PROCESSES IN ECOLOGY

(BIO464)

LECTURE 2-1:
ADAPTATION AND TOLERANCE
Dr. Faezah Pardi
Email: faezahpardi@gmail.com
Room: Block B-317, FSG
 Learning Outcome

1. To understand the concepts of

adaptation-tolerance
2. To be able to relate between
biogeography and how it affect
distribution and abundance.
3. To understand Transplant experiment.
 Flow of the event…
• NS- differential success (survival and
reproduction) of individuals in a population within
a given environment.

• Evolution- changes in any attribute of a

population over time (genes/allele). Leads to
adaptation in pop. over generations.

• Adaptation-
• Tolerance- adaptiveness of an organism…
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 Definition Adaptation
• Adaptation is thus any heritable,
behavioral, morphological, or
physiological trait

• that maintains or increases the

fitness of an organism

• under a given set of

environmental conditions
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 Examples of adaptation
• Long neck of giraffe -to feed in areas that
cannot be reached to other animals
• White coat of polar bear -makes it invisible
to potential prey, increase its capability to
hunt or search for food in the Arctic
• Long arms of orang utan -important for
life in the canopy, for them to swing and
balance on the trees

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 Definition of Tolerance
Definition:
• The adaptiveness of an organism to
its environment is exhibited by its
ability to function between
- upper and lower limits range of
environmental conditions

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Three important law which affect distribution
and abundance:

1) Law of the Minimum (Liebig)

2) Law of Limiting Factors (Blackman)

3) Law of Tolerance (Shelford)

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 1. Law of the Minimum
(Liebig)
• The rate of any biological process is
limited by that factor in least
amount relative to requirements.

• There is only one limiting factor

at any one time.

• Additions of other environmental

factors will not increase growth
until the amount of the limiting
factor is increased.
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 Law of the Minimum-
Liebig’s Barrel Analogy
• Liebig compare the potential of
a crop to a barrel with staves of
unequal length.

• The capacity of this barrel is

limited by the length of the
shortest stave (in this case,
diphosphorus dioxide) and can
only be increased by
lengthening that stave.

• When that stave is lengthened,

another one becomes the
limiting factor. 10
 2. Law of Limiting factors-
Blackman
• Law of Limiting factors- maximum
quantity of a resource tolerated by
an organism would also limit
response as well.

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 Law of Limiting factors-
Blackman
• As the light intensity (LI) increases, the
rate of p/s increases, until the plant is
photosynthesizing as fast as it can. Light
intensity

• LSP - Light Saturation Point. When the

LSP is reached, plants cannot
photosynthesize any faster, even when
the light gets brighter.
P/s rate
• From this point on, according to
Blackman’s Law, the factor in least
supply will be the limiting factor i.e.
either CO2 or H2O will be the limiting
factor.

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 3. Law of
Tolerance-Shelford’s
• Law of Tolerance-Shelford’s combination of Liebig’s Law of
the Minimum and Blackman’s Law of Limiting Factors:

• Organisms are constrained by both maximum and minimum

extremes of an environmental condition

• These extremes representing the limits of tolerance for the

organism.

• The response of the organism to increase levels of a

resource is a bell-shaped curve with the upper or middle
part of the curve representing the optimal state for
reproduction or fitness (Fig. 7a).

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Figure 7a

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Shelford’s Law of Tolerance
• illustrated by a bell shaped curved
• at this bell shaped curve, there are
difference in tolerance for organism
which are:
Zone of intolerance (Organism absent)
Survival
Growth
Greatest fitness
The zone of greatest fitness is areas in which
is the most optimum time for reproduction or
fitness (Fig. 7b)
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Figure 7b

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• Tolerance ranges are not fixed:
- as seasons and conditions change,
individuals may acclimate by shifting
their tolerance ranges.

• All these shifts takes place within the

adaptive physiological (functional) limits.

• This short term response to changing

environments is termed as
acclimatization (adaptation)
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• Tolerance curves may be broad for many
organisms – able to exist within a wide range of
values for a particular environmental factor, such
as salinity, temperature or humidity

• eg blue crab, Callinectes sapidus can survive in

marine to freshwater, same also for siakap (Lates
calcarifer) and the mangrove crab (Scylla serrata)

• Tolerance ranges are usually narrow for juveniles

of many species.

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• Eury = wide tolerance (euryhaline, eurythermal).
• Steno = narrow tolerance (stenohaline,
stenothermal).
– Eg.: Salmon eggs and larvae in freshwater
(Stenohaline) while adults in marine
(Euryhaline)

• Organisms with a wide range of tolerance - widely

distributed

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 Ecotype
(Turreson 1992)

• Definition: A subspecies or race that is

especially adapted to a particular set of
environmental conditions.
• ecotypes – populations adapted to local conditions
• Eg : the tucuxi dolphin has two ecotypes- (1) the riverine ecotype
found in some South American rivers and (2) the pelagic ecotype
found in the South Atlantic Ocean

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 Coevolution/Arms Race
• Mutual evolutionary influence between two species
(the evolution of two species totally dependent on
each other)

• Each of the species involved puts selective

pressure on the other, so they evolved together

• Example: – host-parasite, mutualistic r/ship and

plant-pollinator
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5JjTls5kUI
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SO1WccH2_Y
M

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Example 1: Coevolution/Arms Race
(Host-Parasite)
• Brown-headed cowbirds live in the
grasslands of North America. They carve
a living by following herd of bison or
cattle, and feeding off the insects that
the beasts attract. The cowbirds lay their eggs
in the nest of an unsuspecting
song-bird and leave
• This occupation requires a rather
nomadic life-style: the cowbirds are
obliged to go where the herds go. This
makes bringing up young
problematic.

• They get over this obstacle by becoming

"brood parasites". In other words, they
recruit different bird species to
unwittingly raise their young.
A type of parasitic bird, which is
• Very simply, they lay their eggs in the reared by unrelated host
nest of an unsuspecting song-bird, "parents", is happy to share its
like the eastern phoebe, and leave. nest with the host's babies,23
Example 1: Coevolution /Arms Race
(Host-Parasite)
• Parasitic birds lay their eggs that closely mimic
those of the host and young with characteristics
that encourage the hosts to feed them (same
color, size and pattern as host)

• The hosts then provide parental care to the

unrelated young that hatch from the parasitic
egg, often to the detriment of their own young

• Both parasite (cowbird chick) and host sp

(song bird chick) are continually evolving
counter-strategies for survival

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 Example 2: Coevolution/Arms Race
(Mutualistic)
Yucca moths (pollinator)
and yucca plants (provide
home,food)
• Yucca flowers are a certain
shape so only
-that tiny moth can pollinate
them.

• The moths lay their eggs in

the yucca flowers and
- the larvae (caterpillars) live
in the developing ovary and
eat yucca seeds.

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Example 3: Coevolution/Arms Race
(Mutualistic)
Acacia ants (protector) and
acacia trees (provide home, food)
• Acacias are small, Central American
trees in the Leguminosae.

• They have large, hollow thorns. The

acacia ants live in the thorns.

• On the tips of its leaflets, the plant

makes a substance used by the ants
as food.

• The ants defend the tree from

herbivores by attacking/stinging any
animal that even accidentally brushes
up against the plant.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
Xm2qdxVVRm4
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Example 4: Coevolution/Arms Race
(Mutualistic- Plant and Pollinator)
• Many plants depend on
animals to spread their
pollen.
• This is a mutualistic
relationship where the
plant and the pollinator
benefit each other.
• The plant expends less
energy on pollen
production and instead
produces showy flowers,
nectar, and/or odors.
• Some plants/flowers are
more general, while others
are more specific.

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 Units of Selection
• Darwin said that natural selection operates
through reproduction and survival of individuals
who differ genetically – individual selection –
most important (Darwinian selection)
• Natural selection is not only restricted to
individuals but can act on any biological unit as
long as:
1) they can replicate/reproduce/divide
2) produce more than replacement needs
3) survival depends on some attribute (size,
colour, behavior)
4) a mechanism allows for the transmission of
the attributes
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Three (3) Units of Selection

1. Gametic
2. Kin
3. Group

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 1. Gametic Selection
• eggs and sperm (n) have genetic
composition that differs from the diploid
(2n) organisms that produce them

• natural selection can act on the gametes:

i) good quality of sperm (chance for sperm
and egg fusing)- produce stronger, faster
and fertile offspring
ii) pollen that produce faster growing
pollen tube
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 2. Kin Selection
• Individuals that increase the survival or reproduction of its
relatives
• Kin selection and individual selection can act together –
inclusive fitness… how??

• Natural selection favors alleles that benefit an individual but

also alleles that benefit close relatives of that individual
that share alleles
• Altruistic traits – alarm call
– Ground squirrel see a predator they give an alarm call
i. Draws attention to itself (detrimental to itself)
ii. Warns nearby squirrels to run for cover – beneficial
to relatives
• Effects social organization and population dynamics
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 3. Group Selection
• When populations of a species are
broken up into discrete groups more
or less isolated from one another

• Not an important force shaping in

adaptation for the distribution and
abundance of organisms

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Reproductive Isolation – How to isolate
reproduction between two sp.?
• Isolating mechanisms – morphological characteristics,
behavioral traits, ecological conditions, genetic
incompatibility

• These mechanisms could be pre-mating or post

mating
a) Pre-mating/Prezygotic – prevents mating between
diff sp.

b) Post-mating/Post zygotic – reduces the survival or

success of offspring that results from mating between
2 diff sp.

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 Premating mechanisms
1) ecological isolation
• Isolation through differences in habitat is
common among frogs and toads

• Different calling and mating sites among

breeding frogs and toads tend to keep the
species separated

Calling mates Breed

Upland chorus Open location Same pool
frog
Southern Concealed position Same pool
chorus frog (grass or vegetation)

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 Premating mechanisms
2) temporal isolation
• Refers to difference in the timing of breeding and
flowering seasons
• E.g, the American toad (Bufo americanus) breeds
early in the spring
• while Fowler’s toad (Bufo woodsei fowleri) breeds
a few weeks later than the American toad

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 Premating mechanisms
3) behavioral isolation
• Difference in courtship and mating
• The males of many animals have specific courtship displays and mostly
only females of the same species respond

• Example of displays-visual, auditory or chemical stimuli

1. Visual signals developed by birds and some fish
2. Birds, frogs, and toads, crickets, grasshoppers, cicadas have specific calls
that attract only the correct species
3. Some insects, i.e butterflies, fruit flies and some mammals possess
species-specific scent

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 Premating mechanisms
4) mechanical isolation

• Difference in floral structure eg. Umbel (Lily),

Corymb (Bunga tahi ayam; Lantana camara)

• Make copulation and pollinating between closely

related species impossible

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 Prezygotic barriers - slow down mating or obstruct fertilization if mating does occur

Habitat Temporal Behavioral Mechanical

isolation isolation isolation isolation

• Prezygotic and postzygotic barriers

Individuals
of different
Mating
attempt
species

ECOLOGICAL ISOLATION TEMPORAL ISOLATION BEHAVIORAL ISOLATION MECHANICAL ISOLATION

(b) - time of breeding or - Courtship and mating -Prevent pollination
- flowering season - prevent copulation

(d)

(e) (g)
(f)
(a)
(c)

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1) Pre-mating isolating mechanisms. Factors which cause
species to mate with their own kind (assortative mating)

• a) Temporal isolation - Individuals of different species do

not mate because they are active at different times of day
or in different flowering seasons.
• b) Ecological isolation - Individuals mate in their preferred
habitat, and therefore do not meet individuals of other
species with different ecological preferences.
• c) Behavioral isolation - Potential mates meet, but choose
members of their own species. Difference in courtship and
mating.
• d) Mechanical isolation - Difference in floral structure
makes copulation and pollinating between closely related
species impossible
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• The breeding of a male donkey + female
horse is the most common and oldest
known manmade hybrid.
• There are mismatches in horse and
donkey DNA

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 Gametic
Reduce Reduce Hybrid
isolation
hybrid hybrid breakdown
viability fertility
Viable
Fertilization fertile
offspring

GAMETIC ISOLATION REDUCED HYBRID REDUCED HYBRID FERTILITY HYBRID BREAKDOWN

VIABILITY
(hybrids – generally do not
– capacity for surviving
survive and if survive are
- Germinating under favorable infertile – horse + donkey=mule
condition (baghal).

(k)

(j)
(m)

(i) (l)
(h)

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 2) Post-mating isolating mechanisms. Genomic
incompatibility, hybrid inviability or sterility.

• a) Gametic incompatibility. Sperm transfer takes place, but

egg is not fertilized.
• b) Zygotic mortality. Egg is fertilized, but zygote does not
develop.
• c) Hybrid inviability. Hybrid embryo forms, but of reduced
viability.
• d) Hybrid sterility. Hybrid is viable, but resulting adult is
sterile.
• e) Hybrid breakdown. First generation (F1) hybrids are
viable and fertile, but further hybrid generations (F2 and
backcrosses) may be inviable or sterile.

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