Third-wave feminism

Third-wave feminism is an iteration of the feminist movement that

began in the early 1990s,[2] prominent in the decades prior to the
fourth wave.[3][4] Grounded in the civil-rights advances of the
second wave, Gen X and Early Gen Y generations third-wave
feminists born in the 1960s and 1970s embraced diversity and
individualism in women, and sought to redefine what it meant to be
a feminist.[2][5][6] The third wave saw the emergence of new
feminist currents and theories, such as intersectionality, sex
positivity, vegetarian ecofeminism, transfeminism, and postmodern
feminism. According to feminist scholar Elizabeth Evans, the
"confusion surrounding what constitutes third-wave feminism is in
some respects its defining feature."[7]

The third wave is traced to the emergence of the riot grrrl feminist
punk subculture in Olympia, Washington, in the early 1990s,[a] and
to Anita Hill's televised testimony in 1991 (to an all-male, all-white
Senate Judiciary Committee) that African-American judge Clarence Rebecca Walker in 2003. The term
Thomas had sexually harassed her. The term third wave is credited third wave is credited to Walker's
to Rebecca Walker, who responded to Thomas's appointment to the 1992 article, "Becoming the Third
Supreme Court with an article in Ms. magazine, "Becoming the Wave".[1]
Third Wave" (1992).[9][1][6] She wrote:

So I write this as a plea to all women, especially women of my generation: Let Thomas'
confirmation serve to remind you, as it did me, that the fight is far from over. Let this dismissal
of a woman's experience move you to anger. Turn that outrage into political power. Do not
vote for them unless they work for us. Do not have sex with them, do not break bread with
them, do not nurture them if they don't prioritize our freedom to control our bodies and our
lives. I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the Third Wave.[10][1]

Walker sought to establish that third-wave feminism was not just a reaction, but a movement in itself,
because the feminist cause had more work ahead. The term intersectionality—to describe the idea that
women experience "layers of oppression" caused, for example, by gender, race and class—had been
introduced by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989, and it was during the third wave that the concept flourished.[11]
As feminists came online in the late 1990s and early 2000s and reached a global audience with blogs and e-
zines, they broadened their goals, focusing on abolishing gender-role stereotypes and expanding feminism
to include women with diverse racial and cultural identities.[12][13]

Contents
History
Early years
Riot grrrl
Anita Hill
Purpose
Relationship with second wave
Issues
Violence against women
Reproductive rights
Reclaiming derogatory terms
Sexual liberation
Other issues
Criticism
Lack of cohesion
Objection to "wave construct"
Relationship with women of color
"Girly" feminism
Timeline
1990s
2000s
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

History
The rights and programs gained by feminists of the second wave served as a foundation for the third wave.
The gains included Title IX (equal access to education), public discussion about the abuse and rape of
women, access to contraception and other reproductive services (including the legalization of abortion), the
creation and enforcement of sexual-harassment policies for women in the workplace, the creation of
domestic-abuse shelters for women and children, child-care services, educational funding for young
women, and women's studies programs.

Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave such as Gloria E. Anzaldúa, bell hooks, Cherríe Moraga, Audre
Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and other feminists of color, sought to negotiate a space within feminist
thought for consideration of race.[14][15] Cherríe Moraga and Gloria E. Anzaldúa had published the
anthology This Bridge Called My Back (1981), which, along with All the Women Are White, All the Blacks
Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave (1982), edited by Akasha (Gloria T.) Hull, Patricia Bell-Scott, and
Barbara Smith, argued that second-wave feminism had focused primarily on the problems of white women.
The emphasis on the intersection between race and gender became increasingly prominent.

In the interlude of the late 1970s and early 1980s, the feminist sex wars arose as a reaction against the
radical feminism of the second wave and its views on sexuality, therein countering with a concept of "sex-
positivity" and heralding the third wave.[16]

Another crucial point for the start of the third wave is the publication in 1990 of Gender Trouble: Feminism
and the Subversion of Identity by Judith Butler, which soon became one of the most influential works of
contemporary feminist theory. In it, Butler argued against homogenizing conceptions of "women", which
had a normative and exclusionary effect not only in the social world more broadly but also within
feminism. This was the case not only for racialized or working-class women, but also for masculine, lesbian
or non-binary women.[17] Besides, she outlined her theory of gender as performativity, which posited that
gender works by enforcing a series of repetitions of verbal and non-verbal acts that generate the "illusion"
of a coherent and intelligible gender expression and identity, which otherwise lack any essential
property.[18] Lastly, Butler developed the claim that there is no resource to a "natural" sex, but that what we
call such is always already culturally mediated, and therefore inseparable from gender.[19] These views
were foundational for the field of queer theory, and played a major role in the development of third-wave
feminist theories and practices.[20]

Early years

Riot grrrl

The emergence of riot grrrl, the feminist punk subculture, in the early 1990s
in Olympia, Washington, marked the beginning of third-wave feminism.[21]
The triple "r" in grrrl was intended to reclaim the word girl for women.[22]
Alison Piepmeier writes that riot grrrl and Sarah Dyer's Action Girl
Newsletter formulated "a style, rhetoric, and iconography for grrrl zines"
that came to define third-wave feminism,[21] and that focused on the
viewpoint of adolescent girls.[23] Based on hard-core punk rock, the
movement created zines and art, talked about rape, patriarchy, sexuality,
and female empowerment, started chapters, and supported and organized
women in music.[24] An undatedbut collected by 2013 Bikini Kill tour flier
asked "What is Riot grrrl?":

BECAUSE in every form of media I see us/myself slapped,

Kathleen Hanna, lead singer
of Bikini Kill, 1991
decapitated, laughed at, objectified, raped, trivialized, pushed,
ignored, stereotyped, kicked, scorned, molested, silenced,
invalidated, knifed, shot, choked, and killed. ... BECAUSE a
safe space needs to be created for girls where we can open our
eyes and reach out to each other without being threatened by
this sexist society and our day to day bullshit.  ... BECAUSE
we girls want to create mediums that speak to US. We are tired
of boy band after boy band, boy zine after boy zine, boy punk
after boy punk after boy. BECAUSE I am tired of these things
happening to me; I'm not a fuck toy. I'm not a punching bag.
I'm not a joke.[25]

Riot grrrl was grounded in the DIY philosophy of punk values, adopting an anti-corporate stance of self-
sufficiency and self-reliance.[22] Its emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appeared
more closely allied with second-wave feminism.[26] Bands associated with the movement included
Bratmobile, Excuse 17, Jack Off Jill, Free Kitten, Heavens to Betsy, Huggy Bear, L7, Fifth Column, and
Team Dresch.[24]

Riot grrrl culture gave people the space to enact change on a macro, meso and micro scale. As Kevin Dunn
explains:
 Using the do-it-yourself ethos of punk to provide resources for individual empowerment, Riot
Grrrl encouraged females to engage in multiple sites of resistance. At the macro-level, Riot
Grrrls resist society's dominant constructions of femininity. At the meso-level, they resist
stifling gender roles in punk. At the micro-level, they challenge gender constructions in their
families and among their peers.[27]

The demise of riot grrrl is linked to commodification and misrepresentation of its message, mainly through
media coverage.[27] Writing in Billboard magazine, Jennifer Keishin Armstrong states:

In the early 1990s, the women's movement seemed dead to the mainstream. Few pop cultural
figures embraced the term "feminist." The underground punk movement known as "Riot
Grrrl" scared anyone outside of it, while Alanis Morissette's breakthrough single "You Oughta
Know" scared everyone else even more. Then, in the middle of the decade, the Spice Girls
took all of that fear and made feminism – popularized as Girl Power – fun. Suddenly, regular
girls far outside Women's Studies classrooms had at least an inkling of what would be known
in wonky circles as Third Wave Feminism – led by Generation Xers pushing for sexual
freedom and respect for traditionally "girly" pursuits like makeup and fashion, among many
other issues.[28]

El Hunt of NME states, "Riot grrrl bands in general were very focused on making space for women at gigs.
They understood the importance of giving women a platform and voice to speak out against abusers. For a
lot of young women and girls, who probably weren't following the Riot grrrl scene at all, The Spice Girls
brought this spirit into the mainstream and made it accessible."[29]

Anita Hill

In 1991, Anita Hill, when questioned, accused Clarence Thomas, an

Anita Hill, 2014
African-American judge who had been nominated to the United States
Supreme Court, of sexual harassment. Thomas denied the accusations,
calling them a "high-tech lynching". After extensive debate, the United
States Senate voted 52–48 in favor of Thomas.[14][15][30] In response, Ms.
Magazine published an article by Rebecca Walker, entitled "Becoming the
Third Wave", in which she stated: "I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am
the third wave." Many had argued that Thomas should be acquitted
because of his plans to create opportunities for people of color. When
Walker asked her partner his opinion and he said the same thing, she asked:
"When will progressive black men prioritize my rights and well-being?"
She wanted racial equality but without dismissing women.[1]

In 1992, dubbed the "Year of the Woman", four women entered the United
States Senate to join the two already there. The following year, another woman, Kay Bailey Hutchison,
won a special election, bringing the number to seven. The 1990s saw the US's first female Attorney
General (Janet Reno) and Secretary of State (Madeleine Albright), as well as the second woman on the
Supreme Court, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, and the first US First Lady, Hillary Clinton, to have had an
independent political, legal and activist career.

Purpose
Arguably the biggest challenge to third-wave feminism was that the gains
of second-wave feminism were taken for granted, and the importance of
feminism not understood. Baumgardner and Richards (2000) wrote: "
[F]or anyone born after the early 1960s, the presence of feminism in our
lives is taken for granted. For our generation, feminism is like fluoride.
We scarcely notice that we have it—it's simply in the water."[6]

Essentially the claim was that gender equality had already been achieved,
via the first two waves, and further attempts to push for women's rights
were irrelevant and unnecessary, or perhaps even pushed the pendulum
too far in women's favor. This issue manifested itself in the heated debates
about whether affirmative action was creating gender equality or
punishing white, middle-class males for the biological history that they
had inherited.[31] Third-wave feminism therefore focused on
Consciousness raising—"one's ability to open their mind to the fact that Jennifer Baumgardner, co-
male domination does affect the women of our generation, is what we author of Manifesta (2000), in
need.[6][32] 2008

Third-wave feminists often engaged in "micro-politics", and challenged

the second wave's paradigm as to what was good for women.[33][34][14][35] Proponents of third-wave
feminism said that it allowed women to define feminism for themselves. Describing third-wave feminism in
Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism And The Future (2000), Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy Richards
suggested that feminism could change with every generation and individual:

The fact that feminism is no longer limited to arenas where we expect to see it—NOW, Ms.,
women's studies, and redsuited congresswomen—perhaps means that young women today
have really reaped what feminism has sown. Raised after Title IX and William Wants a Doll
[sic], young women emerged from college or high school or two years of marriage or their first
job and began challenging some of the received wisdom of the past ten or twenty years of
feminism. We're not doing feminism the same way that the seventies feminists did it; being
liberated doesn't mean copying what came before but finding one's own way—a way that is
genuine to one's own generation.[6]

Third-wave feminists used personal narratives as a form of feminist

theory. Expressing personal experiences gave women space to
recognize that they were not alone in the oppression and
discrimination they faced. Using these accounts has benefits
because it records personal details that may not be available in
traditional historical texts.[36]

Third-wave ideology focused on a more post-structuralist

interpretation of gender and sexuality.[37] Post-structuralist Protesters at a women's march in
feminists saw binaries such as male–female as an artificial construct 2017
created to maintain the power of the dominant group.[38] Joan W.
Scott wrote in 1998 that "poststructuralists insist that words and
texts have no fixed or intrinsic meanings, that there is no transparent or self-evident relationship between
them and either ideas or things, no basic or ultimate correspondence between language and the
world".[39][b]
Relationship with second wave

The second wave of feminism is often accused of being elitist and ignoring groups such as women of
colour and transgender women, instead, focusing on white, middle class, cisgender women. Third wave
feminists questioned the beliefs of their predecessors and began to apply feminist theory to a wider variety
of women, who had not been previously included in feminist activity.[41]

Amy Richards defined the feminist culture for the third wave as "third wave because it's an expression of
having grown up with feminism".[22] Second-wave feminists grew up where the politics intertwined within
the culture, such as "Kennedy, the Vietnam War, civil rights, and women's rights". In contrast, the third
wave sprang from a culture of "punk-rock, hip-hop, 'zines, products, consumerism and the Internet".[6] In
an essay entitled "Generations, Academic Feminists in dialogue" Diane Elam wrote:

This problem manifests itself when senior feminists insist that junior feminists be good
daughters, defending the same kind of feminism their mothers advocated. Questions and
criticisms are allowed, but only if they proceed from the approved brand of feminism.
Daughters are not allowed to invent new ways of thinking and doing feminism for themselves;
feminists' politics should take the same shape that it has always assumed.[6]

Rebecca Walker, in To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism (1995), wrote about
her fear of rejection by her mother (Alice Walker) and her godmother (Gloria Steinem) for challenging their
views:

Young Women feminists find themselves watching their speech and tone in their works so as
not to upset their elder feminist mothers. There is a definite gap among feminists who consider
themselves to be second-wave and those who would label themselves as third-wave.
Although, the age criteria for second-wave feminists and third-wave feminists is murky,
younger feminists definitely have a hard time proving themselves worthy as feminist scholars
and activists.[30]

Issues

Violence against women

Violence against women, including rape, domestic violence, and sexual harassment, became a central issue.
Organizations such as V-Day formed with the goal of ending gender violence, and artistic expressions,
such as The Vagina Monologues, generated awareness. Third-wave feminists wanted to transform
traditional notions of sexuality and embrace "an exploration of women's feelings about sexuality that
included vagina-centred topics as diverse as orgasm, birth, and rape".[12]

Reproductive rights

One of third-wave feminism's primary goals was to demonstrate that access to contraception and abortion
are women's reproductive rights. According to Baumgardner and Richards, "It is not feminism's goal to
control any woman's fertility, only to free each woman to control her own."[6] South Dakota's 2006 attempt
to ban abortion in all cases, except when necessary to protect the mother's life,[42] and the US Supreme
 Court's vote to uphold the partial birth abortion ban were viewed as
restrictions on women's civil and reproductive rights.[43][44] Restrictions on
abortion in the US, which was mostly legalized by the 1973 Supreme
Court decision in Roe v. Wade, were becoming more common in states
around the country. These included mandatory waiting periods,[45]
parental-consent laws,[46] and spousal-consent laws.[47]

Reclaiming derogatory terms

English speakers continued

to use words such as
spinster, bitch, whore, and
The Vagina Monologues cunt to refer to women in
premiered in New York in
derogatory ways. Inga
1996.
Muscio wrote, "I posit that
we're free to seize a word
that was kidnapped and co-
opted in a pain-filled, distant past, with a ransom that cost our
grandmothers' freedom, children, traditions, pride and The first Slutwalk, Toronto, 2011
land." [48] Taking back the word bitch was fueled by the
single "All Women Are Bitches" (1994) by the all-woman
band Fifth Column, and by the book Bitch: In Praise of Difficult Women (1999) by Elizabeth Wurtzel.[49]

The utility of the reclamation strategy became a hot topic with the introduction of SlutWalks in 2011. The
first took place in Toronto on 3 April that year in response to a Toronto police officer's remark that "women
should avoid dressing like sluts in order not to be victimized."[50] Additional SlutWalks sprang up
internationally, including in Berlin, London, New York City, Seattle, and West Hollywood.[51] Several
feminist bloggers criticized the campaign; reclamation of the word slut was questioned.[52][53][54][55]

Sexual liberation

Third-wave feminists expanded the second-wave feminist's definition of sexual liberation to "mean a
process of first becoming conscious of the ways one's gender identity and sexuality have been shaped by
society and then intentionally constructing (and becoming free to express) one's authentic gender
identity".[56] Since third-wave feminism relied on different personal definitions to explain feminism, there is
controversy surrounding what sexual liberation really entails. Many third-wave feminists supported the idea
that women should embrace their sexuality as a way to take back their power.[57]

Other issues

Third-wave feminism regarded race, social class, and transgender rights[58][59] as central issues. It also paid
attention to workplace matters such as the glass ceiling, unfair maternity-leave policies,[60] motherhood
support for single mothers by means of welfare and child care, respect for working mothers, and the rights
of mothers who decide to leave their careers to raise their children full-time.[61]

Criticism
Lack of cohesion

One issue raised by critics was a lack of cohesion because of the absence of a single cause for third-wave
feminism. The first wave fought for and gained the right for women to vote. The second wave fought for
the right for women to have access to an equal opportunity in the workforce, as well as the end of legal sex
discrimination. The third wave allegedly lacked a cohesive goal and was often seen as an extension of the
second wave.[22] Some argued that the third wave could be dubbed the "Second Wave, Part Two" when it
came to the politics of feminism and that "only young feminist culture" was "truly third wave".[6] One
argument ran that the equation of third-wave feminism with individualism prevented the movement from
growing and moving towards political goals. Kathleen P. Iannello wrote:

The conceptual and real-world 'trap' of choice feminism (between work and home) has led
women to challenge each other rather than the patriarchy. Individualism conceived of as
'choice' does not empower women; it silences them and prevents feminism from becoming a
political movement and addressing the real issues of distribution of resources.[62]

Objection to "wave construct"

Feminist scholars such as Shira Tarrant objected to the "wave construct" because it ignored important
progress between the periods. Furthermore, if feminism is a global movement, she argued, the fact that the
"first-, second-, and third waves time periods correspond most closely to American feminist developments"
raises serious problems about how feminism fails to recognize the history of political issues around the
world.[63] The "wave construct", critics argued, also focused on white women's suffrage and continued to
marginalize the issues of women of color and lower-class women.[57]

Relationship with women of color

Third-wave feminists proclaim themselves as the most inclusive wave of feminism. Critics have noted that
while progressive, there is still exclusion of women of color. Black feminists argue that "the women rights
movements were not uniquely for the liberation of Blacks or Black Women. Rather, efforts such as
women's suffrage and abolition of slavery ultimately uplifted, strengthened, and benefited White society
and White women".[64]

"Girly" feminism

Third-wave feminism was often associated, primarily by its critics, with the emergence of so-called
"lipstick" or "girly" feminists and the rise of "raunch culture". This was because these new feminists
advocated "expressions of femininity and female sexuality as a challenge to objectification". Accordingly,
this included the dismissal of any restriction, whether deemed patriarchal or feminist, to define or control
how women or girls should dress, act, or generally express themselves.[65] These emerging positions stood
in stark contrast with the anti-pornography strains of feminism prevalent in the 1980s. Second-wave
feminism viewed pornography as encouraging violence towards women.[62] The new feminists posited that
the ability to make autonomous choices about self-expression could be an empowering act of resistance, not
simply internalized oppression.
Such views were critiqued because of the subjective nature of empowerment and autonomy. Scholars were
unsure whether empowerment was best measured as an "internal feeling of power and agency" or as an
external "measure of power and control". Moreover they critiqued an over-investment in "a model of free
will and choice" in the marketplace of identities and ideas.[66] Regardless, the "girly" feminists attempted to
be open to all different selves while maintaining a dialogue about the meaning of identity and femininity in
the contemporary world.

Third-wave feminists said that these viewpoints should not be limited by the label "girly" feminism or
regarded as simply advocating "raunch culture". Rather, they sought to be inclusive of the many diverse
roles women fulfill. Gender scholars Linda Duits and Liesbet van Zoonen highlighted this inclusivity by
looking at the politicization of women's clothing choices and how the "controversial sartorial choices of
girls" and women are constituted in public discourse as "a locus of necessary regulation".[65] Thus the
"hijab" and the "belly shirt", as dress choices, were both identified as requiring regulation but for different
reasons. Both caused controversy, while appearing to be opposing forms of self-expression. Through the
lens of "girly" feminists, one can view both as symbolic of "political agency and resistance to
objectification". The "hijab" could be seen as an act of resistance against Western ambivalence towards
Islamic identity, and the "belly shirt" an act of resistance against patriarchal society's narrow views of
female sexuality. Both were regarded as valid forms of self-expression.[66]

Timeline

1990s
 Date Event
1990 Publication of Judith Butler, Gender Trouble.
1990 Publication of Naomi Wolf, The Beauty Myth.
Riot grrrl movement begins in Olympia, Washington and
1991
Washington, D.C. in the US.[22]
In R v R, the House of Lords in the UK rules that a marital rape
March 1991
exemption does not exist in English law.
In United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., the US
Supreme Court declares that employers cannot exclude women
March 1991
from jobs in which exposure to toxic substances could harm a
developing fetus.[67]
Release of the film Thelma and Louise: "It took all those feelings
of alienation and anger—which until that point had mostly found
expression in things like 'Take Back the Night' rallies—and
May 1991
turned them into something rebellious, transgressive, iconic,
punk rock and mainstream." – Carina Chocano, New York
Times.[68]
The US Senate votes overwhelmingly to open combat positions
31 July 1991
for women aviators.[69]
Susan Faludi publishes Backlash: The Undeclared War Against
1991
American Women.[70]
Clarence Thomas Supreme Court nomination and the televised
July 1991 testimony in October of Anita Hill that he had sexually harassed
her.
"Opportunity 2000" is launched in the UK to increase women's
October 1991
employment opportunities.[71][72][73]
In response to the Thomas nomination, American feminist
January 1992 Rebecca Walker publishes "Becoming the Third Wave" in Ms.
magazine.[1]
Four women enter the US Senate to join the two already there,
1992
lending 1992 the label "Year of the Woman" in the US.
Third Wave Direct Action Corporation (later Third Wave
Foundation and the Third Wave Fund) founded in the US by
1992 Rebecca Walker and Shannon Liss-Riordan to support young
activists;[74][75] organized Freedom Ride 1992, a nationwide bus
tour to register voters.[76][77][78]

1993 Family and Medical Leave Act becomes law in the US.[79]
Janet Reno nominated and confirmed as the first female US
1993 Attorney General after President Bill Clinton's previous choices,
Zoë Baird and Kimba Wood, fail because of Nannygate.
"Take Our Daughters to Work Day" debuts in the US to build
girls' self-esteem and open their eyes to a variety of career
1993
possibilities for women. It was later renamed Take Our
Daughters and Sons to Work Day.[80]
 1993 First edition of Bust magazine appears, founded by Laurie
Henzel, Marcelle Karp, and Debbie Stoller.
Women taking back the word bitch are helped by the single "All
1994 Women Are Bitches" by the all-woman Canadian band Fifth
Column.
Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 confirms that
1994
marital rape is illegal in the UK.[73]
Violence Against Women Act becomes law in the US and
1994
establishes the Office on Violence Against Women.[81]
Publication of Rebecca Walker (ed.), To Be Real: Telling the
1995
Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism.[82]

1995 Fourth World Conference on Women held in China.[73]

1996 Northern Ireland Women's Coalition founded.[73]

Feminist play The Vagina Monologues, by American playwright
1996
Eve Ensler, premieres in New York.[83][84]
In United States v. Virginia, the US Supreme Court rules that
1996 male-only admissions policy of state-supported Virginia Military
Institute violates the Fourteenth Amendment.[85]
First edition of the magazine Bitch: Feminist Response to Pop
1996
Culture appears.[86]
Publication of Leslie Heywood and Jennifer Drake (eds.), Third
1997
Wave Agenda: Being Feminist, Doing Feminism.[82]
Turkish feminist Şenal Sarıhan shared the Robert F. Kennedy
1997
Human Rights Award.
Layli Miller-Muro founds the Tahirih Justice Center in the US
1997 following Matter of Kasinga, an asylum case dealing with female
genital mutilation.[87]
Eve Ensler and others, including Willa Shalit, a producer of the
Westside Theatre production of The Vagina Monologues, launch
1998
V-Day, a global non-profit movement that raises over $75 million
for women's anti-violence groups.[83][88]
1999 Publication of Germaine Greer, The Whole Woman
Publication of Marcelle Karp and Debbie Stoller (eds.), The
1999
BUST Guide to the New Girl Order.[82]
Publication of Elizabeth Wurtzel, Bitch: In Praise of Difficult
1999
Women.[49]
1999 Publication of Carol Ann Duffy, The World's Wife

2000s
 Date Event
Publication of Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy Richards,
2000
Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future[89]
CBS agrees to pay $8 million to settle a sex discrimination
October 2000
lawsuit on behalf of 200 women.[90]

2001 The Isle of Man passes its first sex-discrimination bill.[91]

Condoleezza Rice becomes the first female US national
2001
security adviser.[91]
The March for Women's Lives is held in Washington, D.C., to
support the right to abortion, access to birth control, scientifically
2004 accurate sex education, and prevention and treatment of
sexually transmitted infections, and to show public support for
mothers and children.[92]
Asylum Gender Guidelines are introduced by the UK for female
2004
asylum seekers.[91]
Publication of Vivien Labaton and Dawn Lundy (eds.), The Fire
2004
This Time: Young Activists and the New Feminism.[82]
Start of Feministing blog by Jessica Valenti and Vanessa
2004
Valenti.
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf in Liberia becomes Africa's first elected
2005 woman leader and the first black female president in the
world.[91]

2005 Angela Merkel becomes Germany's first female chancellor.[91]

Nancy Pelosi becomes the first woman Speaker in the US
2007
Congress.[91]
The Gender Equality Duty of the Equality Act 2006 comes into
1 April 2007 effect in the UK. It requires public authorities "to promote
equality of opportunity between women and men".[91]
Publication of Jessica Valenti, Full Frontal Feminism: A Young
2007
Woman's Guide to Why Feminism Matters.
Publication of Julia Serrano, Whipping Girl: A Transsexual
2007
Woman on Feminism and the Scapegoating of Femininity
Publication of Jaclyn Friedman and Jessica Valenti (eds.), Yes
2008
Means Yes.
Norway requires of all companies that at least 40 percent of
2008
their board members be women.[91]
In Los Angeles, Diana Bijon's husband, Michael, takes her last
name upon marriage, after their lawsuit led to a new California
May 2008 state law guaranteeing the rights of married couples and
registered domestic partners to choose whichever last name
they prefer.[93]
2008 Forced Marriage (Civil Protection) Act 2007 comes into force in
the UK.[91]
 In the UK, Carol Ann Duffy becomes the first female Poet
2009
Laureate.[91]
First SlutWalk takes place in Toronto in response to Toronto
police officer Michael Sanguinetti's statement that "women
3 April 2011
should avoid dressing like sluts in order not to be
victimized".[94][50]

Notes
a. Steve Feliciano (New York Public Library, 2013): "The emergence of the Riot Grrrl
movement began in the early 1990s, when a group of women in Olympia, Washington, held
a meeting to discuss how to address sexism in the punk scene. The women decided they
wanted to start a 'girl riot' against a society they felt offered no validation of women's
experiences. And thus the Riot Grrrl movement was born."[8]
b. Amber Lynn Zimmerman, M. Joan McDermott, and Christina M. Gould wrote in 2009 that
third-wave feminism offered five primary focuses: (1) Responsible choice grounded in
dialogue; (2) respect and appreciation for experiences and dynamic knowledge; (3) an
understanding of "the personal is political" that incorporates both the idea that personal
experiences have roots in structural problems and the idea that responsible, individuated
personal action has social consequences; (4) use of personal narratives in both theorizing
and political activism; (5) political activism as local, with global connections and
consequences.[40]

References
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Bibliography
Chamberlain, Prudence (2017). The feminist fourth wave : affective temporality (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=8AIkDwAAQBAJ). Springer. ISBN 9783319536828. Retrieved
27 May 2019.
Evans, Elizabeth (2015). The Politics of Third Wave Feminisms: Neoliberalism,
Intersectionality, and the State in Britain and the US. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
ISBN 978-1-137-29527-9.
Gillis, Stacy; Howie, Gillian; Munford, Rebecca (2007). Third Wave Feminism: A Critical
Exploration (Revised ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-1821-5.
Henry, Astrid (2004). Not My Mother's Sister: Generational Conflict and Third-Wave
Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21713-4.
OCLC 53932637 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/53932637).
Baumgardner, Jennifer; Richards, Amy (2000). Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and
the Future (https://archive.org/details/manifestayoungwo00baum). New York: Farrar, Straus
and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-52622-1.
Newman, Jacquetta A.; White, Linda Ann (2012). Women, Politics, and Public Policy: The
Political Struggles of Canadian Women (2nd ed.). Toronto: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 9780195432497.
Snyder, R. Claire (1 September 2008). "What Is Third‐Wave Feminism? A New Directions
Essay". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 34 (1): 175–196.
doi:10.1086/588436 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F588436). ISSN 0097-9740 (https://www.worl
dcat.org/issn/0097-9740). JSTOR 10.1086/588436 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/588
436). S2CID 144068546 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144068546).

Further reading
Baumgardner, Jennifer; Richards, Amy (2005). Grassroots: A Field Guide for Feminist
Activism. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-52865-2.
Evans, Elizabeth (2016). "What makes a (third) wave?" (https://research-information.bristol.a
c.uk/en/publications/what-makes-a-third-wave(7fb16f95-5556-4a3f-b3c0-178a0cf69671).htm
l). International Feminist Journal of Politics. 18 (3): 409–428.
doi:10.1080/14616742.2015.1027627
(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14616742.2015.1027627). hdl:1983/7fb16f95-5556-4a3f-b3c0-
178a0cf69671 (https://hdl.handle.net/1983%2F7fb16f95-5556-4a3f-b3c0-178a0cf69671).
S2CID 145102947 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145102947).
Fernandes, Leela (2010). "Unsettling 'Third Wave Feminism': Feminist Waves,
Intersectionality, and Identity Politics in Retrospect". In Hewitt, Nancy (ed.). No Permanent
Waves: Recasting Histories of U.S. Feminism. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-
4724-4.
Findlen, Barbara, ed. (1995). Listen Up! Voices from the Next Feminist Generation (https://ar
chive.org/details/listenupvoicesfr00find). Seattle: Seal Press. ISBN 978-1-878067-61-6.
Harnois, Catherine (2008). "Re-presenting feminisms: Past, present, and future" (http://muse.
jhu.edu/journals/nwsa_journal/summary/v020/20.1.harnois.html). NWSA Journal. 20 (1):
120–145. JSTOR 40071255 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40071255).
Hernández, Daisy; Reman, Bushra (2002). Colonize This! Young Women of Color and
Today's Feminism (https://archive.org/details/colonizethisyoun0000hern). Seal Press.
ISBN 978-1-58005-067-8.
Heywood, Leslie L., ed. (2005). The Women's Movement Today: An Encyclopedia of Third-
Wave Feminism. 2 vols. Westport: Greenwood Press.
 Hitchens, Donna (Fall 1991). "Feminism in the Nineties: Coalition Strategies" (http://heinonli
ne.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/yjfem4&div=12&id=&page=). Yale Journal
of Law and Feminism. 4 (1): 57–63. Pdf. (http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1050&context=yjlf)
Karaian, Lara (2001). Rundle, Lisa Bryn; Mitchell, Allyson (eds.). Turbo Chicks: Talking
Young Feminisms (https://archive.org/details/turbochickstalki0000unse). Toronto: Sumach
Press. ISBN 978-1-894549-06-6. OCLC 46629305 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4662930
5).
Kinser, Amber E. (2004). "Negotiating spaces for/through third-wave feminism" (http://muse.j
hu.edu/journals/nwsa_journal/summary/v016/16.3kinser.html). NWSA Journal. 16 (3): 124–
153. JSTOR 4317084 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4317084). S2CID 145349611 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145349611).
Springer, Kimberly (Summer 2002). "Third Wave Black Feminism?". Signs. 27 (4): 1059–
1082. doi:10.1086/339636 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F339636). JSTOR 10.1086/339636 (htt
ps://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/339636). S2CID 143519056 (https://api.semanticscholar.or
g/CorpusID:143519056).

External links
"Becoming the Third Wave" by Rebecca Walker (http://heathengrrl.blogspot.com/2007/02/be
coming-third-wave-by-rebecca-walker.html)
interview with Rebecca Walker in Satya Magazine (https://web.archive.org/web/2005013009
1522/http://www.rebeccawalker.com/article_2005_riding-the-third-wave.htm)
Interview with Jennifer Baumgardner and Amy Richards (http://www.metroactive.com/paper
s/cruz/11.29.00/feminism-0048.html)

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