PROCESSES IN ECOLOGY

(BIO464)

LECTURE 2-2:
DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE
Dr. Faezah Pardi
Email: faezahpardi@gmail.com
Room: Block B-317, FSG
 Learning Outcome

1. To be able to relate between biogeography

and how it affect distribution and abundance.
2. To describe and explain concepts of
Transplant experiment.
 Biogeography
• study of the distribution of species and
ecosystems in geographic space through
geological time
• - it provides a good starting point to
understand what limits geographic
distribution
What limits the distribution of
organisms in the natural
environment?

What are the factors involved?

A series of questions are asked by
Ecologists

What are these Questions?

 • To determine what limits geographic distributions
of any particular species, ecologists ask a series of
questions
Species absent
because

Yes
Area inaccessible
or insufficient time
Yes
Habitat selection

Dispersal Yes
Predation, parasitism,
competition, disease Water
Chemical
No Behavior Biotic factors
Oxygen
Salinity
No factors pH
Soil nutrients, etc.
How do we (other
know dispersal species) No Abiotic
is the factor? factors
-Conduct
transplant Temperature
Light
experiment Soil structure
Fire
Physical
Figure 50.6 Flowchart of factors limiting geographic factors
Moisture, etc.

distribution
Species dispersal contributes to the
distribution of organisms
• Why no kangaroos in America, Africa,
Asia?
– possibly because they could not get there
– because of barriers to dispersal-the area
couldn’t be reached by kangaroos
• Dispersal is important in understanding
geographic isolation and patterns of current
distribution of organisms
•How do we know
dispersal might be
the factor?
 One way to determine this
(distribution) is by conducting a
transplant experiment
 Species Transplants
• One way to determine if dispersal is a key factor for limiting
distribution
-by observing the results when humans have accidentally or
purposely transplanted a species to areas where that species
cannot be found before (because of time and inaccessible)

• So success is determined by the ability for completing at least

one life cycle in the new habitat/environment.

• Some organisms can disperse and survive in new areas but

cannot reproduce.
 Transplant Experiment Concept
• Moving individuals of a species to an unoccupied
area and determine if they can survive and
reproduce successfully.
• Two (2) outcomes of Transplant Experiment:
• Successful – dispersal is the factor
- limited distribution is due to area inaccessibility, time
has been too short to reach, area not recognized by
organisms as suitable
• Unsuccessful – dispersal not the factor
- limited by behaviour, biotic or abiotic factors
 1. Purposely Transplants –
Introduced Species become pest

• a. African Honey Bees

– Unpredicted and undesirable consequences

• African honey bee (Apis mellifera scutellata)-an
aggressive species brought to Brazil in 1956 to breed
a new variety with the Italian honey bee (Apis
mellifera ligustica) that would produce more honey
– Cons- It escaped and have been spreading since and
these bees may drive out colonies of the Italian honey
bees
– Cons- These bees are aggressive towards humans and
domestic animals and will impact on the domestic honey
bee industry
 Species profile

Africanized Honeybee

Scientific name: Apis mellifera scutellata

Common names: Africanized honeybee, African honey bee, killer bee

Native To: Originally from Africa; first hybridized in South America

Date of U.S. Introduction: 1990, first found in southern Texas

Means of Introduction: Imported and bred with European honey bees to

increase honey production

Impact: More aggressive than European honeybees; negative impact on

honey production industry
 Purposely Transplants
b. Kudzu Vine (Pueraria lobata)
(from Japan)- as a means to control
erosion
https://impactsofinvasivespecies.weebly.
com/kudzu.html
- As Kudzu grows larger and larger, it is
able to out-compete native plants and
damage entire forested areas

• Kudzu overpowers other plants

by blanketing leaves, breaking
branches, or uprooting entire
trees.
• It has formed a symbiotic
relationship with bacteria,
allowing for large leaves and
high photosynthetic rates.
 2. Accidental Transplants –
Introduced Species
• Although many species are naturally
restricted to particular biogeographic
realms by their dispersal abilities, humans
have managed to move species around the
globe

• The most spectacular e.g of dispersal

affecting distribution occur when species
that have been accidentally introduced by
humans explode to occupy a new area
 Accidental Transplants
• a. The Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)
– Transplanted from Asia (Caspian Sea) to US and became a pest
• reproduces very rapidly up to densities of 750,000 m2 and 1st
noticed when it blocked water intake of city water pipes, electrical
power plants and other industrial facilities
– Since 1988 it has spread rapidly throughout US
– Zebra mussels actually make the water much clearer since it feeds on
phytoplankton, however they alter the native communities-
zooplankton decrease, increase in growth of rooted aquatic plants
– In some places phytoplankton- reduced by 85%; and zooplankton-
reduced as well by 70%
– Zebra mussels out compete native mollusks species-as a result cause
extinction of the native species
Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)
 Accidental Transplants

1918 2000

b. Expansion of the fire

ant (Solenopsis spp.)
in southern states
(from Argentina)
Expansion of the fire ant (Solenopsis
spp.)
The red imported fire ant (RIFA) is a
small reddish brown ant from South
America
RIFA are small but highly aggressive.
They inject a necrotizing, alkaloid
venom when they sting.
The stings result in painful, itchy, and
persistent pustules, and sometimes in
severe allergic reactions
https://articles.extension.org/pages/60
922/what-do-fire-ants-eat
 Purposely Transplant
- Introduced species
• species are introduced for the purpose of benefiting
agricultureagriculture, aquaculture or other economic
activities
• Eurasian carp was first introduced to the United States as
a potential food source
• The apple snail was released in Southeast Asia-be used as a
protein source-then to places like Hawaii to establish a food
industry
• Water hyacinth-used as ornamental plants for landscaping
use
 Tens Rule
• Tens Rule – generally 1 out of 10 introduced species gets
established and 1 out of 10 established species becomes a
pest!

• Developed by Williamson and Fitter on the basis of

examination of plant invaders in the United Kingdom

• Broadly applied and has influenced invasive species

thinking and policy making at many levels.
 Tens Rule
• Not all introduced species thrive in their new
homes, many have failed to colonize new areas

• For e.g bird introduction have failed

• Only 13 out of 98 species introduced survived

in North America