeling of an alien rule.
Thirdly Delhi was nearer to the North-Western frontier which was exposed to Mongol invasions.
But Devagiri would be a safe place and almost free from Mongol raids.
Lastly, it was in the mind of the Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq that he would be able to utilize the vast
wealth and resources of the south, if his capital would be there at Devagiri. But lb Batuta gives a
complete different reason for this transfer of capital.
According to him, Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq was disgusted with the life of Delhi because
he was getting almost daily many anonymous letters from the people of the city abusing and
criticizing him and therefore, he wanted to leave it for good. Whatever may be the fact
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq ordered for the transfer of capital in 1327 A.D.
He ordered his courtiers, officers, leading men including Sufi saints as well as all people of Delhi
to shift to Devgiri. Though the inhabitants of Delhi were unwilling to leave their dear land of birth,
they had to obey the Sultan’s order. Nobody was allowed to stay at Delhi. According to Ibn Batuta
“A search was made and a blind man and a cripple man were found. The cripple man has put to
death while the blind man was tied with the tail of horse and was dragged to Daulatabad where
only his one leg reached.”

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Of course this version of Iban Batuta has been debatable. Batuta says, the citizens of Delhi used to
write letters containing abuses and scandals to the Sultan. Therefore, the Sultan decided to lay
Delhi waste in order to punish them. Sir Woolreley Haig has accepted the version of Ibn Batuta,
Isami also says that the Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq resolved to break-up the power of the
citizens of Delhi and therefore, decided to transfer the capital. Thus, he also supported the version
of Iban Batuta. But professor Habibullah and others have given almost the different views.
However the people were asked to shift. The distance from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri) was
nearly 1500 km. The Sultan had set up rest houses on the way to help the travellers. Since this
event took place during the summer season and the journey was rigorous one, many people died
on the way. Many of those who reached Daulatabad felt home sick because the land and climate
were not suitable to their health and they were also reminded of their dear birth place where they
had lived generations together.
Hence, there was a good deal of discontent. After a couple of years, Muhammad Tughlaq decided
to abandon Daulatabad because he realized the fact that just as he could not control the South from
Delhi in the same way he could not control North from Daulatabad. He changed his mind and
again in 1335 A.D. he ordered the retransfer of the Capital to Delhi and asked everybody to go
back to Delhi. So his transfer of capital with the entire population of Delhi was a blunder. He could
have shifted only the official seats and officers and courtiers but not the entire people of Delhi.
Though the attempt to make Devagiri a capital failed, it had a number long-range benefit. It helped
in bringing north and south closer together by improving communications. Many people, including
religious divines who had gone to Daulatabad, settled down there. They became the means of
spreading in the Deccan the cultural, religious and social ideas which the turks had brought with
them to north India.
This resulted in a new process of cultural interaction between north and South India. However
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq has been criticized for this transfer of capital. Neither his selection of the
place Devagiri as a site of capital nor his act of shifting the entire population of Delhi was
welcomed by any historian. According to Standly Lane-poole, “Daulatabad was a monument of
misdirected energy.”
Introduction of Token Currency:
Introduction of token currency was another bold experiment of the Sultan Muhammad-bin-
Tughlaq. Since currency or money is a medium of exchange, it is greatly required that to with a
huge quantity to serve the purpose of exchange in modern time. Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq’s
predecessors depended on gold and silver coins as medium of exchange. But during the time
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq a huge quantity of coins was required for various transactions and there
was a dearth of gold and silver coins in the country.
Further he had squeezed the treasury by spending a lot of money in his various experiments
including the transfer of the capital. And again he had the ambition to conquer distant countries
which would require a good deal of money. Considering all those factors he decided to introduce
a bronze coin which was to have the same value as the silver tanka. He was also encouraged by
Qublai Khan, the ruler of China and Ghazan Khan, the ruler of Persia who had successfully

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experimented with a token currency. Muhammad- bin-Tughlaq introduced bronze coins in place
of silver and gold but there remained certain defects which made him a big failure in this
experiment.
Within a very short time specimens of this coin were found in different parts of the country. A
huge amount of forged coins entered into market and government treasury as those were minted
secretly by private parties. The government took no steps to prevent this. As a result each house
turned to be a mint.
Further, people made payments to the government with new bronze coins and hoarded gold and
silver. The government treasury was filled with bronze or copper coins. The new coins also began
to be greatly devalued in the markets. Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq could not stop the forging of new
coins. Had he been able to do so, he could have been successful.
Finally he decided to withdraw the token currency. He promised to exchange silver coins for
bronze coins. In this way a huge amount of new coins were exchanged for silver. But the forged
coins which were detected were not exchanged.
These coins Barani says, were heaped up outside the fort and remained lying there for many years.-
These above experiments not only brought wastage of money but also affected the prestige of the
Sultan.
Khurasan Expedition:
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s experiments were not confined to internal matters only; it was also
down with external affairs. His Khurasan project was the first of them. In-order-to fulfill his
ambition of a great conqueror; he planned to conquer the kingdom of Khurasan which was then
ruled by Iraq. He recruited one lakh soldiers for this purpose and paid them one year’s salary in
advance.
He spent nearly three lakhs of rupees for this mission. But this project was dropped because he did
not get the help of the Persian emperor who had assured him to help in this mission. Ultimately
the Sultan incurred a huge financial loss and his reputation as a conqueror hampered much.
Karajal Expedition:
Karajal expedition was another mis-judged step of Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq. Karajal was a Hindu
kingdom located between India and China. In 1337 Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq sent a huge army to
invade Karajal. After some initial success, the Delhi army perished in the mountainous region of
Himalayas due to severe rain fall.
The army suffered terribly and we are told by Barani that out 10, 000 army only 10 horse-men
could return to Delhi to tell the story of the disaster. It was a great loss to the Sultan both in men
and money. Though the Hindu raja of Karajal accepted the Suzerinty of Delhi, but considering to
the amount of loss, it can be described that the Karajal expedition was an unsuccessful adventure
of Sultan.
Further against the Mongols, the Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq felt weak as he had neglected
the defence of the northwestern frontier. The Mongols under their leader Tarma-Shirin Khan had
invaded India and plundered upto Multan and Lahore without any opposition.

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When they advanced towards Delhi, the Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq not knowing what to do,
bribed the invader with a huge quantity of gold and silver. This weakness of the Sultan made
people feel most insecure. Failure in both the military expeditions as well as his inability to defend
the Mongols made him unpopular.
The Estimate of Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq:
While making an estimate of Sultan Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq’s character and achievements,
historians have strongly differed and have expressed diametrically opposite views. Historians like
Elphinstone, Edward Thomass, Havell and V.A. Smith have agreed that the Sultan Muhammad-
bin-Tughlaq was affected by some degree of insanity. But on the other hand historians like
Gardiner Brown and Dr. Iswari Prasad have described Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq with high
sounding words and do not believe that he was suffering from insanity.
Even contemporary historians like Barani and Ibn Batuta have expressed opposite views about the
character and achievements of the Sultan. So in this context, it is very difficult to make an
important and unprejudiced assessment of the Sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. Almost all the
historians have agreed that Sultan Muhammad was one of the most learned and accomplished
scholars of his time.
He had profound knowledge in logic, philosophy, mathematics astronomy and physical sciences.
He was well versed in Arabic and Persian language and literature. He was a lover of music and
fine arts. Barani says, the sultan Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq was a veritable wonder of creation
whose abilities would have taken by surprise even Aristotle and Asaf.
But he was proved to be a big failure as a ruler particularly with regards to his different
experiments. His increase of tax in the fertile Doab region was not at all in-correct. As a ruler he
had the every right to increase tax in-order-to meet the day to day expenditures of the country. But
it came at a time when the Doab region was at famine.
People who were already paying almost fifty percent of the land revenue since the time of Ala-ud-
din suddenly became unwilling to pay more than that. And the very situation was not favourable
to make-up their minds to pay more. Neither the Sultan nor his officers did realize the matter.
Secondly his creation of Department of Agriculture for the purpose of Large Scale cultivation of
lands for surplus production was a welcomed step. But while implementing it he did a mistake by
not choosing a fertile land for this purpose. Again the officers appointed in this work were corrupt
and lacked experience. He did a great mistake by dropping this project just after one failure. It
seems that though his idea was good, but he lacked executional ability.
Again in case of his transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, he displayed his lack of Wit.
Instead of shifting the en masse population, he could have shifted only the official seats and
officers. Even if he had the intention to punish the people of Delhi for their abusing and scandlous
letters, he could do so by some other method, but not by physically shifting them to Devagiri, the
new capital. Further his introduction of token currency was amazing one.
As there was shortage of gold and silver coins to serve as a medium of exchange due to the increase
in the transactions, the sultan was very right to go for the introduction of a Copper Currency which
had the same value as the Silver Coin. But he failed to keep an effective control over its minting.

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It was found a huge amount of foreged copper coins in the market as a result of private minting.
He also did not make any elaborate effort to check it except banning it.
As regards to his foreign expeditions, he was seen as a great failure. He lost both men and money
in both the expeditions of Khurassan and Karajal. He had exhibited lack of wisdom and
commonsense in these expeditions. He was also mild before the Mongols.
It was due to the failure in different matters he has been called a mad Sultan. He has also been
characterised as a mixture of opposites and a bundle of contradictions. It is sure that he had many
good ideas, but he had not the capacity to execute them. He was surely one of the extraordinary
kings.

Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 A.D.):

After the death of Muhammad Tughlaq his first cousin, Firuz Tughlaq became the Sultan in 1351
A.D. He overtook the administration in a chaotic condition. Firuz Tughlaq primarily paid attention
to domestic affairs. He appointed as his wazir (chief minister), Malik Maqbul, originally a Bramhin
from Telangana. Firuz Shah started his reign with liberal ideas. He assured protection to all
members of the royal family.
He tried to please the nobles and set to ameliorate the distress caused to the people during long
and troubled reign of Muhammad. Firuz Tughlaq abolished many irksome taxes keeping only
those allowed by Quranic law. He looked after the interests of the cultivator, provided irrigation
facilities by constructing five canals and advanced loans to the needy.
He created a department of charity, Diwan-i- Khairat. He worked towards winning over the
confidence of the ulema. Firuz increased the salaries of his officers and gave them jagirs. Firuz is
known to have established several towns, Fatehbad, Hissar, Firuzpur, Jaunpur and Firuzabad, the
favourite city of Firuz now popularly known as Kotla Firuz Shah, the fifth city of Delhi. He revived
the jagirs system abolished by Alauddin and reorganized army on feudal basis.
He marched twice to capture Bengal in 1353 and in 1359 AD but failed on both the occasions.
While returning from Bengal, Firuz Tughlaq attacked Jajnagar in Orissa. In 1365 AD, he started
on a campaign to Thatta to avenge the wrongs done there to his predecessor but ended up granting
pension to its ruler whose brother was reinstated in Sind. When Firuz Tughlaq died in 1388 AD, a
civil war broke out among his successors.

Bright and Dark-Sides of the Rule of Firoz Shah Tughlaq

Firoz Tughlaq a cousin brother of Muhammad Tughlaq ascended the throne after the death of
Muhammad Tughlaq who was issueless and loved Firoz Tughlaq very much. His reign lasted for
about 37 years from 1351 to 1388 A.D. During his rule, Firoz Tughlaq adopted measures like
revenue reforms, irrigation works, charitable programmes and public works etc. which won praise
from various quarters. At the same time, his military expeditions, slave system, feudal practice
and religious policy etc. brought discredit to him. Accordingly his reign was a ‘mixture of good
and evil’ as observed by Dr. Ishwari Prasad.

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Bright side of Firoz Tughlaq’s reign:
1. Assessment of the revenue:
Firoz Tughlaq appointed a special officer namely Khawja Hisan-ud-Din to prepare an estimate of
the public revenue of the kingdom. It took 6 years to complete this work. The Khawja toured the
entire kingdom and prepared proper records. Thereafter he fixed the revenue of the ‘Khalsa’ land
(Government land) in the kingdom at six crores and eighty-five lakhs of ‘Tankas’ (silver coins).
It was a rough estimate. The revenue which was fixed remained unchanged during the reign of
Firoz Tughlaq. The chief merit of this system was that the income of the state was fixed and the
expenditure of the state could be adjusted according to the income which was known before hand.
2. New system of taxation:
In accordance with the Islamic law, he imposed the following four taxes:
(i) ‘Kharaj':
It was the land tax which was equal to one-tenth of the produce of the land.
(ii) ‘Zakat':
It was two-and-half per cent tax on property realized from the Muslims and utilized for specific
religious purposes only.
(iii) ‘Kham':
It was one-fifth of the booty captured and the four-fifth was left for the soldiers.
(iv) ‘Jijya':
It was levied on the Non-Muslim subjects, particularly the Hindus. Women and children were,
however exempted from the taxes.
3. Levy of other taxes:
The irrigation tax, garden tax, octroi tax and the sales tax were the other important taxes.
4. Irrigation works:
With a view to encourage irrigation, the Sultan paid a lot of attention to irrigation works.
Following four canals were constructed:
(i) The first and the most important and the longest canal were one which carried the waters of the
river Jamuna to the city of Hissar. It was 150 miles long.
(ii) The second canal was drawn from river Sutlej to Ghaghra. It was about 100 miles long.
(iii) The third canal was from Mandvi and Sirmur hills to Hansi.
(iv) The fourth canal ran from Ghaghra to the newly established town of Firozabad.
Irrigation tax was charged at the rate of one-tenth of the produce of the irrigated land.
5. Laying out gardens:
The Sultan laid out about 1200 gardens in and around Delhi. These gardens produced so much
fruit that they brought to the treasury an annual income of one lakh and eighty thousand tankas’.
6. Welfare of the peasants:
The Sultan waived off the loans that were given to them by Muhammad Tughlaq at the time of
drought. He issued strict instructions to the officers not to harass the peasants.

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7. Benevolent works:
These included the following:
(i) ‘Diwan-i-Kherat':
It performed two main functions. The marriage bureau gave grants to the poor parents for the
marriage of their daughters. It also provided financial help to the destitute.
(ii) ‘Dar-ul-Shafa':
Hospitals were set up in important towns where medicines were given free of charge. Poor people
were also supplied food.
(iii) ‘Sarais':
About 200 ‘ ‘sarais’ (rest houses) were built by the Sultan for the benefits of merchants and other
travellers.
(iv) Grants to sufferers:
The Sultan gave liberal grants to all those persons or their heirs who had suffered bodily or
executed during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq.
8. Public works department:
The Sultan got constructed four canals, ten public baths, four mosques, thirty palaces, two hundred,
Sarais’, one hundred tombs, 30 towns and one hundred bridges. Firoz Shah had a passion for public
works. About his building activities, Sultan himself observed, “Among the gifts which God has
bestowed upon me, His humble servant, had a desire to erect public buildings. So 1 built many
mosques and monasteries that the learned and the devout and the holy, might worship God in these
edifices and aid the kind builder with their prayers.”
Four important towns founded by him were of Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar Firoza.
Two pillars of Ashoka were brought to Delhi—one from Meerut and the other from Topra, Arnbala
district—and erected in Delhi. In this regard Dr. V.A. Smith has observed, “Asiatic kings as a rule
show no interest in buildings erected by their predecessors, which usually are allowed to decay
uncared for. Firoz Shah was particular in devoting much attention to the repair and rebuilding of
the structures of former kings and ancient nobles.”
9. Promotion of education and literature:
Firoz Tughlaq was a great patron of historians, poets and scholars. He himself was a man of
learning and wrote his biography entitled ‘Fatuhat-i-Firozshah’. He established thirty educational
institutions including three colleges. Teachers were liberally paid and stipends were granted to the
students.
Zia-ud-Din Barani wrote ‘Fatwah-i-Jahandari’ and Afif wrote his ‘Tarikh-i-Firuzshah’.
Maulana Jalal-ud-Din Rumi, the famous theologian also flourished in his court.
10. Judicial reforms:
Firoz Tughlaq was opposed to severe punishments. He ended punishments like cutting of the
limbs, extracting the eyes, putting melted glass in the throat, burning alive etc. He established
courts at all important places of his empire and appointed Qazis etc. to administer justice.
11. Reforms in the currency system:

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The Sultan introduced several types of new coins and small coins and ensured that no false coins
came into circulation.
Dark Side of Firoz Tughlaq‘s Reign:
1. Failure as a conqueror:
Firoz Tughlaq was not an able general. No significant conquests were made by him.
Main military events are given below:
(i) Bengal:
Firoz Tughlaq made two attempts to conquer Bengal but failed.
(ii) Orissa:
While returning from Bengal, he attacked Orissa. The ruler agreed to pay tribute to the Sultan.
(iii) Nagarkot (Kangra):
It took about six months to subjugate the Raja who acknowledged the Sultan’s suzerainty.
(iv) Sindh:
In the initial attacks by the Sultan himself, about three- fourth of his army was destroyed. Later
the Sindh ruler accepted the suzerainty of the Sultan.
2. Army organization:
The Sultan introduced several reforms in the army which produced negative results.
(i) He did not maintain a standing army,
(ii) Military service was made hereditary,
(iii) The principle of merit was ignored,
(iv) The Sultan introduced the system of paying salary by grant of land.
This meant that a soldier had to go to his village for collecting his land revenue in lieu of salary.
3. Evils of Jagirdari system:
Firoz Tughlaq introduced the system of granting jagirs (lands) to his officials in place of cash
payment. In due course, jagirdars became very powerful and created difficulties for the rulers
4. Nereauary nobles:
Firoz Tughlaq decreed that whenever a noble died, his son should be allowed to succeed to his
position. This reduced the chances of competent persons being appointed at responsible posts.
5. Slave system:
It is said that Firoz Tughlaq had maintained about one lakh, eighty thousand slaves. It put great
economic burden on the state. This slave system proved very harmful and became one of the
contributory factors of the downfall of the Tughlaq empire.
6. Fanatically intolerant religious policy towards the Hindus:
Firoz encouraged the Hindus for conversion to Islam. In his autobiography, he wrote, “I
encouraged my infidel subjects (Hindus) to embrace the religion of the Prophet (Islam religion),
and I proclaimed that everyone who left his creed and became a Mussalman should be exempted
from ‘jizya’. He further wrote, “I also ordered that the infidel books, the idols and the vessels used
in their worship (Hindus) should all be publicly burnt.”

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7. Habit of drinking:
Firoz was so addicted to drinking that whenever he set out on a military expedition, he would
remain in a state of drunkenness for several days. This was followed by his nobles and forces as
well.
An estimate of Firoz Tughlaq:
(a) Appreciation by historians:
“The welfare of the people”, says Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “was the watchword of his administration.
Therefore, Firoz is considered by Barani as an ideal Muslim King.”
In the words of Havell Firozj’s reign “is a welcome breath in the long chain of tyranny, cruelty
and debauchery which make up the gloomy annals of the Turkish dynasties.”
Afif, a contemporary of Firoz writes, “Their (peasants) homes were replete with grain, everyone
had plenty of gold and silver. “No women was without ornaments”
About the previous penal code and the changes brought about by Firoz, S.R. Sharma states, “it was
left to his less appreciated successor (Firoz) to mitigate its ferocity.”
About the judicial system, V.A. Smith has said, “One reform the abolition of mutilation and torture,
deserves unqualified commendation.”
About his love for buildings, Sir Woolseley Haigh has remarked, “He indulged in a passion for
building which equalled if it did not surpass that of Roman emperor Augutus.”
(b) Criticism by historians:
About his lack of military skill, V.A. Smith states, “The campaign (Bengal) had no result except
the wanton slaughter thus evidenced. No territory was annexed and the practical independence of
the eastern empire continued unimpaired.” He further observes, “It seems to be plain that Firoz
Shah possessed no military capacity. His early campaigns in the east and the west were absolutely
futile, and during the greater part of his long reign he abstained from war.”
Likewise regarding Firoz’s expedition to Sindh, Dr. Ishwari Prasad wrote, “The expedition was a
singular instance of the Sultan’s felinity and lack of strategic skill.”
Regarding his religious intolerance, S.R. Sharma states, “It is a pity that such a Sultan should have
besmirched his fair name by acts of religious intolerance.”
In the same manner Dr. R.C. Majumdar writes, “Firoz was the greatest bigot of his age.”
Professor B.P. Saxena also states, “…But in the last fifteen years of his reign Firoz was an
incurable and degenerate fanatic.”
Concluding Statement:
We may conclude the discussion with the views of Dr. V.A. Smith, “Firoz Shah, whatever may
have been his defects or weaknesses deserves much credit for having mitigated in some respects
the horrible practices of his predecessors, and for having introduced some tincture of humane
feelings into the administration.”

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 Later Tughlaqs (1388-1414 A.D.):
Firuz Tughlaq was succeeded by one of his grandsons, Tughlaq Shah, who assumed the title of
Ghiasuddin Tughluq II (1388-89 A.D.). Within a year of his accession, he fell victim to court
intrigue and was beheaded. During the next five year three Sultans-Abu Bakr, Muhammad Shah
and Humayun titled Alauddin Sikander Shah, ascended the throne.
The last Tughlaq ruler, Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah (1394-1412 A.D.) faced the invasion of Timur,
the great Mongol leaderof Central Asia in 1398. After plundering Delhi, Timur returned to
Samarquand via Merrut, Hardwar, Kangra and Jammu which he sacked.
He appointed Khizr Khan (the governor of Multan) as the viceroy in Delhi. After the departure of
Timur, Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah returned to Delhi in 1401, but he was expelled from Delhi by
Mallu Iqbal the defacto ruler.
After Mallu Iqbal’s death in 1405, he returned to Delhi from Kannuj, only to be under the influence
of the new defacto ruler Daulat Khan. Nasiruddin Mahmud died in 1412. Daulat Khan ruled for
one and half years as the defacto ruler and was defeated by Khizr Khan in 1414 which laid the
foundation of the Sayyid dynasty.

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 Mongols
The North West Frontier Policy during the Sultanate Period
Mongol Invasions on the North-West Frontier of India:
The North-West Frontier of India always remained vulnerable to foreign attacks in ancient and
medieval times. Several invaders came to India from the North-West. The rulers of India attempted
to devote attention towards guarding their frontier according to their ability and competence.
During those days the frontiers comprised the Hindu Kush Mountains along with the regions of
Kabul, Gazni and Gandhar.
The Mongols from Central Asia created difficult situations for several Indian Sultans. Their
invasions weakened the powers of some of the rulers so much that they had to suffer humiliation
and that some of the governors under them declared their independence and became independent
rulers.
Mongols and the Sultans of Slave Dynasty:
Iltutmish:
During the beginning of the 12th century A.D., Mongols under the leadership of Changzeb Khan
invaded several countries from Japan to Central Asia. Lakhs of people became victim of their
atrocities. India barely escaped their fury. The Shah of Khwarizm, Jalal-ud-Din was forced by the
Mongols to flee from his country.
He sought refuge with Sultan Iltutmish who very diplomatically sent him back on the plea of
unsuitable climate of India. The Shah was hotly being pursued by the Mongols. Fortunately for
India, the Mongols had to return from the frontiers of India on account of political exigencies in
Central Asia.
Baharm Shah and Nasir-ud-Din:
The first Mongol invasion took place in 1241. The Mongols plundered several territories including
Lahore to their heart’s content. The Sultan Baharm Shah could not do anything. Another adverse
effect of the Mongol invasion was that the provinces of Sind and Multan became independent of
the Sultan.
However, later on these two provinces were won over during Masud’s time i.e. the successor of
Baharm Shah. During the next Sultan Nasir-ud-Din, the Mongols again attacked India and
besieged Multan. The governor of Multan gave Rs. one lakh as war indemnity. Their attacks
continued and Multan and Western Punjab came under their control.
Balban and the Mongols:
The Mongol invasions increased during Balban’s time but were met with great resistance. Balban
knew well the strength and the savagery of the Mongols.
He took the following measures to safeguard his kingdom from the invasions of the Mongols:
1. Balban decided not to leave Delhi for a long period to expand his kingdom.
2. Balban personally kept a vigilant eye over the North-West Frontier.
3. For purpose of defence, Balban divided the North-west frontier into two parts. Multan, Samanta
and Dipalpur were also made as frontier provinces.
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4. Balban appointed his sons and dependable relatives as the governors of those provinces.
Mohammad, his eldest son and Bughra Khan were made the Governors of Samana and Dipalpur
respectively. Sher Shah Shangar (Sultan’s cousin) was appointed the governor of Multan. After
Sher Khan’s death, Balban entrusted Sind, Multan and Lahore to his eldest son Muhammad.
5. Balban raised a strong army to defend the frontier itself and kept a large army at Delhi in the
state of preparedness to meet the challenge of the Mongol invasions.
6. Balban built rows of strong forts at strategic points all along the frontier.
7. He posted experienced and well-trained military personnel in these forts.
8. Improved war weapons were manufactured and supplied to these forts.
9. Old forts were repaired and provided with adequate weapons and equipment’s. The Mongols
made their biggest invasion in 1285 in which Balban’s eldest son Muhammad Khan was killed but
in the end, the Mongols were defeated. Balban died the same year in the grief of his son.
The Khaljis and the Mongols:
Jal-uI-Din and Mongols:
During Jal-ul-Din’s period, the Sultan himself defeated the Mongols near Samana. Hundreds of
Mongols were killed. Many Mongols embraced Islam. The Sultan allowed several Mongols to
settle down near the vicinity of Delhi. The Sultan married his daughter to one of the Mongol
officers.
Mongol’s and Ala-ud-Din:
Ala-ud-Din had to face more than a dozen Mongol invasions. They trampled the frontier provinces
under the hooves of their horses. On several occasions, they even reached Delhi. Ala-ud-Din
planned to fight offensively instead of defensively after some of their invasions.
The terror created by Zafar Khan, also called Rustam-a-Hind, one of the most prominent generals
of the Sultan Ala-ud-Din, in the minds of the Mongol soldiers was so great that whenever the
horses would not lower their mouths to drink water, the Mongol soldiers would mockingly shout
at them whether they had seen Zafar Khan that they feared to stake their thrust.
Following were the important measures taken by Ala-ud-Din to check the Mongol invasions:
1. Old forts were repaired and seasoned officers and soldiers posted there.
2. New forts were built and experienced, well trained and well-equipped troops posted.
3. Armament manufacturing factories were set up under skilled technicians and engineers.
4. A separate and permanent army was prepared for the defence of the North-West Frontier.
5. A special governor was appointed for the North-West Frontier.
6. Strong armies were stationed at the frontier areas of Dipalpur, Samanta and Multan.
7. The most experienced generals like Zafar Khan, and Ghazni Malik were entrusted the
responsibility of defending the borders.
8. A strong wall was constructed around the Capital (Siri Fort) so that the Mongols were unable to
enter the capital.
9. Ala-ud-Din enforced the price control and market reform regulations in order to supply
essentials commodities at reasonable rates to the army personnel.

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As a result of the successful frontier policy of Ala-ud-Din, the danger from the Mongols almost
disappeared. According to Barani and Ferishta, not only did the Mongols cease their aggression
against India, but now they also had to defend themselves against the troops of Ala-ud-Din. Of
course, in one of the Mongol invasions, the brave general Zafar Khan was killed.
Mongols and the Tughlaqs:
Ghias-ud-Din:
One Mongol invasion took place during his time but the Mongols were defeated.
Muhammad Tughlaq:
The Mongols invaded under Tarmashirin. Historians have differed regard Muhammad Tughlaq’s
policy. According to one version, he defeated the Mongols and himself chased them to drive them
out. However according to another version, Muhammad Tughlaq bribed the Mongols and they
went back.
Firoz Tughlaq and his successors:
Timur Lane’s invasion proved very destructive. He massacred the population of Delhi for several
days. It paved the way for Babur’s invasion and the Mughal rule in India.
Effects of the Mongol Invasions:
For meeting the challenge of the Mongol invasions, the Sultans of Delhi had to spend a substantial
part of revenue in raising and maintaining a large army which had an adverse effect on their
financial resources. Some of the Delhi Sultans like Ala-ud-Din Khalji had to increase the land
revenue even to the extent of 50 per cent of the produce of the land. This had an adverse effect on
agriculture and the general conditions of the peasants deteriorated.
Balban lost his dear son Muhammad in whose grief he died. Subsequently the slave dynasty fell,
yielding power to the Khaljis.
Ala-ud-Din Khalji, though he was successful in driving away the Mongols, he lost one of his ablest
military commanders namely Zafar Khan.
Jal-ul-Din Khalji allowed hundreds of Mongols to settle in the vicinity of Delhi and these Mongols
embraced Islam. However these new Muslims created many difficulties for Ala-ud-Din Khalji.
Summing up:
There is no doubt that the Mongol invasions proved very costly to all the kingdoms of the Delhi
Sultanate and became one of the most important factors of its disintegration.

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 The Mighty Mughals
Babur’s Rule in India (1526-30)
Babur (1483-1530) whose original name was Zahir-ud-Din Mohammad, came to be known by his
pet name ‘Babur’ – a Turkish word which means a tiger. He belonged to Farghana, a small
Kingdom in Central Asia. From 1519 to 1524, he led four expeditions to India but without any
significant results. His fifth invasion which marked his success completely changed the political
history of India. It had far-reaching consequences. The battle of Panipat made him virtually the
ruler of entire India.
Vulnerable Political condition of India on the Eve of Babur’s Invasion:
A struggle for political supremacy among several warring powers in India was going on. Babur
who had an ambition to rule India fully realized this condition and decided to try his luck. Situation
is described here in brief.
Delhi:
Ibrahim Lodi, the ruler of Delhi, lacked power and political diplomacy. He had created many
enemies. He was not on friendly terms with several Afghan and Turk nobles. Rana Sanga of Mewar
was his sworn enemy.
Punjab:
Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab distrusted Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. To settle scores with
him, he invited Babur from Kabul to invade India.
Sind:
The province of Sind had become independent of the rule of the Delhi Sultanate. There was a good
deal of confusion and lawlessness in the state.
Kashmir:
Towards the end of the fifteenth century, there began a stage of anarchy in Kashmir.
Mewar:
Sangram Singh, popularly known as Rana Sanga, was the ruler of Mewar. He aspired to capture
the throne of Delhi and Agra. He is said to have invited Babur to invade India. He was perhaps
under the delusion that Babur like his ancestor Timur would invade, loot and go back to Kabul.
Chief reasons that led Babur to invade India:
These may be listed as under:
1. Chaotic political condition of India.
2. Temptation to acquire enormous wealth of India.
3. Legal claim on account of Timur’s invasion on India — Babur a descendant of Timur.
4. Insufficient income from Kabul — Babur’s earlier possessions.
5. Fear of Babur regarding Uzbek’s attack on his empire of Kabul.
6. Babur’s ambition of capturing territories.
7. Invitation from some Indian nobles and rulers to attack India.
First Battle of Panipat (April 21, 1526 A.D.):

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After conquering Punjab, Babur proceeded towards Delhi and met the army of Ibrahim Lodi at
Panipat — now a town in Haryana, 85 Kilometers north-west of Delhi. Babur, in his ‘Memoirs’
mentions that with a small army of 12000 picked horsemen he defeated Ibrahim’s army of about
one lakh soldiers. Whatever be the statistical details, all historians agree that Ibrahim’s army was
far greater in numerical strength.
For about a week, both the armies faced each other and engaged in skirmishes before the real battle
started on the morning of April 21, 1526 and by noon it was over. Ibrahim Lodi’s army was
destroyed and he died in the battle field along with his 15000 soldiers. (Estimates vary). Pleased
at his victory Babur wrote, “By the grace and mercy of Almighty God, this difficult affair was
made easy to me and that mighty army, in the space of half a day was laid to dust.”
Causes of Babur’s Success and Ibrahim’s Failure:
1. Absence of any strong power in India:
As Dr. Ishwari Prasad has put it, “In the beginning of the sixteenth century, India was a
confederacy of a number of small independent states which could easily fall prey to any strong
and determined invader.”
2. Babur’s efficient artillery:
According to Rush brook Williams, “If it could be possible to emphasize anyone of the factors as
being the most important cause of his (Babur’s) victory, one would surely have to assign the first
place to his artillery”.
3. Inefficiency of Ibrahim as a military commander:
Babur himself has observed, “Ibrahim was an inexperienced Youngman, careless in his
movements who marched without order, halted or retired without plan and engaged in the battle
without foresight”.
4. Tulghuna method of warfare-formation of the army in the battle field:
Babur took the position in the centre between the left and right wings. On the right and left
extremities of the entire front line were two flying columns to wheel round on the enemy and attack
them on the sides or at the rear. Along the front of the entire line, were placed the artillery on the
right side and the musketeers on the left.
The Afghan army came straight rapidly marching, but as they came near the Babur’s frontline,
they hesitated and halted, but their soldiers behind pressed on creating a little confusion. Babur did
not let go this opportunity and his flying columns wheeled round, reached at the back and delivered
a violent attack at the rear while the right and left wings started charging the enemies at the front.
At this very time, the artillery from the right and musketeers from the left started the attack. The
centre of Ibrahim’s army became helpless under the attack and the rest of the army was surrounded
on all sides by the rains of bullets and arrows.
5. Babur’s well-trained and disciplined army:
There is no doubt that Ibrahim’s army lacked proper training and discipline. His army was a mixed
crowd of soldiers.
6. Horses versus elephants:
Babur’s war horses were more swift in action as compared with the war elephants of Ibrahim.

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7. Disunity among Indian rulers:
Babur had not to face a united army of Indian rulers. He defeated them one by one and captured
their kingdoms.
8. Unpopularity of Ibrahim Lodi:
Ibrahim’s treatment with his Amirs (nobles) was most discourteous and insulting and they wanted
to get rid of him.
9. Babur’s personality:
Babur was determined to capture Delhi. He was indefatigable and had enormous capacity to inspire
his soldiers. Babur’s warm personality generated loyalty of his army.
Far-reaching effects of Babur’s Victory at Panipat:
1. Foundation of a new dynasty:
The victory of Babur laid down the foundation of the Mughal dynasty that lasted for more than
two hundred and fifty years in India.
2. Fatal blow to the Afghan rule:
In the words of Stanley Lane-Poole the biographer of Babur, “The battle of Panipat became a tomb
for the Afghans of Delhi. Their state was destroyed and their strength was absolutely crippled.”
3. End of the Lodi rule:
The battle of Panipat was decisive. Ibrahim Lodi was killed in the battle field along with 15000
soldiers. With his death the Lodi rule came to an end.
4. Wide use of artillery:
After the battle of Panipat, the use of artillery became current in India.
5. Capturing enormous wealth:
According to Lane-Poole (1899), Babur gathered such booty as surpassed all dreams.
6. Fulfilment of Babur’s ambition:
Babur’s long desire of conquering India and getting its wealth was fulfilled.
7. Enhancing Babur’s dignity:
The battle of Panipat proved that Babur was a great military commander.
8. End of Babur’s bad days:
According to Rush brook Williams, “After being successful in this battle, the bad days of Babur
came to an end. Now he had not to bother about his personal safety or throne”.

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Early Life & Difficulties Faced by Humayun & Babur’s Legacy
Humayun’s early life:
As the story goes, Humayun fell ill and his father Babur prayed for his recovery and transfer his
illness to him. His prayer was granted. Humayun recovered, Babur fell ill and died soon. After the
death of his father, Humayun ascended the throne of Delhi. Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Humayun
who is popularly known as Humayun was the eldest son of Babur. Kamran, Askari and Hindal
were his step brothers. He learnt Turki, Arabic and Persian. He worked as governor of a province
in Kabul.
He took part in the battles of Panipat and Khanwa. He looked after the administration of Hissar,
Firuza and Sambhal. He was nominated by Babur as his successor. Humayun is probably the only
king in the history of India whose rule included two spells, one from 1530-40 and the other in
1555-56 after his fifteen years’ exile from India. Humayun, literally meaning ‘fortunate’ but
through most part of his life, he remained ‘unfortunate’. He is again the only king who on the
advice of his father treated his half-brothers in real brotherly affection but without any reciprocal
response from them rather betrayal from one.
Early difficulties faced by Humayun and Babur’s Legacy:
The throne inherited by Humayun was full of thorns. He had to face several difficulties right from
his accession. Among the major factors which contributed to his difficulties and problems were
the legacy of Babur’s will, the unfriendly treatment of his brothers and relatives and lastly, the
hostile attitude of the Afghans and the Rajput’s.
Babur had entered the country as a stranger and spoiler. He had defeated the armies and broken
the power of the reigning dynasty i.e. the Lodis. The only hold which he and the Mughals had
upon the people of India was military force. Babur had not created a strong administrative
machinery to control such a vast empire.
1. Division of empire according to Babur’s will:
Humayun very faithfully implemented the will of his father. He treated all his young step brothers
very kindly. He made Kamran the ruler of Kabul and Kandhar, Askari, the ruler of Rohilkhand
and Hindal, the ruler of Mewat (comprising the modern territories of Alwar, Mathura and
Gurgaon). Thus his sphere of influence and power was reduced. This division weakened the unity
of the empire.
2. Ungratefulness and incompetency of Humayun’s brothers:
Kamran, after taking Kabul and Kandhar, took Punjab forcibly. Hindal too declared himself
emperor. Askari lost some part of the area allotted to him. All these actions had an adverse effect
on Humayun.
3. Hostile attitude of Humayun’s own relatives:
Mutual conspiracies and jealousies of Humayun’s relatives created several problems for him.
Muhammad Jama Mirza, a powerful noble and the husband of Humayun’s sister, Muhammad
Mehdi Khwaja, Babur’s brother-in law, and Muhammad Sultan Mirza, Humayun’s cousin were
quite powerful and ambitious. They created several problems for him.

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4. Lack of suitable administrative machinery:
Babur spent almost his time in wars and could not take suitable steps to organize the administration
of the territories he conquered.
5. Want of a well-integrated and unified army:
The Mughal army was a heterogeneous body of several races—Chaghatais, Uzbeks, Mughals,
Persian, Afghans and Hindustanis, etc. Such an army could be kept under control and disciplined
only under the leadership of a capable, dashing and inspiring commander like Babur. Humayun
was too weak for this purpose.
6. Babur’s Distribution of Jagirs:
Babur’s nobles and soldiers had rendered great assistance to him in his conquests. Therefore, in
order to please them Babur gave them Jagirs liberally, In due course these nobles became very
powerful and they posed a great threat to the stability of the Mughal empire.
7. Paucity of funds:
After getting enormous wealth from the royal treasuries of Delhi and Ajmer, Babur distributed it
so lavishly among his soldiers and nobles that very little were left for Humayun to conduct the
affairs of his administration.
8. Hostility of the Afghans:
The Afghans who were ruling Delhi a few years back still had ambition to capture power again.
Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, was also an Afghan. He was also ambitious of the throne of
Delhi. But the most important and powerful Afghan, who later drove away Humayun, was Sher
Shah.
9. Belied Rajput’s hopes:
Though the power of the Rajput’s had been weakened by Babur, yet they cherished some hopes of
recovering their lost power and territories.
Humayun’s own responsibility for most of his Difficulties:
As a ruler he lacked foresight and was incapable of taking a long term view of political and military
problems. He was not a good judge of men and circumstances. He lacked sustained effort and after
a victory he would fritter away his energy in revelry.
No doubt, he inherited a rich-legacy of difficulties but he made it richer by his own blunders. His
lethargy was chronic. Though beset with dangers and better enemies all around, he did not develop
the ‘Killer’s instinct’. He was daring as a soldier but not cautious as a general. He failed to pounce
upon opportunities as well as upon his enemies in time. In the words of Lane-poole, “Humayun’s
greatest enemy was he himself.”
1. Weak personality:
Humayun lacked resolution and sustained energy, foresight and quick grasp of situation. “He
revelled at the table when he ought to have been in the saddle”. He was slow to understand men,
slow to grasp golden opportunities, slow to decide, slow to win a battle. As observed by Lane-
poole, “He lacked character and resolution. He was incapable of sustained efforts after a moment
of triumph and would busy himself in his ‘harem’ and dream away the precious hour in the opium
eaters’ paradise while his enemies were thundering at his gate.

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2. Underestimating Sher Shah’s strength:
He failed to estimate the growing power of Sher Shah Suri. He should not have accepted the half-
hearted submission of Sher Shah at chunar. In fact he should have nipped him in the bud.
3. Negative response to Rajput’s’ request:
He should have given a positive response to the request of the Rajput’s and attacked Bahadur Shah
of Gujarat at Chittor and should have completely crushed his power.
4. Lack of military strategies:
Humayun did not attack his strong opponents at the appropriate time. Instead of rushing to Chittor
to attack Bahadur Shah, he wasted time in festivities at Mandu. Likewise, instead of punishing the
rebels in Bihar, he spent several months on his way in besieging minor places. All this gave time
to his adversaries to make adequate preparations and to consolidate their positions.
5. Defensive attitude:
After his defeat at Chausa, he always remained on the defensive. He did not attempt to recapture
the territory.
6. Wrong choice of site:
In the battle of Kanauj, he made blunders in choosing a low land for encampment and for remaining
inactive before the enemy for two months.
7. Leniency to his enemies:
He pardoned again and again those who revolted against him. This he did not only in the case of
Kamran but also in the case of Mohammad Zaman Mirza.
8. Sher Shah – more capable:
It must be admitted that he was no match for Sher Khan who was in every respect superior to him
in preparing and planning battles and in fighting the enemy. Sher Shah had more experience, more
knowledge of strategies, more organizing capacity. He never missed an opportunity and could use
wily tricks and crafty means to conquer the enemy while Humayun could not do anything, which
did not beloved a king as well as gentleman, and refined person.
Success at the end:
It is not doing justice to Humayun when it is said that he was a failure. True he failed against Sher
Shah but after his death, he seized every opportunity to come to power. But his spirit was not
subdued. Even after 15 years of exile he could recapture his throne of Delhi and restore the power
and prestige of the Mughals. “He went from riches to rags and again from rags to riches.”
In his personal life, Humayun was an obedient son, lovable husband, affectionate father and a good
relative. He was generous and attached in temperament, cultured and fond of learning. He was the
lover of humanity and the model of a gentleman.
Humayun possessed a dominant will. Dr. S. Roy has rightly commented, “With all his weaknesses
and failings, Humayun has a significant place in Indian history which is not, perhaps, always duly
appreciated. The well- timed restoration of the Mughal power was a real achievement which paved
the way, for the splendid imperialism of Akbar.”

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After ruling for ten years, he was forced to spend 15 years out of India. When he was able to
recover Delhi, he could hardly enjoy the fruits of his victory, as within six months, he fell down
from the stairs of his library in Delhi fort and died.
Humayun’s Conflict with Bahadur Shah
Causes of Conflict:
1. Bahadur Shah was very ambitious and he has set his eyes upon Delhi. Humayun was equally
ambitious to expand his territories.
2. Bahadur Shah had given political asylum to Mahdi Khwaja, a brother- in-law of Humayun, who
had claimed the throne of Delhi. He had also sheltered some of the Lodi princes who were enemies
of Humayun and wanted to regain their lost territories from the Mughals.
Events:
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat had started expanding his territory. He captured Malwa, Chanderi, and
Ranthambore and laid siege to the fort of Chittor. The Rajput’s made an appeal to Humayun for
help. Humayun proceeded to Chittor but subsequently he changed his mind and did not attack
Bahadur Shah. In this context it is sometimes said that Humayun changed his mind as he felt it
inappropriate to attack a Muslim ruler who was fighting against infidels. Whatever be the real
reason, Humayun lost a golden opportunity.
According to another version karanwau, tne ‘Kajmata’ of Mewar had sent a rakhi’ to Humayun
and sought his assistance as her brother. According to Dr. R.P. Tripathi, Humayun desired to
consolidate his army, win over those people of Malwa who were against Bahadur Shah and arrange
for the stoppage of help coming to Bahadur Shah either from Mandu or Ahmedabad – both places
under the control of Bahadur Shah.
Humayun reached Mandasor, 60 miles from Chittor and checked the return route of Bahadur Shah
from Chittor to Gujarat. Bahadur Shah also reached Mandasor but fled away and took shelter in
the fort of Mandu: Humayun pursued him. From Mandu, Bahadur Shah ran from place to place:
Champner, Cambay and finally to Goa. By that time, the entire Malwa and Gujarat had come under
Humayun.
Humayun appointed his brother Askari as the governor of Gujarat. Askari proved incompetent.
Bahadur Shah took the full advantage and captured Gujarat. Malwa was occupied by Mallu Khan
in the name of Bahadur Shah.
Result of Gujarat expedition:
About the loss of Gujarat and Malwa, Lane-poole has commented, “Malwa and Gujarat two
provinces equal in area to the rest of Humayun’s kingdom had fallen like ripe fruits into his hands.
Never was conquest so easy. Never too was conquest more recklessly squandered away.” Thus
Humayun lost them as quickly as he had gained those two territories. The loss of these two
territories lowered the prestige of Humayun.

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Humayun’s Encounter with Sher Shah and his expulsion from India:
Causes of the conflict:
Babur had captured the throne of Delhi from the Afghans. They therefore, were quite hostile to
Humayun. Sher Shah Suri was also an Afghan. While Humayun was busy in fighting against
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, Sher Shah consolidated his position in Bihar. He was in the possession
of the strong fort of Chunar. Most of the Afghan nobles had gathered under his banner. He attacked
Bangal twice and took huge tribute from the ruler. Humayun realized that it was necessary to
subdue Sher Shah.
Events of struggle:
Humayun and Sher Shah had three encounters with each offer i.e. at Chunar, Chausa and Kannauj.
Siege of Chunar. (1532):
The news of Sher Shah’s success in Bengal and Bihar alarmed Humayun. He hurried from Gujarat
but instead of proceeding straight to Bengal where he might have secured the help of Bengal’s
ruler, Humayun spent about six months in besieging the fort of Chunar is Bihar which was under
Sher Shah. Sher Shah, realising his weak position, made a purely perfuntory submission and
Humayun raised the sieze.
Battle of Chausa (1539):
There were apparently no major conflicts between Sher Shah and Humayun for about six years.
During this period Sher Shah greatly strengthened his position. He reorganised his army. On the
request of the ruler of Bengal, Humayun went to Bengal and spent about eight months is 1538 and
1539. During these eight months Sher Shah captured a number of places like Banaras, Sambhal
etc.
In the meanwhile Humayun’s brother Hindal declared himself as the emperor of Delhi. Humayun
decided to return to Agra from Bengal. However, Sher Shah blocked his way at Chausa, the
boundary between Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The two armies remained there facing each other for
three months. In the meanwhile rainy season started.
This created problems and confusion for the Mughal army which was camping in the lowland. The
Mughal camp was flooded. At this juncture Sher Shah hit upon a plan. He gave out that he was
preceding against a tribal leader who had been defying him.
After marching a few miles in that direction, he returned suddenly in the night and fell upon
Humayun’s army from three sides in the early down of June 26, 1539. Humayun lost the battle and
was wounded. To save his life, he plunged his horse into a stream and was saved from drowning
by a water carrier whom as the story goes, Humayun allowed to sit on the throne for two days and
who struck coins of leather.
Results:
It was a great victory for Sher Shah and consequently he declared himself the Sultan.
Sher Shah, thereafter captured Bengal.
Again it was a great setback to Humayun.
The Battle of Kannauj (1540):

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After his defeat at Chausa, Humayun reached Agra and sought help from his brothers. However,
all the brothers could not unite. Humayun recruited a big army which comprised mostly new
recruits and proceeded towards. Kannauj when Sher Shah had already encamped himself. Sher
Shah’s victory was decisive. Humayun fled and reached Agra.
Results of the conflicts:
1. After his defeat at Kannauj, Humayun had to spend about fifteen years in exile from 1540 to
1554.
2. Sher Shah became the ruler of Delhi.
Causes of the defeat of Humayun and Sher Shah’s success:
1. Inability of Humayun to understand the nature of Afghan power.
2. Lack of organisational ability in Humayun.
3. Unhelpful attitude of Humayun’s brothers.
4. Humayun’s incapability for sustained efforts.
5. Sher Shah’s diplomatic submission and lifting of Chunar’s sieze by Humayun.
6. Sher Shah’s qualities of a military leader.
7. Humayun’s revelry and wasting valuable time.
8. Humayun’s war camp at low land.
9. Struggle at several fronts by Humayun. Sher Shah’s sudden attack at Humayun’s army in
Kannauj.
10. No unity of command in Humayun’s army.

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The Early Carrier & Military Achievements of Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah Suri, whose original name was Farid was the founder of the Suri dynasty. Son of a petty
jagirdar, neglected by his father and ill treated by his step-mother, he very successfully challenged
the authority of Mughal emperor Humayun, drove him out of India and occupied the throne of
Delhi. All this clearly demonstrates his extra-ordinary qualities of his hand, head and heart. Once
again Sher Shah established the Afghan Empire which had been taken over by Babur.
Sher Shah’s early career:
The intrigues of his mother compelled the young Farid Khan to leave Sasaram (Bihar), the jagir of
his father. He went to Jaunpur for studies. In his studies, he so distinguished himself that the
subedar of Jaunpur was greatly impressed. He helped him to become the administrator of his
father’s jagir which prospered by his efforts. His step-mother’s jealousy forced him to search for
another employment and he took service under Bahar Khan, the ruler of South Bihar, who gave
him the title of Sher Khan for his bravery in killing a tiger single-handed.
But the intrigues of his enemies compelled his to leave Bihar and join the camp of Babur in 1527.
He rendered valuable help to Babur in the campaign against the Afghans in Bihar. In due course,
Babur became suspicious of Sher Khan who soon slipped away.
As his former master Bahar Khan, the ruler of South Bihar had died, he was made the guardian
and regent of the minor son of the deceased. Slowly he started grabbing all the powers of the
kingdom. Meanwhile the ruler of Chunar died and Sher Shah married his widow. This brought
him the fort of Chunar and enormous wealth.
Military achievements of Sher Shah:
Military achievements of Sher Shah may be categorized under three heads namely:
(i) Encounters with Humayun
(ii) Other encounters
(iii) Conquests after becoming emperor of Delhi.
1. Sher Shah’s encounters with Humayun:
Following were the three encounters:
(i) Encounter on the fort of Chunar and Sher Shah’s diplomatic surrender.
(ii) Battle of Chausa with Humayun and Sher Shah’s victory.
(iii) Batttle of Kannauj and Sher Shah’s decisive victory over Humayun. With the victory at
Kannauj, Sher Shah became the ruler of Delhi. Agra, Sambhal and Gwalior etc., also came under
his sway. This victory ended the rule of the Mughal dynasty for 15 years.
2. Sher Shah’s other conquests:
(1) Battle at Surajgarh (1533):
Sher Shah defeated the combined forces of the Lohani chiefs of Bihar and Mohamud Shah of
Bengal at Surajgarh. With this victory, whole of Bihar came under Sher Shah. Dr. Qanungo has
described the importance of this victory in these words, “If Sher Shah had not been victorious at
Surajgarh, he would have never figured in the political sphere of India and would not have got an
opportunity to compete with Humayun… for the founding of an empire.”
(2) Invasion of Bengal:

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Sher Shah plundered Bengal several times and by capturing Gaur, the capital of Bengal, forced
Mohammad Shah to seek refugee with Humayun.
3. Sher Shah’s conquests after becoming the emperor of Delhi:
(i) Conquest of Punjab (1540-42):
Sher Shah immediately, after his accession to the throne conquered Punjab from Kamran, brother
of Humayun.
(ii) Suppression of Khokhars (1542):
Sher Shah suppressed the turbulent Khokhars of the northern region of river Indus and Jhelum.
(iii) Conquest of Malwa (1542):
The ruler of Malwa had not helped Sher Shah in his struggle with Humayun. Therefore he attacked
Malwa and annexed it to his empire.
(iv) Conquest of Raisin:
Sher Shah attacked Raisin – a Rajput principality and besiegect it. Rajput ruler Purnamal entered
into an agreement with Sher Shah that if he surrendered, his family would not be harmed. However
Sher Shah did not honour this agreement. In the words of Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “Sher Shah behaved
with him very cruely.”
(v) and (vi) conquest of Multan and Sind (1543). Sher Shah conquered and annexed these
provinces into his empire.
(vii) Conquest of Marwar (1543-1545):
Sher Shah brought Marwar under his control by forged letters and sowing dissensions in the army
of Maldev, the ruler of Mewar.
(viii) Conquest of Kalinjar (1545) and death of Sher Shah. Sher Shah launched a fierce attack. He
won but lost his life when he was grievously injured by the blast.
Impact of Sher Shah’s Conquests:
Sher Shah was able to bring under his control a substantial part of India. The frontiers of his empire
extended on the one hand from Punjab to Malwa and on the other from Bengal to Sind. He
dislodged the Mughal emperor Humayun and founded the Sur dynasty. With large areas under his
control, he was able to provide a sort of uniformity to the administrative system of India.
Factors Responsible for Sher Shah’s Military Achievements:
1. Service in Babur’s army:
Sher Shah had worked for sometime in the army of Babur. This enabled him to familiarize with
the strength and weaknesses of the Mughal army.
2. Military organization:
Sher Shah took the following measures to strengthen his army.
(a) Strength:
Sher Shah maintained a strong standing army at the centre like Ala-ud-Din Khalji. His army
included 1, 50,000 cavalry, 25,000 infantry, 3000 war elephants and a part of artillery.
(b) Recruitment:
He did not depend on the Jagirdars for the supply of soldiers whenever needed by the Sultan. He
maintained a direct link and made them direct loyal to him and not through jagirdars.

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(c) Descriptive identification:
With a view to checking fraudulent practices in army in inflating the figures of soldiers and horses,
Sher Shah adopted the practices of maintaining the description (huliya) of the soldiers and that of
branding (dag) of the horses.
(d) Payment in cash:
The soldiers were paid in cash whereas most of the officers were given the jagirs.
(e) Mostly Afghans in the army:
He recruited mostly Afghan soldiers from every part of the country and also from Afghanistan and
gave them important posts in the army.
(f) Supplementary armies:
Besides the standing army under the direct command of the Sultan, provincial governors, nobles
and subordinate rulers were also allowed to maintain their separate armies.
(g) Discipline in the army:
In the words of Qanungo, “The severe discipline in Sher Shah’s camp in one campaign was
sufficient to turn a raw recruit into a seasoned veteran”.
3. Military strategies:
Sher Shah was a pastmaster in adopting successful war tactics. He believed in the maxim
“Everything is fair in love and war”.
He knew fully well as where to make a tactical retreat, when to strike at the enemy, how to sow
dissensions in the army camp, how to make friendship with the enemy of the enemy, how to
pretend to retreat. In fact he knew how to win.
Following are some of the main instances of Sher Shah’s military strategy:
(i) Sher Shah’s diplomatic surrender to Humayun at Chunar fort.
(ii) Sher Shah’s false pretence of withdrawing but sudden attack at Humayun in the battle of
Kannauj.
(iii) Sowing dissentions in Maldev’s army by forged letters.
(iv) Arriving at some sort of understanding with the ruler of Gujarat and keeping Humayun
engaged in conflict with him.
(v) Raising the cry of ‘jihad’ to infuse enthusiasm among his soldiers.
(vi) Going back from his promise with Rajput ruler Purnamal Chauhan and sudden attack by Sher
Shah on him.
4. Making the best use of Humayun’s weaknesses.

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Achievements of Sher Shah during Medieval India
Salient Features of Sher Shah’s General Administration:
Sher Shah, by the dint of his military skill, daring acts, great courage and resourcefulness not only
established a mighty empire but also by his shrewd capacity for organizing, unique forethought
and intimate knowledge of administration, made necessary arrangements for smooth and efficient
administration and controlling the coveted empire.
Some of the salient features of his administration are given below:
A benevolent despot:
Dr. Ishwar Prasad has rightly observed, “The Government of Sher Shah, though autocratic was
enlightened and vigorous.” Sher Shah himself used to say, “It behoves the great to be always
active.” And he himself adhered to this maxim. According to Crooke, “He was the first Musalman
ruler who studied the good of the people.” Sher Shah believed, “Tyranny is unlawful in everyone,
especially in a sovereign who is the guardian of his public.”
Advice of the council of Ministers:
Sher Shah had a number of ministers to assist him in his administrative work. The ministers looked
after their respective departments. Their appointment and dismissal was at his discretion.
Provincial administration:
Historians have differed on the issue of Sher Shah’s provincial administration. While Qanungo has
opined that there was no administrative unit called ‘Suba’ or ‘Iqta’, Dr. P. Saran states that there
were ‘Subas’ where military officers were appointed by She Shah.
The entire kingdom was divided into provinces. Some provinces were very large and others small.
There was no uniformity with regard to their income, size and administration. In the sensitive
provinces like Lahore, Multan and Malwa, military governors looked after the administration. On
the other hand, the province of Bengal was administered by a civilian.
(a) Sarkars:
A province was divided into a number of Sarkars (Districts). In all there were 47 districts. There
were two chief officers in every district. The one chief Shiqdar or Shiqdar-i- Shiqdaran was a
military officer. He maintained peace and order in the district, helped in the collection of revenue
and other taxes and also supervised the work of his subordinate officers called Shiqdars.
The other officer was called the chief Munsif or Munsif- i-Muinsfan. He was primarily a judicial
officer who looked after justice in the district. He also looked after the working of his subordinate
judicial officers in the parganas. These two officers were helped by a number of junior officers
and other subordinates in carrying out their duties.
(b) Parganas:
Each Sarkar was divided into small units called the parganas and each Pargana was further
subdivided into a number of villages. Like the Sarkars, there were two chief officers called a
Shiqdar (military officer) and Munsif (civilian judge) who were assisted by other staff in the
discharge-of their duties.
(c) Villages:

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A village was the smallest self-sufficient unit, administered by village panchayats. Sher Shah
introduced the system of transferring officers of the Sarkars and the Paragans every two or three
years so that they may not develop vested interest, the root cause of corruption.
Sources of income:
Important sources of income were:
(i) Land revenue
(ii) Taxes on the transportation of raw and finished products
(iii) The royal mint
(iv) Confiscation of the unclaimed property
(v) Tributes from the rajas, nawabs jagirdars, etc.
(vi) Gifts from the foreign travellers
(vii) Salt tax
(viii) Jaziya on the Hindus
(ix) One-fifth of the Kham (booty).
Land and revenue administration:
The revenue administration of Sher Shah has been regarded as one of the best during the medieval
period.
Important features of the revenue administration were as under:
1. Land for the purpose of revenue was divided into three categories on the basis of production—
good, average and bad.
2. Generally land revenue was one-third of the produce, but could be paid both in cash and kind.
3. The land of each cultivator was measured according to a uniform standard and its quality was
ascertained.
4. Lease deeds (pathas) were drawn between the farmers and the government. The area, the type
of the soil, and the rates of land revenue were recorded on the lease deeds which were got signed
by the farmers. The deeds confirmed the rights of the farmers on the lands.
5. Land revenue was remitted on poor crops.
6. Financial assistance (Taqavi loans) was granted to the farmers when needed by them.
7. The Sultan had ordered that while fixing the land revenue, the peasants should be treated with
generosity but once settled they were asked to pay their revenue regularly.
In the words of Qanungo, “The land revenue administration of Sher Shah was a valuable heritage
for the Mughals. He tried to levy the land revenue in accordance with the income of the peasants.
The British adopted this system.”
Welfare of farmers:
Sher Shah was very particular about the welfare of the peasants. He used to say, “If I oppress them
they will abandon their villages and the country will be mined and deserted.”
Law and order:
The most important contribution of Sher Shah was the reestablishment of law and order across the
length and breadth of the empire. Dacoits and robbers were dealt with very sternly. It has been
stated by several historians that during the reign of Sher Shah, an old woman might place a basket

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of golden ornaments on her head and go on a journey without any fear. No thief or robber would
come near her for fear of punishment.
Local responsibility for theft:
The local people or the head (Mukhiya) of the village was responsible for the safety of the people
of the area and the travellers. It was the responsibility of the village Panchayat or the local people
to produce the culprit or to pay for the stolen goods. In case the local officers of the village failed
to trace the murderer, the headman was given the penalty of death. This method helped to wipe off
thefts, robberies and murders.
Fair judicial administration:
Sher Shah used to say and act upon it, “Justice is the most excellent of religious rites.” No one
could escape punishment on account of high status.
The Sultan was the highest judicial authority in the state. Sher Shah held his court every
Wednesday in the evening. Next to him was the chief Qazi who was the head of the department of
justice.
There were subordinate Qazis in every district and in all important cities. The criminal law was
severe. The offenders were punished by fines, flogging, imprisonment and even cutting of the
limbs.
Efficient Espionage System:
Sher Shah’s efficient administrative system largely depended upon his well-organised espionage
system. The king kept himself posted with the minutest happening in his kingdom. The nobles
were afraid of indulging in activities not conducive to the stability of the rule of the Sultan. Even
the rates prevailing in the mandis were made available to the king. Spies were kept at all important
places and at all importantt offices.
Well organised ‘dak’ system:
The saraits were also used as Dak Chaukis. Two horses were kept at every sarai so that the news-
carriers could get fresh horses at short intervals to maintain speed.
Currency:
The ratio of exchange between the Dam and rupee was fixed at 64 to 1. The same coin-rupee ratio
served the basis of the currency during the Mughal and British periods. Earlier there was no fixed
ratio among so many coins of various metal alloys. He abolished the old and mixed metal currency.
He issued fine coins of gold, silver and copper of uniform standard.
Network of roads:
Sher Shah constructed a network of roads connecting important parts of his empire within his
capital. He repaired old roads.
Sher Shah constructed the following four highways:
(i) Sadak-e-Azam (Grand Trunk Road) starting from Sonargaon in Eastern Bengal passing through
Agra, Delhi and Lahore and terminating at Peshawar, covering a distance of about 3,000 km;
(ii) From Agra to Jodhpur and the Chittor fort;
(iii) From Agra to Burhanpur;
(iv) From Lahore to Multan.

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Prosperous Trade and Commerce:
Law and order in the kingdom, protection of traders on roads, issue of new currency and the
simplication of taxes helped in the promotion of trade and commerce. Trade tax was collected only
at two places. One, where the goods entered the territory of his empire and the other where the
goods were sold. All other internal trade taxes were abolished.
Sarais:
About 1700 sarais were constructed on both sides of the roads. Each sarai had separate rooms for
the Hindus and the Muslims. Each sarai had a well and a mosque. These sarais also served as dak
Chaukis. In view of the special significance of these sarais, they were called as veritable arteries
of the empire.”
Beautiful buildings:
Sher Shah built the following buildings:
(i) Mausoleum of Sher Shah at Sasaram in Bihar
(ii) Fort of Rohtasgarh on the banks of the river Jhelum in the north-west.
(iii) Purana Qila at New Delhi,
(iv) Mosque in the Purana Qila.
The Mausoleum of Sher Shah built in the midst of a lake on a lofty plinth, ranks among the most
beautiful buildings in India.
Promotion of education:
For the education of the Muslims, a Maktab was attached to every mosque for imparting
elementary education and teaching Arabic and Persian. Madrasas were set up for higher education.
Endowments and grants were given to educational institutions. Provision was also made for
scholarships on the basis of merit.
Summing up:
Crooke is quite right when he remarks, “That he introduced such extensive reforms in his short
reign of five years is a wonderful proof of his executive ability.”

Why is Sher Shah Called the Fore Runner of Akbar?

Sher Shah as the Fore-runner of Akbar:
Akbar has been called “The Great” on account of his efficient administration, liberal religious
policy and political insight. A close study of Akbar’s policy would reveal that Akbar followed
several policies of Sher Shah. Of course, he improved upon them in the new context.
Akbar followed the land policy of Sher Shah. He provided equal justice to all. He engaged himself
like Sher Shah for the welfare of his subjects. There is no doubt that Sher Shah was the fore-runner
of Akbar. In the words of Dr. R P Tripathi, “He paved the way for the highly enlightened policy
of Akbar.” Professor Kaliranjan Qanung has observed: “His reign was short, (only five years) but
importance was almost as great as Akbar’s rule of half a century.”
Akbar, in general, followed Sher Shah in the following fields:
1. Ideal of kingship
2. Policy of extension of empire.

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3. Division of empire into viable units.
4. Advice of the council of ministers.
5. Military reforms.
6. Land revenue reforms.
7. Judicial reforms.
8. Almost similar liberal policy although Sher Shah did not dispense with jizya.
9. Promotion of education.
10. Promotion of art and architecture.
11. Public welfare activities.
12. Currency reforms
‘Akbar the great’ but ‘Sher Shah not the great’, the observations made by Crooke deserve careful
consideration, “In every aspect of administration, it is alleged, the Mughal king (Akbar) borrowed
from the Afghan ruler (Sher Shah). Of course it will be unjust to say that Akbar lacked originality
and that he was indebted entirely to Sher Shah for his greatness. Nevertheless it cannot be denied
that the great Mughal emperor did follow Sher Shah in various fields of administration.
Sher Shah did not abolish ‘Zazia’. Sher Shah’s court was not adorned by ‘Navratnas’. Akbar ruled
over a far larger empire than Sher Shah. Akbar tried to reconcile the teachings of different
religions. He founded a new religion which, of course, vanished during his life time. Akbar took
several measures for the emotional integration of India.
Dr. Qanungo in this regard has observed, “Sher Shah had ruled for five years and five days. In the
history of medieval India he had proved to be a ruler second only to Akbar in greatness.” Further
he has observed, “It is doubtful whether he would have done such deeds as Akbar if he had lived
for fifty years more because Sher Shah had the drawbacks from which Aurangzeb suffered.

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Mansabdari System as Introduced by Akbar
Mansabdari was a system of army and civil services introduced by Akbar in place of the Jagirdari
system. Strictly speaking Akbar was not the originator of this system. It was originally a system
introduced by ‘Khalifa’ Abba Saiyed and thereafter imported into India. Akbar introduced several
changes in this system. This system was the pillar of the Mughal administration. By abolishing the
jagirdari system, the mansabdari system was introduced. It proved quite effective.
Meaning of the Mansabdari System:
The ‘Mansab’ is an Arabic word meaning rank or position or status of a person. Thus Mansabdari
was a system in which the rank of a government official was determined. Every civil and military
officer was given a ‘mansab’. Different numbers which could be divided by ten were used for
ranking officers. It was also meant for fixing the salaries and allowances of officers.
Categories of Mansabs:
Abul Fazl has mentioned 66 grades of mansabdars but in practice there were not more than 33
mansabs. During the early reign of Akbar, the lowest grade was ten and the highest was 5000.
Towards the end of the reign it was raised to 7000. According to Badauni it was fixed at 12,000.
Higher mansabs were given to princes and Rajput rulers who accepted the suzerainty of Akbar.
Significance of a mansab:
The mansab of a Mughal noble implied the following:
(a) Salary of the officer
(b) Status of the officer
(c) Number of soldiers, horses and elephants etc., maintained by an officer.
‘Zat and ‘Sawar':
During later years of his reign, Akbar introduced the rank of ‘Zat’ and ‘Sawar’ in the Mansabdari
system. Different views have been expressed regarding these terms. According to Blochmann,
every mansabdar had to maintain as many soldiers as were indicated by his rank of Zat’ while the
rank of ‘sawar’ indicated the number of horsemen among them. Irvin expressed the view that Zat
indicated the actual number of cavalry under a mansabdar besides other soldiers while sawar was
an additional honour.
According to Dr. R.P. Tripathi, the rank of sawar was given to mansabdars to fix up their additional
allowances. A mansabdar was paid rupees two per horse. Therefore, if a mansabdar received the
rank of 500 sawar he was given rupees one thousand additional allowance. Abdul Aziz is of the
opinion that while the rank of zat fixed the number of other soldiers under a mansabdar, the rank
of sawar fixed the number of his horsemen.
Dr. A.L. Srivastava has opined that while the rank of zat indicated the total number of soldiers
under a mansabdar, the rank of sawar indicated the number of horsemen under him. During the
reign of Akbar, the mansabdars were asked to keep as many horsemen as were indicated by
numbers of their ranks of sawar. But, the practice was not be maintained by other Mughal
emperors.

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Main Features of the Mansabdari System:
1. The king himself appointed the mansabdars. He could enhance the mansab, lower down it or
remove it.
2. A mansabdar could be asked to perform any civil or military service.
3. There were 33 categories of the Mansabdars. The lowest mansabdar commanded 10 soldiers
and the highest 10,000 soldiers. Only the princes of the royal family and most important Rajput
rulers were given a mansab of 10,000.
4. A mansabdar was paid his salary in cash.
5. The salary due to the soldiers was added to the personal salary of the mansabdar. Sometimes for
paying the salaries to the soldier, a jagir was given to the mansabdar. But the revenue was realised
by officers and necessary adjustments made.
6. Mansabdari system was not hereditary.
7. In addition to meeting his personal expenses, the mansabdar had to maintain out of his” salary
a stipulated quota of horses, elephants, camels and mules and carts.
8. A mansabdar holing a rank of 5000 had to maintain 340 horses, 100 elephants, 400 camels, 100
mules and 160 carts.
9. Handsome salaries were paid to a Mansabdar. A mansabdar with a rank of 5,000 got a salary of
Rs. 30,000 per month; a mansabdar of 3,000 could get Rs. 17,000 and a mansabdar of 10,000 got
rupees 8,200.
10. The horses were classified into six categories and the elephants into five.
11. For every ten cavalry men, the Mansabdar had to maintain twenty horses for horses had to be
provided rest while on march and replacements were necessarily in times of war.
12. A record of the description (‘huliy’) of each horseman under a mansabdar and of branding
(‘dag’) horses to prevent corruption was kept.
Changes introduced by Jahangir and Shah Jahan:
1. Difference in the highest mansab:
After Akbar, higher mansabs were introduced. During Jahangir and Shah Jahan’s reigns, the
mansab of a prince was raised to 40,000 and 60,000 respectively as against of 12,000 during
Akbar’s reign.
2. Reduction in the number of soldiers:
Shah Jahan reduced the number of soldiers kept by a mansabdar. Now each mansabdar was
required to keep one-third of the original number. Sometimes, it was even reduced v one-fourth or
one-fifth.
3. Difference in the categories of mansabdars:
During the time of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, the number of categories”of mansabdars was reduced
to 11 as against 33 mentioned by Abul Fazl in his book Akbarnama.
4. Relaxation in control:
Akbar’s death, the control exercised over mansabdars became very slack.

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Merits of the Mansabdari System:
1. Removal of the chief defects of the jagirdari system:
The Mansabdari system proved very helpful in removing the defects inherent in the jagirdari
system as such. Now the mansabdars got their salaries from the emperor, they were more loyal to
him. The chances of their revolt were minimised.
2. Increased military efficiency:
By regulating the maintenance of the horses and horsemen, the military efficiency of the army was
increased.
3. Extra revenue to the state:
Now the entire land became state land. The state officials realised the revenue. Earlier this was
done by jagirdars.
4. Merit as the basis of selection:
Mansabdari system was not hereditary. A mansab was given to an official on merit. It could be
enhanced or lowered down.
Demerits of the Mansabdari System:
1. The mansabdars got their salaries from the emperor and paid themselves the salaries to their
troops. This made the troops more loyal to the mansabdars than to the king.
2. The system proved very expensive.
3. Dishonest mansabdars and officials used to ally together during inspection, borrowed horses
from one another and showed their full quota.
4. Caste system prevailed in the mansabdari system.
5. Since the property of a mansabdar was confiscated after his death, he used to spend it lavishly
during his life time.
This made the nobles luxurious and it led to their moral degradation which had an adverse effect
on their efficiency.
Important Features of Akbar’s Administration
Akbar was an enlightened and successful administrator. It goes to the credit of Akbar that the
subsequent Mughal rulers followed in principle the administrative policy developed by him. Babur
and Humayun had little time to take any initiative in formulating any administrative policy worth
the name.
Important features of Akbar’s administration are given below:
Akbar’s ideal of Kingship. According to him, “Upon the conduct of a monarch depends the
efficiency of any course of action. His gratitude to God should be shown in just government and
due recognition of merit.”
Concentration of all power in the King:
Akbar was the centre of all powers—civil, judicial, military and religious. He was the Supreme
Commander of the army. He established a centralized administration. All appointments,
promotions or dismissals depended on his decision and orders. Usually he ruled according to
Shariat (Islamic Law).

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Akbar’s day started with his appearance at the Jharokha (balcony) of the palace. A large number
of people assembled below the balcony, presented their petitions to the emperor, besides having a
fortunate glimpse of their emperor.
The petitions were promptly attended to on the spot or later in the open hall of public audience
(Diwan-i-am). Special consultation with the ministers and nobles were held at the hall of Special
Audience (Diwan-i-khas).
Council of Ministers:
Akbar had a Council of Ministers to assist him in the discharge of his administrative
responsibilities and state of affairs.
The Wazir:
He was like the Prime Minister and advised the king in all matters. He coordinated the work of all
other ministers. After the reign of Aurangzeb, the Prime Minister, then called ‘Vakil’ became very
powerful. Likewise other Ministers became powerful.
Dewan or Finance Minister:
He looked after the revenues of the state.
Mir Bakshi or Paymaster General:
He was the head of the establishment department. He was also the head of the intelligence agencies
of the empire.
Kham-i-Saman:
He looked after the imperial house-hold. He also looked after the control of the royal body guards
and etiquettes in the court.
Chief Qazi:
He was the head of the judicial department. Other important high officials who assisted the king
were Mir Atish who supervised the artillery, Daroga-i-Taksal, supervisor of royal mint and
Daroga-i-Daak, supervisor of the mail.
Mansabdari System:
The Mansab is an Arabic word meaning rank or position or status. Thus Mansabdari was a system
in which the rank of a government official was determined. Every civil and military official was
given a mansab and was called a Mansabdar. There were two methods of making payments to the
nobles. One was giving them Jagirs (land) wherefrom they got their salaries. The second was
making cash payment. In the Mansabdari system no Jagirs were granted for the purpose of paying
salaries. A mansabdar got his salary from the royal treasury.
Land Revenue System:
Todar Mai, the revenue minister of Akbar played an important role in devising and introducing a
very effective and efficient land revenue and record system.
There were three systems of land revenue:
(1) The Zabti system
(2) The Ghalla-Bakshi and
(3) Nasaq or Kankat.

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The Zabti system of the land revenue:
This system was prevalent in the areas from Lahore to Allahabad and in Malwa and Gujarat. This
covered most of the empire. Following were some of the chief features of the system.
1. Measurement of land:
Land of each farmer was measured into ‘bighas’. The land was measured by means of bamboos
joined together with iron rings. This system was called Bamboo Jarib system.
2. Four categories of land:
The land was divided into four categories according to its produce:
(i) Polaj land which was regularly cultivated and yielded crops regularly.
(ii) Parauti land was left uncultivated after every crop to regain its productivity
(iii) Chachhar land was left uncultivated for 3 to 4 years
(iv) Banjar land was left uncultivated for more than 4 years.
Three categories of Polaj and Parauti land. These types of lands were divided into three grades,
viz., good, average and bad.
4. Dahsala (ten year) assessment:
Under this system, the average produce of different crops as well as the average price prevailing
over the last 10 years was calculated and accordingly land reveue was fixed.
5. Land revenue in cash or kind:
The share of the state was one-third of the produce of the land. Farmers were given the option to
pay the revenue in cash or kind.
6. Loans:
Farmers could get loans easily from the state which could be paid in easy annual installments.
7. Remission of revenue:
In bad seasons, remissions of revenues were granted to the farmers.
8. Records:
Farmers were issued receipts for all the payments made by them. A record of all the holdings and
liabilities of every farmer was maintained.
9. Revenue officials:
For the assessment and collection of revenue, a large number of officers like the Amil, Bitikchi,
Qanungo, Muqaddam and Patwari were appointed. The Zabti system proved very useful both to
the state and the farmers. The system was for ten years. The system on the one hand determined
the income of the government and on the other hand enabled the farmers to know clearly how
much revenue they had to pay to the government.
Now the farmers had direct link with the government and they were saved from the excesses and
tyrannies of the landlords and the jagirdars. The revenue officials were instructed not to be harsh
with the farmers. The farmers could deposit the land revenue direct to the treasury.
Other systems of the land revenue:
According to the Batai or Ghalla- Bakshi system, the producer of the farmers was divided between
the government and the fanners in the ratio settled between them. This system was in vogue in
Thatta and in parts of Kabul and Kandhar.

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Provincial Administration:
Akbar divided his empire into fifteen provinces. These were: Agra, Ahmedabad, Ahmednagar,
Ajmer, Allahabad, Awadh, Bengal, Berar, Bihar, Delhi, Kabul, Khandar, Lahore, Malwa and
Multan. Each province was under the charge of Subedar (Governor). He was assisted by a ‘Diwan’
who looked after the revenue records.
Bakshi looked after the needs of the army. The Kotwal was entrusted with the maintenance of law
and order in the main cities. Qazi looked after justice. The provincial ministers and officers
followed the nomenclature of the central administration and performed similar duties.
Provinces were divided into Sarkars, Sarkars into Parganas and Parganas into villages. Panchayats
looked after the village administration and also dispensed justice. Normally state officers did not
interfere in the village affairs.
Akbar’s Religious Policy with Special Reference to Sule Kul
Akbar’s religious policy of harmony, reconciliation, and synthesis among all the religions did not
develop all of a sudden. Between 1556 and 1562, Akbar remained a staunch Sunni Muslim. He
practiced the tenets of Islam as a devout Muslim—prayed five times a day, kept fast in the holy
month of Ramazan and honored the Ulemas of Islam. He never hesitated to punish the opponents
of Islam. However, gradually his views changed after 1562.
‘Sule Kul':
According to Dr. Tara Chand, his religion was the product of the synthetic effect of the Vedanta
and Sufism of the age. Akbar was deeply interested in religion and philosophy and listened very
carefully not only to the arguments of the Sufi and Shia divines but also the scholars of other
religions also.
He watched the good men professing different creeds and ‘Sule Kul’ i.e. reconciliation seemed to
him the only solution of developing harmony and friendship among followers of different faiths.
In fact some scholars equate ‘Din-i-Ilahi’ with ‘Sule-Kul’.
Akbar’s ‘Sule-Kul’ or his policy of reconciliation and liberalism in religious matters was greatly
influenced by his Hindu mother, his guardian and tutor Bairam Khan and Abdul Latif respectively,
his contact with philosophers and scholars like Sheikh Mubark and his sons Faizi and Abdul Fazal,
his contact with Rajputs, his contact with other religions and his political ambition to expand and
strengthen his empire with the cooperation of all religions.
Ibadat Khana (House of Worship):
With the help of Shaikh Mubark and his sons Faizi and Abdul Fazal, Akbar collected a big library
of books on history, religion, philosophy and sciences. These were read out and explained to him
by Faizi. The result was that Akbar’s views on religion became very liberal and he wanted to go
deep in religious matters. For this he thought of providing a meeting ground.
In 1575, Akbar established Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri for the purpose of conducting religious
discussions and debates for a better understanding of deep truth in religion. Akbar himself took
part in these discussions. In the beginning, Mullahs only participated.

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Akbar addressed the following words to those assembled for discussion: “My sole object, O.
Mullahs is to ascertain truth, to find out and disclose the principles of genuine religion and to trace
it to the divine origin.”
In due course, exponents of Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Christianity began to be
invited. All the scholars were given due respect. However with the passage of time, Akbar found
that the debates in the Ibadat Khana were not helpful in leading to better understanding between
different religions, rather they created bitterness. Hence in 1582, he discontinued the debates.
Development of Akbar’s religious views and measures taken (in the
chronological order):
Akbar stopped the practice of converting the prisoners of war to Islam (1562)
He abolished the pilgrimage tax (1563)
He abolished Jizya — a tax levied on Hindus (1564) He established the Ibadat Khana or House of
Worship (1575)
He issued Infallibility Decree (1579)
He founded a new religion called Din-i-Ilahi (1581)
He forbade the killing of animals on certain days (1583)
Infallibility Decree (1579):
Akbar was in favour of weakening the powers of the Ulemas/Mullahs. He wanted to combine in
himself both political and spiritual powers. According to the Decree, Akbar became the supreme
arbiter in civil and religious affairs. This declaration was signed by leading divines. Akbar himself
began to read the Khutba (earlier read by the Imam of the Mosque) from the pulpit of a Fatehpuri
Mosque.
‘Din-i-Ilahi’ or ‘Tauhld-Ilahi’:
After acquainted himself thoroughly with the principles and practises of different religions through
listening to the debates and discussions of religious philosophers and scholars and watching their
lives, Akbar founded a new religion in 1581 which included the virtues of other religions and he
named it Din-i-Ilahi. Akbar tried to emphasise the ‘Sule Kul’ i.e. peace and harmony among
religions.
Important principles of Din-i-Ilahi:
Some of the important principles of Din-i-Ilahi were:
1. God is great. He is One.
2. Akbar is His apostle or representative.
3. Every adherent of this faith should be willing to give away property, life, religion and honour
to the emperor.
4. Every member should take an oath of doing good to everybody.
5. No member should have blind faith.
6. The followers of this faith should not approve of child marriage as well as old marriage.
7. All should show respect to all religions.
8. Whenever the followers of this faith meet, one should say: Allah- hu-Akbar (God is great) and
in reply the other should say Jalla-Jallah – hu (God is beautiful and merciful).

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9. As far as possible, the followers of this religion should not eat meat.
10. The followers should not sleep with minor girls.
11. Every member should arrange a feast at his birth day and give charity.
Membership of the Din-i-Ilahi:
The number of the followers of the Din-i-Ilahi was not large. Probably it was a few thousands
only. Among the nobles, only eighteen are said to have accepted this faith. Shaikh Mubark, his
two sons Faizi and Abul Fazl and Raja Birbal embraced the new faith. Akbar did not force anyone
to accept Din-i-Ilahi. It was sad and unfortunate that the new faith died with Akbar’s death.
Evaluation of Din-i-Ilahi:
Critics of Din-i-Ilahi: Monuments of Akbar’s folly. Budauni regards the founding of Din-i-Ilahi as
an un-Islamic act. Dr. Smith writes, “The whole scheme was the outcome of ridiculous vanity,
monstrous growth of unrestrained autocracy – a monument of Akbar’s folly, not of his wisdom.”
He further calls it “a silly invention”.
Admirers of Din-i-Ilahi:
According to S R. Sharma, Din-i-Ilahi was the crowning expression of Akbar’s nationalism. Dr.
Ishwari Prasad regards it very rational containing good points of all religions. Havell thinks that
with the new faith Akbar won an imperishable name in Indian history.
Lane-poole has justly observed, “The broad minded sympathy which inspired such a vision of
catholicity left a lasting impression upon a land of warring creeds and tribes and for a brief while
created a nation where before there had been only factions”.
According to S.M. Zaffar, “The wisdom of Akbar’s assumption of the prophetic role may be called
in question but the noble ideal that prompted it deserves high praise and not condemnation. To
achieve the aim of unification of India and consolidation of Mughal Empire, it was necessary first
to conquer and then to command sincere devotion from all and sundry by granting them the
freedom of worship and the liberty of conscience. Therefore, Akbar gave up such a religious code-
in essence a political document—as would commend itself to the whole population”.
The Divine Faith had far-reaching consequences. It totally changed the character of Muslim rule
in India. Malleson has also felt, “Akbar’s foremost aim was the union of Hindustan under one head
which was difficult to achieve had he persecuted all non-Islamic religions. To accomplish such a
union it was necessary, first to conquer, Secondly, to respect all consciences, and all methods of
worshipping Almighty”.
Akbar’s Pragmatic Rajput Policy and its Significance
Akbar was a great pragmatist. He was the first Muslim ruler to realize that without the help of the
Rajput’s, no permanent empire could be set up in India. Accordingly, he took measures to secure
their cooperation. He treated them as very trustworthy friends and not mere vassals. He abandoned
the old policy of repression and persecution of the Rajput’s. Broadly speaking Akbar’s policy was
based on diplomacy and force – the two potent weapons of state craft. But he realized more on
diplomacy.

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Significance of the Rajput Policy of Akbar:
1. Expansion of Akbar’s influence:
The policy of friendship contributed to the extension of the Mughal Empire. The Rajput’s had
become the ‘Sword and Shield’ of Akbar.
2. Military help:
The Rajput rulers provided strong military help to Akbar in waging wars and conquering several
territories.
3. Strengthening of administration:
Akbar was able to secure the services of Rajput’s in the efficient running of the administration.
Some of the Rajput Governors of Mughal provinces proved very helpful.
4. Advantages to Rajputs:
The Rajput rulers got honour, high offices, big jagirs and confidential posts in the royal service.
They were also free to devote their resources on welfare pursuits in place of war adventures.
5. Cultural integration:
According to Dr. lshwari Prasad, “A new culture – Indo-Muslim culture” was born. Akbar gave
encouragement to Sanskrit, Hindi and other regional languages. There is no doubt that the Rajput’s
made great contribution in the field of Akbar’s expansion of empire, statecraft, administration,
cultural, economic and social progress.

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13 Chief Features of Akbar’s Rajput Policy
The 13 chief features of Akbar’s Rajput policy are as follows:
Contents
1. Matrimonial alliances:
2. Appointment to high posts:
3. Equal treatment:
4. Religious independence:
5. Religious freedom to Rajput queens:
6. Full respect and honours to the defeated Rajput rulers:
7. Employment of Rajput’s in the army:
8. Internal freedom to Rajput kingdoms:
9. Personal relations:
10. Reforms in Rajput Society:
11. Abolition of Jizya:
12. Respect for cow:
13. Aggressive policy towards offending Rajput rulers:
1. Matrimonial alliances:
In 1562, Akbar married the daughter of Raja Bihari Mai of Amber (modern Jaipur). Akbar’s son
Salim who came to be known as Jahangir was born from this queen. He also married two other
princesses, one of Jodhpur and other of Jaisalmer. He married his son Jahangir to the daughter of
Raja Bhagwan Dass, son of Raja Bihari Mai. Khusrau, another son of Jahangir, was born to this
princess.
The marriage of Akbar in the family of Jaipur is considered as of great significance. In the words
of Dr. Beni Prasad. ” It symbolized the dawn of a new era in Indian politics, it gave the country a
line of remarkable sovereigns, it secured to the four generations of Mughal emperors the services
of some of the greatest captains and diplomats that medieval India produced.”
2. Appointment to high posts:
Raja Todar Mai and Raja Birbal occupied important positions. Raja Bihari Mai, his son Bhagwan
Dass and grandson Man Singh were among his close confidants.
3. Equal treatment:
Akbar accorded equal status to the Rajput’s.
4. Religious independence:
Akbar granted full religious independence to the Rajput’s in respect of their religion. They could
build temples, worship in them and celebrate their festivals.
5. Religious freedom to Rajput queens:
Rajput queens were free in the observance of their faith.
6. Full respect and honours to the defeated Rajput rulers:
All those Rajput’s who submitted to Akbar after fighting against him, were given full respect and
honour.

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7. Employment of Rajput’s in the army:
It is said that Rajput’s were holding more than 20 per cent posts in the army.
8. Internal freedom to Rajput kingdoms:
Akbar did not interfere in the internal administration of Rajput kingdoms.
9. Personal relations:
Akbar established personal relations with many Rajput rulers. It is said when the son-in-low of Rai
singh of Bikaner died due to a fall from the palanquin, Akbar himself went there to console the
family and share their grief.
10. Reforms in Rajput Society:
Akbar attempted to remove some of the evils like the ‘Sati’ and child marriage from the Rajput
Society. He also gave royal sanction to widow remarriage.
11. Abolition of Jizya:
Akbar removed ‘Jizyaa tax which was levied by the Muslim rulers upon the Non-Muslims.
12. Respect for cow:
He forebade the cow slaughter.
13. Aggressive policy towards offending Rajput rulers:
Akbar, being an imperialist, never tolerated opposition. He launched military campaigns against
all those Rajput rulers who did not surrender. He conquered Ranthambhor and Kalinjar – two
important Rajput states. However, Akbar’s campaign against Mewar was not quite successful.

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Prominent Features of Jahangir’s Rule
Jahangir whose original name was Salim, became the emperor of Delhi after the death of his father
emperor Akbar. After his coronation, he assumed the title of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir
Badshah Ghazi.
Important features of his reign are as under:
First, Jahangir is perhaps the only ruler who although ruled for about 22 years but for about 16
years he was only a ruler in name only as during this period, his wife Nur Jahan was the virtual
ruler.
Second, he is famous for his ‘golden chain of justice’.
Third, his twelve orders issued in the early period of his reign showed his great concern for the
welfare of his subjects.
Fourth, long drawn war between Mewar and the Mughals came to an end.
Fifth, relations between the Mughal rulers and the Sikhs began to deteriorate.
Sixth, two visitors namely Captain W.Cook and Sir Thomas Rao came to the court of Jahangir.
The latter who was the ambassador of King James was able to get permission from Jahangir
allowing the English to trade at Surat. With the passage of time, trade was followed by rule of the
English over India.
Main events of the reign of Jahangir:
1. Chain of justice:
The earliest measure of Jahangir was that a golden chain having 60 bells and weighing several
‘maunds’ was fastened between the Shahburj of Agra fort and a stone pillar raised on the banks of
river Jamuna. People seeking justice were required to pull this chain in order to put forth their
complaints or petitions to the King. This act speaks very high of Jahangir’s sense of justice but to
what extent it proved helpful is not clearly known.
2. Issuance of 12 rules of conduct (‘Dastur-ul-Amal’):
Jahangir issued the following orders which demonstrate his concern for the welfare of the people:
(1) He abolished the Tagma’ and “meerwahi” toll taxes and the taxes that the Subedars imposed
on the people for their expenses.
(2) He ordered for the construction of mosques, sarais, and wells on the road-sides which reduced
the dangers from the thieves and dacoits.
(3) He ordered that the property of the dead would be passed over to their legal heirs and the
unclaimed property would go to the state, the income of which would be spent on public-welfare.
(4) He banned the manufacture and sale of the intoxicants although he himself was addicted to
drinking.
(5) He disallowed the mutilation of the limbs of the criminals.
(6) He ordered that the land-lords would not forcibly occupy the lands of the farmers.
(7) He ordered for the construction of government hospitals and appointed the physicians (hakims)
in them.
(8) Animal slaughter was banned on two days in the week i.e. Thursday, his Coronation day, and
Sunday, the day of his father and on certain other occasions in the year.

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(9) Akbar held Sunday with respect because it was the day of the sun. So Jahangir did like-wise.
(10) He reinstated all the mansabdars, appointed during Akbar’s reign, in their positions and
promoted them on merit.
(11) The Jagirs, known as Aima and Madadgar, granted to the religious and charitable institutions
were allowed to remain with them.
(12) All the convicts, serving for longer periods, were released from the jails.
Revolt of prince Khusro:
In 1606, Jahangir’s eldest son and an aspirant of the throne revolted but was defeated. It is said
that after his arrest, he was poisoned to death.
Execution of Guru Arjun Dev (1606):
Two reasons are attributed to Jahangir’s conflict with the 5th Sikh Guru Arjun Dev. One, it is said
that the Sikh guru helped prince Khusro against the emperor. Second, Guru Arjun Dev was
becoming popular and promoting the creed of Sikhism.
The execution of the Guru greatly provoked the Sikhs and they began to prepare themselves to
wreak vengeance upon the Mughals, They declared their Guru a ‘martyr’.
Marriage with Nur Jahan (1611):
Nur Jahan’s marriage with Jahangir almost eclipsed his personality. Jahangir in his biography ‘
Tuzuk-i-Jahangir’ himself wrote about his influence, “I have sold my kingdom to my beloved
queen for a cup of wine and a dish of soup.”
Treaty with Mewar (1615):
Jahangir and Rana Amar Singh, son of Rana Pratap saw several ups and. downs in the struggle
which continued for about 10 years. In 1615 both signed a peace treaty. The treaty reflected
statesmanship of Jahangir.
Following were important terms of the treaty:
1. The Rana accepted the suzerainty of the Mughal emperor.
2. The Rana was not asked to enter into matrimonial relations with the emperor and he, in place of
himself, sent his son, prince Karan to the Mughul service at the court.
3. Jahangir restored all territory of Mewar including the fort of Chittor to the Rana on condition
that the fort would not be repaired.
About the treaty, Dr. Ishwari has observed, “Jahangir’s conduct in this affair is wholly worthy of
praise. Mewar had given the Mughals no small amount of trouble but the emperor forgot the past
and adopted a conciliatary policy in dealing with the Rana.”
Jahangir and South India:
Jahangir’s repeated attempts to conquer south India were without substantial gains.
Conquest of Kangra (1619):
After prolonged and terrible warfare of 14 months Kangra was conquered.
Loss of Kandhar (1621):
Jahangir lost Kandhar.
Revolt of prince Khurram (1622):

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Prince Khurram (later on Shah Jahan) was asked by Jahangir to crush a revolt in Kandhar but he
refused fearing that Nur Jahan might create difficulties for him in his absence from India. His
revolt failed and he begged pardon.
Revolt of Mahabat Khan (1622):
He was an able commander. He came into prominence when he suppressed the revolt of Khurram.
He was, however, considered a powerful opponent by Nur Jahan who wanted to have her way.
Mahabat Khan felt humiliated by her treatment. He revolted but had to seek pardon. Emperor
Jahangir pardoned him keeping his past services in view.
An estimate of Jahangir:
Observations made by the two historians namely, Dr. Ishwari Prasad and Dr. Beni Prasad provide
us valuable information and insight about Jahangir’s personality and character.
Dr. Ishwari Prasad writes, “Jahangir is one of the most interesting figures in Mughul history. The
ordinary view that he was a sensual pleasure- seeker and a callous tyrant does less than justice. All
accounts agree that he was intelligent, shrewd, and capable of understanding the most complex
problems of the state without any difficulty…There is much in his character that deserves to be
condemned, but there is a great deal that entitles him to be placed among the most fascinating
personalities of Indian history.”
Dr. Beni Prasad says: “Jahangir’s reign, on the whole, was fruitful of peace and prosperity to the
empire. Under its auspices, industry and commerce progressed; architecture achieved notable
triumphs; painting reached its high water mark; literature flourished as it had never done before.
Tulsidas composed the Ramayan. A host of remarkable Persian and vernacular poets all over the
country combined to make the period the Augustan age of medieval Indian literature. The political
side of Jahangir’s history is interesting enough but its virtue lies in cultural development.”

Opinions in Calling the Reign of Shah Jahan as the Golden Period

Historian’s have expressed divergent views on this issues. While historians like Rai Bharmal,
Khafi Khan, Travernier, Bernier, Moreland, Eliphinstone, W. Hunter, Richard Barns have lavished
praise on the rule of Shah Jahan, others like Dr. V.A. Smith, Edwards and Garret, and Sir William
Forster put forward several points of criticism. Dr. Yadunath Sarkar and Dr. A.L. Srivastva have
given a balanced view of Shah Jahan’s reign.
Before discussing the various aspects of the rule of Shah Jahan, we may list the important features
of a glorious rule. These are:
1. Peace in the reign.
2. Material prosperity of the people.
3. Religious harmony.
4. Ruler and administration receptive to people’s needs.
5. Equal justice.
6. Cultural development.

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1. Fatherly treatment towards his subjects:
Travernier wrote, “Shah Jahan reigned not so much as a king over his subjects, but rather as father
over his family and children.”
2. Agrarian prosperity:
According to Moreland, “The reign of Shah Jahan was a period of agrarian tranquility.”
Eliphinstone considered the reign of Shah Jahan, “As the most prosperous period of Indian
history.”
3. Best administrative system:
Travernier wrote, “Though Akbar was a greater conqueror and an expert in formation of laws and
regulations but there was no emperor equal to Shah Jahan so far as best arrangement for the
administration of each part of the empire was concerned.”
In the words of Khafi Khan, “Akbar was preseminent as a conqueror and law-giver, yet for the
order and arrangement of his territory and finances and good administration of the state, no prince
ever reigned in India that could be compared to Shah Jahan.”
4. Magnificence Period:
W.H. Hunter stated, “The Mughal empire attained its highest union of strength and magnificance
under Shah Jahan.”
5. Enormous wealth of the state:
Sir Richard Barns remarked “Shah Jahan had reigned for thirteen years, during which time the
empire reached the height of its glory and wealth.”— Barnier has observed, “The economic
condition of Bengal was very good.”
Dr. Ishwari Prasad, while comparing Shah Jahan with Akbar says,” The income from the Parganas
had increased from Rs. 3 lakhs during Akbar’s time to 13 lakhs.”
6. A benevolent rule:
Lane-Poole observed, “Shah Jahan was renowned for his kindness and benevolence which
endeared him to the people.”
Why is it called the golden age of the Mughal period?
7. All round Cultural development and advancement:
In the words of K.T. Shah, “The imperial patronage was no longer the monopoly of the poet and
the painter but every kind of artist was recognised and encouraged.”
Percy Brown, the noted artist has praised Shah Jahan’s architecture as “Shah Jahan founded the
Mughal cities of sandstone and left them of marble.”
The Taj Mahal of Agra has been various praised as, “Queen of architecture,” “Dream in Marble”
etc.
Likewise music, painting and literature made phenomenal progress.
In short the protagonists of the view of the golden period state the following reasons:
(a) There was peace and order.
(b) Trade and industry progressed.
(c) Peasants were well-protected.
(d) Corrupt officials and offenders were punished.

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(e) Building activity was at its height.
(f) Several monuments were built which are still prides for India.
(g) Scholars were given patronage.
(h) Literature flourished.
(i) Artists in various fields were given encouragement.
(j) Export trade was carried on profitably.
(k) Justice was available to all.
Critics of Shah Jahan’s rule:
Dr. V.A. Smith is the greatest critic. His observations on his personality and rule are, “Shah Jahan
failed both as a man and as a ruler and that the dazzling splendour of his court and the remarkable
beauty of his buildings, specially of the Taj Mahal misled the world into thinking that his reign
was a golden period in Mughal history.”
Smith further observed, “Shah Jahan was cruel, treacherous and unscrupulous in state matters. He
had no skill as a military leader and the organisation and command of his army was inefficient.
Thus his administration was far from satisfactory. Besides, Shah Jahan squandered a large sum of
public money which could have been used for the social and economic welfare of the people. This
in due course of time led to the financial bankruptcy which proved a potent cause of the downfall
of the Mughal Empire.”
William Hawkins who spent some time in India calls Shah Jahan, “a talented drunkard.”
Bernier states, “The Jesuits were severely punished by the Emperor.”
Peter Mundy who was in Deccan when famine took place during Shah Jahan’s reign, describes the
disasters of famine in these words. “The highways were strewn with corpses which emitted
intolerable stench. In the towns especially they drag them (dead bodies) out by the heels, stark
naked of all ages and sexes, till they are out of the gates and then they are left, so that the way is
half barred up”.
The critics level the following charges against Shah Jahan’s rule:
Barbaric penal code:
About the barbarous penal code and justice, Manuchi wrote, “One official kept a basket full of
venomous serpents in
Shah Jahan’s court and Shah Jahan used to leave the criminals to die painfully after getting them
bit by the serpents in his presence”.
1. Shah Jahan’s justice was very savage.
2. Cruel towards his opponents:
Shah Jahan was very cruel and barbaric in his behaviour and action. He killed all his brothers and
all probable contenders of the throne. He revolted against his own father.
3. Extravagant expenditure:
He wasted enormous money to fulfil his personal pleasures and hobbies.
4. Religious intolerance:
He was intolerant towards other religions. He destroyed several temples. He forced Hindu captives
to accept Islam. He was very cruel to Christians.

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5. Increase in land-revenue:
He increased land revenue which created economic hardships to the peasants.
6. Weak military leadership:
His attempts to conquer Kandhar and Central Asia failed.
7. Corruption:
There was a good deal of corruption in his administration. He extorted money from the unwilling
masses and classes.
8. Period of disorder:
There were so many revolts during his reign. He failed to check his sons to fight among themselves
during his life time.
He himself was kept in prison. In grief and sorrow, he wrote the following lines to his son
Aruangzeb who had imprisoned him.
“Praised be the Hindus in all cases,
as they even offer water to their dead. And thou,
my son, art a marvellous Musalman,
As thou caused him in life to lament for lack of water.”
Balanced view about Shah Jahan’s rule:
Dr. A.L. Srivastava has observed, “Shah Jahan’s reign has been described as a golden period in
the medieval history of India. This is true in one respect only and that is in the domain of art,
particularly architecture.” He further writes: “His religious bigotry and intolerance anticipated the
reactionary reign of Aurangzeb…His love of presents accorded sanction to a pernicious custom of
gilded bribery.
The offering of nazars and presents became common not only at the royal court and camp, but also
in the households of imperial nobles and officers and became responsible for a great deal of
corruption in administration. His display of pomp and magnificence extorted money from the
unwilling masses and classes, and his sensual tastes set a bad standard of public and private
morality.”
Dr. Jadunath Sarkar has stated in his book Studies in Mughal India that Shah Jahan was “extremely
laborious, yet the seed of disintegration of the Mughal empire was sown during his reign.”
While discussing pros and coins of the reign of Shah Jahan, Dr. S.R. Sharma has observed, ” In
spite of the early rebellions, which were soon crushed; in spite of the foreign wars of aggression
beyond the frontiers, which cost enormously with no return whatsoever; in spite of the famine in
the Deccan and Gujarat, which devastated a vast portion of the country; and in spite of the constant
fighting in the Deccan, which, while it resulted in the subjugation of Ahmadnagar, Golkunda, and
Bijapur, also involved a great drain in the resources of the empire, the age of Shah Jahan showed
much that was glorious, and many an unmistakable sign of unique prosperity, to justify this period
being described as the Golden Age of the Empire.”
Summing up:
Shah Jahan occupies a place lower than his grand father Akbar but certainly a higher place than
his father Jahangir and his son Aurangzeb.

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Results and Causes of War of Succession Fought during Shah
Jahan’s Reign
War of Succession (1657-1658):
Why war of succession?
There was no law of succession among the Mughals. Usually the ‘strength of the sword’
determined the successor.
Novelty of the war of succession during Shah Jahan’s reign:
The war of succession which took place among the four sons of Shah Jahan had one novelty. While
previously, wars were fought after the death of the emperor, this war was fought when Shah Jahan
was yet alive. Besides, all sons and daughters of Shah Jahan participated in it. While the four sons
Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad Bux fought against each other, the sisters allied
themselves with one or the other brother. Jahan Ara supported Dara Shikoh, Roshen Ara supported
Aurangzeb and Gauhan Ara sided with Murad Bux. Likewise the nobles and army commanders
sided with one or the other contestant of the throne.
Special reasons of the war of succession during Shah Jahan’s reign:
1. Rumours of Shah Jahan’s death:
Early in September 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill. There was practically no hope of his recovery. He
failed to attend the court for a long time. The rumour spread that he was dead. The death of an
emperor was always an occasion of internal disruption and disturbance of peace. The probability
of his death created rival groups in the court and empire. ….
2. Dara’s appointment as successor:
Shah Jahan decided to appoint Dara, his eldest son as his successor. His other sons and several
staunch Muslim Ulemas and nobles did not like Dara on account of his liberal religious views.
3. Selfish interests of courtiers:
The courtiers had their selfish motives to gain power by siding with the one or the other son.
4. Desire of each prince to succeed:
All the four princes had been trained in the art of warfare and administration. They were working
as governors and had their own desires to occupy the throne. They were all working as governors
in various provinces—Dara of Punjab and Northwestern Province, Shujah of Bengal and Orissa,
Aurangzeb of Deccan and Murad of Gujarat. Each had vast resources at his command.
5. ‘Takht’ or ‘Takhta':
There was no love lost among the four princes. Each knew that only one would get the throne and
others will be killed by the victor.
6. Kingship knows no Kinship:
This was the general attitude of the princes.
7. Lack of definite law of succession:
Sword was the determining factor to become the emperor.
Chief events of the war of succession:
(i) Declaration of being the emperor:

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Prince Murad declared himself independent in Gujarat, Shah Shuja in Bengal and Murad in
Gujarat.
(ii) Diplomacy of Aurangzeb:
Aurangzeb kept his plans secret. He won over Murad by promising to give the provinces of Punjab,
Sindh, Kabul and Kashmir.
(iii) Battle of Bahadarpur:
Shah Shuja reached Banaras with his army. Dara sent an army to check him. Shah Shuja was
defeated and ran away towards Bengal,
(iv) Battle of Dharmat:
Aurangzeb and Murad advanced towards Agra. Dara also sent an army to fight but the army faced
defeat.
(v) Battle of Samugarh:
Dara without waiting for his victorious troops who have defeated Shuja, advanced toward
Samugarh a place at a distance of about 13 km. from Agra. Initially Dara had an upper hand but
he committed a blunder. He got down from his elephant and mounted a horse. Seeing him missing,
commotion and disorder ensued in his army. Dara fled from the battlefield. Battle of Samugarh
proved to be decisive.
(vi) Besiege of Agra:
The combined forces of Aurangzeb and Murad reached Agra and besieged the fort. The royal army
opposed them. After a few days of struggle, the royal army surrendered.
(vii) Imprisonment of Shah Jahan:
Shah Jahan was imprisoned and died there in a pathetic situation after six years i.e. January 1666.
(viii) End of Murad and Shah Shuja:
Aurangzeb did not adhere to the agreement arrived at with Murad. He used devious methods and
got him murdered in Gwalior fort.
Shah Shuja had to run away from India and died outside in obscure circumstances.
(ix) Sad end of Dara and his sons:
After his defeat, Dara wandered from place in different parts of India but was hotly chased and
ultimately fell into Aurangzeb’s, hands. He was paraded in dirty clothes in the city and awarded
death punishment. His two sons were also given death punishment. In this way the war of succes-
sion ended with the victory of Aurangzeb.
Causes of Aurangzeb’s success:
1. Personal qualities of Aurangzeb:
Aurangzeb was a more able commander than his brothers.
2. Diplomacy of Aurangzeb:
He kept his plans secret and very diplomatically made Murad as his ally and afterwards in the same
manner got him murdered. Murad was called at a feast at Mathura. There he was heavily drunk
and in a state of unconsciousness taken to Gwalior fort where he was killed.
3. Lack of unity in Dara’s camp:

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It is said that Aurangzeb was successful in creating division among the officers of Dara’s army.
Even Jaswant Singh, his faithful commander did not join him in his final struggle with Aurangzeb.
4. Superior artillery of Aurangzeb:
Aurangzeb had appointed several Europeans in his artillery division. Dara’s artillery and his
soldiers could not compete with the superior artillery of Aurangzeb.
5. Weakness of Shah Jahan:
In spite of the fact that Shah Jahan had declared Dara as his successor, he remained a silent
spectator. Had he taken some interest, his loyal officers and army would have worked for the
success of Dara. He also did not try to stop the rumour of his death.
6. Unlucky Dara:
Fate was against Dara. When victory was just within his reach, his getting down from the elephant
and riding the horse gave a wrong signal to his army. His army thought he was missing and lost
the courage to fight.
Results of the war of succession:
Aurangzeb won the war of succession and with his becoming the emperor of India, a new chapter
of intense religious antagonism is said to have begun. Dr. Surjit Man Singh has described the
situation in these words, “Some modern historians ascribe to Aurangzeb the intention of ruling
India as an Islamic country. …Some go further in tracing the seeds of partition in 1947 to him.
Far-fetched though such judgements may be, it is certain that Aurangzeb died in his own words,
“forlorn and destitute” and soon after that his empire disintegrated.”

The Religious Policy of Aurangzeb and its Effects

The general view of historians is that Aurangzeb entirely reversed the policy of religious toleration
followed by Akbar and it resulted in serious revolts among the Hindus.
In the words of Lane-Poole, “For the first time in their history, the Mughals beheld a rigid Muslim
in their emperor—a Muslim as sternly repressible of himself as of his people around him, a king
who was prepared to stake his throne for sake of his faith. He must have been fully conscious of
the dangerous path he was pursuing, and well aware … against every Hindu sentiment. Yet he
chose this course, and adhered to this with unbending resolve through close on fifty years of
unchallenged sovereignty.”
Dr. S.R. Sharma, writing about the acts of religious intolerance of Aurangzeb has observed, “These
were not the acts of a righteous ruler of constructive statesman, but the outbursts of blind
fanaticism, unworthy of the great genius that Aurangzeb undoubtedly possessed in all other
aspects.”
Aims of Aurangzeb’s religious policy:
It is generally accepted that Aurangzeb was a fanatic Sunni Mussalman. His chief aim was to
convert Dar-ul-harb (India: the country of Kafirs or infidels) to Dar-ul-Islam (country of Islam).
He was intolerant towards other faiths, especially Hindus. He was also against Shia Muslims.

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Aurangzeb’s religious policy had two aspects i.e:
(i) To promote the tenets of Islam and to ensure that the people led their lives accordingly.
(ii) To adopt anti-Hindu measures.
Anti-Hindu measures:
Following were the anti-Hindu measures adopted by Aurangzeb:
1. Demolishing temples and breaking idols:
Even as a governor of Deccan he had pulled down several temples including the important
Chintamani temple of Ahmedabad which he replaced with a mosque. He followed this practice
vigorously after becoming emperor of India. In the first year of his reign, he issued orders to the
governor of Orissa to demolish all temples in the province.
In the twelfth year of his rule, he ordered the demolition of all important and famous temples
within his empire. Mosques were built at the sites of different temples. In Mewar alone, he is said
to have demolished 240 temples. The most famous of the temples destroyed were those of Keshva
(Krishan Janmabhoomi) in Mathura, Vishwanath in Varanasi and Somnath in Kathiawar.
2. Imposition of Jaziya:
Akbar had abolished this tax on the Hindus but Aurangzeb again levied this tax. According to
Elliot, the object of reimposing the Jaziya or poll tax “was to curb the infidels and to distinguish
the land of the faithful from an infidel land.” Manucci however, holds that the object of the tax
was two-fold; first to fill up his treasury which had begun to shrink on account of expenditure on
his various military campaigns; secondly to force the Hindus to embrace Islam.
Aurangzeb issued very strict instructions to the officers regarding the collection of Jaziya:
“You are free to grant remissions of revenue of all other kinds; but if you remit any man’s Jaziya
which I succeeded with great difficulty in laying on the infidels it will be an impious charge and
will cause the whole system of collecting the poll tax to fall into disorder.” It is alleged that when
thousands of Hindus gathered to protest against this measure, the Emperor directed his elephants
against the people so that many people fell trodden to death, under the feet of the elephants.
General nature of anti-Hindu policy:
Haig draws the picture of the religious policy of Aurangzeb in the following words: “Aurangzeb
was a bigot to whom the religion of the great majority of his subjects was anathema, mischief,
idolatry, which it was his duty before heaven to persecute and if possible to stamp out. His methods
were iconoclasm, sacrilege, economic repression, bribery, forced conversion and restriction of
worship.”
3. Discriminatory toll far:
The Hindu traders were required to pay a toll tax of 5 per cent as against half of it paid by the
Muslim traders. Later on Muslim traders were totally exempted from the payment of this tax.
4. Removal of the Hindus from Government jobs:
Aurangzeb’s predecessors, especially Akbar had appointed a large number of Hindus in the various
departments, but Aurangzeb followed the policy of removal of the Hindus from these jobs. The
Hindus were not allowed to occupy high administrative or executive posts. A general order
prohibiting the employment of the Hindus in the revenue department was passed in 1670.

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But as it resulted in the complete breakdown of the efficiency, the order was slightly modified and
Hindus were allowed to work on certain limited posts in the revenue department.
5. Restrictions on Hindu educational institutions:
For destroying the culture of the Hindus, Aurangzeb destroyed their several educational
institutions at Varanasi, Multan and Thatta. He placed restrictions on the starting of new
pathshalas. The Hindu children were disallowed to study the fundamentals of their faith. They
were not allowed to attend Muslim Madaras and Maqtabs.
6. Conversion through different means:
For the Hindus the only way to escape from the payment of various taxes like pilgrim tax, trade
tax, Jizya, etc. was conversion to Islam. Getting jobs after conversion also became easier. The
Hindu prisoners were freed on their conversion to Islam. All sorts of promises were made to the
converted.
7. Social restrictions:
Aurangzeb issued order that except Rajputs, no Hindu could ride an elephant, a horse and a
palanquin. Holi and Diwali festivals were allowed to be celebrated with certain restrictions. The
Hindiis could no longer put on fine clothes. The Hindus were not allowed to burn their dead on
the banks of the river Sabarmati in Ahmedabad. Similar restrictions were placed at Delhi on the
river Jamuna.
Results of the religious policy of Aurangzeb:
The religious fanaticism of Aurangzeb overshadowed his virtues. His reversal of Akbar’s policy
of religious toleration resulted in weakening the entire structure of the Mughal empire. It led to
several conflicts and wars in different parts of the country.
These conflicts were:
(i) Conflict with the Jats
(ii) Conflict with the Satnamos
(iii) Conflict with the Sikhs
(iv) Conflicts with the Rajput’s
(v) Conflict with the Marathas.
All these rebellions destroyed the peace of the empire, disrupted its economy, weakened the
administrative structure, diminished its military strength, led to the failure of Aurangzeb to make
any impact. Ultimately all these contributed to the downfall of the Mughal enterprise.
Was Aurangzeb really anti-Hindu?
A few historians have tried to justify Aurangzeb’s religious policy. They state that this policy was
the outcome of his political and economic considerations. He was an imperialist and he wanted to
strengthen his hold on his subjects. Since several sections of the Hindu society which formed the
majority of his subjects did not want to be ruled by him, they revolted. His Deccan campaigns
against the Shia Sultans were also the outcome of his expansionist policy.
Regarding special taxes imposed upon the Hindus, it is argued that Aurangzeb was in need of
money to carry out his policy of expansion. He therefore, imposed different kinds of taxes. Since

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Hindus were quite rich, they had to bear the burden of various taxes. But no argument is put
forward by the protagonists of this view as why he took pains to demolish temples and break idols.
The following three letters written by him to his sons clearly establish the fact that he was a staunch
Musalman and he wanted to promote his religion. These letters also indicate that he himself
considered himself a failure as a ruler. About the letters Dr. V. Smith says that “The sternest critic
of the character and deeds of Aurangzeb can hardly refuse to recognise the pathos of these
lamentations or to feel some sympathy for the old man on his lonely death-bed.”
10 Main Events of Reign of Aurangzeb – Explained!
Aurangzeb who assumed the title ‘Abul-Muzaffar Mohin-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Bahadur
Alamgir Bads hah Ghazi’ after ascending the throne was the sixth of the fourteen children of Shah
Jahan. He was born at Dahod near Ujjain in 1618. He intensely studied Arabic and Persian. He
also studied Quran and Hades—sacred books of the Muslims. He was trained in horse riding and
in the art of soldiering. Soon he became a successful fighter. He was very brave and daring.
Governor of various provinces:
He worked as the governor of Deccan from 1636 to 1644 and 1652 to 1658. He also worked as the
governor of Gujarat, Multan and Sind from time to time. As a governor, he demonstrated his great
talents as an organizer, administrator, a diplomat and general. He organised the revenue system of
Gujarat in such a way that it greatly added to its prosperity.
Aurangzeb’s success in the war of succession:
Shah Jahan’s illness in 1657 led to a bloody war of succession among his four sons—Dara Shikoh,
Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad. Aurangzeb was successful in liquidating his three brothers, putting
his father in prison and becoming the emperor of Delhi, through his diplomacy and bravery.
Chief Events of his Reign:
1. Early measures taken by Aurangzeb to strengthen his position:
(a) Popularity measures:
(i) He enhanced the salaries of officers.
(ii) He abolished grain trade tax.
(iii) He declined to accept gifts,
(iv) He gave titles to his supporters.
(b) Puritan measures:
(i) Aurangzeb banned the celebration of ‘Nauroz’ as it was an ancient practice
(ii) He banned music.
(iii) He stopped the practice of weighing the emperor in silver and gold,
(iv) He appointed ‘Muhtasibs’ (moral preachers) for the ethical uplift of the Muslims,
(v) He stopped the practice of ‘jharokha’ (public audience) as it was termed as a blind faith.
2. Religious disharmony:
By following anti-Hindu and anti-Shia policy, he antagonized the majority of population.
3. Revolts on account of Aurangzeb policy:
Following revolts took place:
(а) Conflict with the Jats:

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There were three revolts of the Jats of Mathura against the Mughal tyranny. These revolts were
primarily on account of the anti-Hindu policy of Aurangzeb. They could not tolerate the demolition
of their temples. They resented the construction of a mosque at the site of the birth place of Lord
Krishna at Mathura.
The land revenue charged from them was very heavy. The attitude of Abdul Nalu, the Faujdar of
Mathura also led to great resentment against the Mughal rule. The conflict continued for a long
time and ultimately after the death of Aurangzeb, the Jats succeeded in establishing their kingdom
with its capital at Bharatpur.
(b) Conflict with the Satnamis:
The Satnamis formed a Hindu religious sect in the district of Narnaul and Mewat. Most of them
carried on agriculture. Generally they were pious people. However, they would not tolerate any
oppression. They kept arms and weapons to protect themselves from any kind of attempt to do
wrong to them.
An innocent Satnami cultivator was murdered by a Mughal soldier. Being agitated they rose in
rebellion and killed the local Mughal official. The Mughal army retaliated with a heavy hand.
Aurangzeb himself decided to go in person to Narnaul as he apprehended a general revolt of the
Hindus in the entire region.
Aurangzeb attacked them with a heavy force supported by artillery. The Satnamis were massacred
indiscriminately. The rebellion was crushed but the people began to hate the rule and looked
forward for an opportunity to get rid of the oppressive rule of the Mughals.
(c) Conflict with the Sikhs:
The conflict between the Sikhs and the Mughal rulers started during the reign of Jahangir when
Guru Arjun Dev, the fifth Guru of the Sikhs was tortured to death by him. The struggle became
intensive during the reign of Aurangzeb. The ninth guru Guru Teg Bahadur (1664-75) was greatly
hurt and distressed at the persecution of the Hindus by Aurangzeb.He openly expressed his
resentment against this policy.
Aurangzeb summoned him to Delhi and asked him to embrace Islam. On his refusal to do so, he
was put to death after a lot of torture. Gurudwara Sisganj at Chandni Chowk in Delhi stands at the
place of his martyrdom. Conflict with the Sikhs continued during the entire period of Aurangzeb.
4. Rajput policy of Aurangzeb and conflicts with them:
He tried to crush the Rajput’s; removed them from higher offices, levied the Jizya tax on them;
attempted to do away with the independence of Marwar, resulting into fateful consequences.
(1) Conflict with Bundelkhand:
Champat Rai revolted in Bundelkhand and his son Chatrasal defeated the Mongols several times.
(2) Conflict with Marwar:
After the death of Jaswant Singh Aurangzeb tried to secure his infant son but Durga Dass foiled
his attempts. The conflict continued for 30 years and in the end Bahadur Shah recognised Marwar
as an independent kingdom.
(3) Conflict with Mewar:

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Rana Raj Singh of Mewar fought against Aurangzeb. The Rana and Durga Dass incited Akbar to
rebel against his father. In 1684, he made peace with Mewar.
5. The Deccan policy:
Aurangzeb was guided by the following reasons:
(1) Aurangzeb was ambitious,
(2) He wanted to conquer the Deccan,
(3) The internal condition of the Shiaite kingdoms was miserable,
(4) Fear of the union of the three forces,
(5) Puritanism led him to do it,
(6) Wanted to conquer the south due to Akbar’s revolt,
(7) The kingdoms stopped paying the tributes.
Following were the results of his Deccan policy:
(i) Expansion of the empire,
(ii) Laxity in the empire,
(iii) Removal of the restrictions on the Marathas,
(iv) The state treasury became empty,
(v) Indiscipline in the north,
(vi) Impaired the dignity of the empire;
(vii) Slackened the development of culture.
6. Conflict with the Marathas:
Aurangzeb’s conflict with Shivaji started in 1659 and continued till Shivaji’s death in 1680. In
spite of the huge army and enormous resources of Aurangzeb, Shivaji was successful in
establishing a strong Maratha empire.
7. Conflict with the North-east:
In spite of best efforts Assam could not be captured.
8. Conflict with the Afghans:
The Mughal forces suffered heavy losses in the conflict that lasted for a decade. Ultimately the
united front of the Afghans was broken and slowly peace restored.
9. Conflict with the English:
After a minor conflict, peace was restored between the parties.
10. Conflict with sons:
Being of suspicious nature, Aurangzeb remained in conflict with his four sons. He kept three of
his sons in prison for a number of years.
Aurangzeb’s Character:
(i) Brave and successful general,
(ii) Simple life.
(iii) Scholar of merit,
(iv) Great diplomat,
(v) Devoted to religion,
(vi) Firm and resolute.

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Most Pathetic last days of Aurangzeb:
Aurangzeb died as a frustrated and sad man. He wrote very pathetic letters to his sons. To prince
Azam he wrote, “I have not done well for the country and its people.” To Kam Bakh, he wrote.”
“Strange that I came with nothing into this world and now go away with this stupendous caravan
of sins.”

Asoka’s Early Life and His Accession to Throne

Devanampriya Priyadarshi Raja Asoka was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya and the son of
the second Maurya Emperor, Bindusara. Acknowledged as the greatest of monarchs in world
history, Asoka, is singled out as a ruler without a parallel. In his role as a monarch and a missionary,
he made his time one of the most glorious epochs of Indian history.
Much light is thrown on the history of Asoka by his own inscriptions as they exist on the surface
of imperishable rocks. Information about his life and time are also gathered from various Buddhist
sources and Indian traditions. There are, of course, many legends and stories about him in Indian
literature. The substance of his life, in any case, has been ascertained from reliable sources and
accepted as historically established.
Asoka’s father Bindusara was fortunate for inheriting a vast and powerful empire from his father,
Chandragupta Maurya. That he was himself powerful is known from the Greek sources in which
Bindusara was described as Amitrochates. The word is supposed to have been taken from the
Sanskrit word Amitraghatu or the ‘Slayer of Foes’ or Amitra khada, meaning ‘Devourer of
Enemies’. Taranatha, the famous Tibetan historian of a later time, wrote in his history of Buddhism
that Chanakya or Kautilya, who was the chief minister of Chandragupta, also continued to work
in the same capacity under Bindusara. He further writes that “Chanaky accomplished the
destruction of the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made Bindusara master of all the territory
between eastern and western sea”.
The exact conquests of Bindusara are not clear since his father had conquered vast territories in
the west and the east, and in the north and the south. Might be, Amitraghata destroyed some
rebellious nobles or small rulers within the empire to strengthen his power and confirm his
supremacy.
There is no doubt that Bindusara ruled over his father’s empire effectively and preserved the
Maurya Empire successfully. He also maintained good relation with contemporary Greek rulers
outside India. It is known from the Greek accounts that Bindusara requested the Syrian King
Antiochus I Soter, who was the son of Seleukos Nikator, to buy and send to him sweet wine, dried
figs and a learned philosopher. And, the Syrian king wrote back: “We shall send you the figs and
the wine, but in Greece the laws forbid a sophist (a man of wisdom) to be sold”. He, however, sent
an ambassador named Daimachus to the court of Bindusara. The King of Egypt, Ptolemy
Philadelphos, also sent an ambassador to the Maurya Court named Dionysius.
According to traditions, Bindusara had 16 wives, and as many as 101 sons. The name of his eldest
son is said to have been Sumana or Susima. His second son was Asoka, and the name of the

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youngest son was Tishya. According to one tradition, the name of Asoka’s mother was
Subhadrangi.
Another tradition mentions her name as Dharma. The Year of birth of Asoka was 304 B.C. when
his grandfather Chandragupta was still ruling the empire. Legends lead us to understand that Asoka
was the most intelligent among may sons of his father. When Asoka was 18 years old, Bindusara
appointed him as his Viceroy of the province of Avanti which had its capital at Ujjayini. This took
place in the year 286 B.C. and the young prince soon showed his ability as well as individuality in
his works.
There at Ujjayini, Asoka married a lady of the famous Sakya clan to which Buddha belonged. Her
name was Vidisa Mahadevi Sakya Kumari. Apparently her birth place was Vidisa (modern Bhilsa).
When Asoka was 20, Mahadevi gave birth to a son who was named Mahendra. Two years later,
in 282 B.C., a daughter was born to Asoka named Sanghamitra. In future, both Mahendra and
Sanghamitra played a great role in the spread of Buddhism when their royal father sent them to
preach that religion outside India.
When prince Asoka was working as the viceroy at Ujjayini, prince Susima, the eldest son of
Bindusara, was serving as his father’s viceroy at Taxila. A revolt of the people of Taxila broke out
at that time for the misdeeds of the wicked officers which Susima failed to suppress. Thereupon,
the Emperor sent Asoka to Taxila to suppress it which he did. Asoka thus served as the viceroy of
Taxila after serving as the viceroy in Ujjayini. There is also reference to a second rebellion in
Taxila which Asoka faced and suppressed. According to Puranic evidences, Bindusara ruled for
twenty-five years. His death took place in about 273 B.C.
The Ceylonese (Sinhalese) Chronicles describe of a fratricidal war which followed the death of
Bindusara. The chief rivals to the throne were the eldest son of the late Emperor Susima or Sumana
and Asoka. The Chronicles narrate that it was fierce struggle in which Asoka won at last by killing
his ninety-nine brothers. He spared the life of only one brother, Tishya, who was the youngest.
Such descriptions of Ashoka’s cruelty were perhaps motivated exaggerations on part of the
Buddhist writers who wanted to show Asoka as a Chandasoka before he became a Buddhist and
turned into a Dharmasoka. According to Taranatha, the Tibetan writer, Asoka killed six brothers
to capture the throne.
It is most probable that there was a war of succession for which Asoka’s coronation was delayed
for four years. Between his accession to the throne in 273 B.C. and his coronation for appointment
as king in 269 B.C., there was an interval of four years. This leads historians to believe that there
was a war of succession which ended in the victory of Asoka. But, the Buddhist legends about his
cruelty and about his killing of as many as 99 brothers do not seem to possess historical substance.
In some of his inscriptions, which were erected long after his coronation, Asoka refers to his
‘brothers and sisters’ and other relatives for whose welfare he was most anxious. Inscriptional
evidences also indirectly suggest that some of his brothers served as his viceroys in prominent
places like Taxila, Tosali, Ujjayini, and Suvaranagiri and were called as the Kumaras and
Aryputras. According to Mahavamsa, Asoka even appointed his youngest brother Tishya as the
Uparaja or the Deputy king. The traditions maintain that Asoka captured the throne with the

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support of the ministers of the late monarch headed by the chief minister, Radhagupta (also
mentioned as Khallataka).
After coming to the throne and having consolidated his power after four years by coronation,
Asoka found himself the all-powerful ruler of a great empire extending from the Kabul valley to
the Brahmaputra, and from the Himalayas to the Godavari-Krishna basin and Mysore in the south.
In the north-west, the Maurya Empire touched the territories of the Greek monarch of Syria and
Western Asia.
In the west, the empire touched the Arabian Sea. The empire also included inaccessible areas in
the north, such as Kashmir and Nepal. That Asoka ruled over the Himalayan territories is proved
by the existence of his inscriptions at Mansehra in Hazara district, at Kalsi in Dehra Dun district,
at Rummindei in the Nepal Tarai and at Rampurva in north Bihar.
Evidences are also available to show the extent of Asokan Empire to north Bengal (Pundra
Vardhan) and east Bengal (Samatata). The empire of Asoka, thus, was an all-India empire, except
for the territories of the Chodas, Pandyas, Satyaputra and Keralaputra in the Tamil land of the far
south.
But, this empire of Chandragupta, Bindusara and Asoka did not include a prominent land which
was just adjacent to the heartland of the Maurya Empire, namely, Magadha. It was Kalinga. For
Twelve years after accession and especially for eight years after coronation Asoka ruled the empire
as a strong ruler with absolute power in his command. He lived the usual life of a great king in
pomp, splendour and pleasure. He did not fight any external war, though he had the power for
aggression.
He also had no fear of invasion from outside Greek Kings with whom there were diplomatic
relations from the time of his father. During the first twelve years of his rule he was busy in internal
administration. Obviously his position became stronger and stronger since his coronation. When
Asoka had thus enjoyed his unlimited imperial authority for long, he decided to invade Kalinga. It
was going to be his first war. It was also destined to be his last war.

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