PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.

Is the process by which a long polypeptide chain is formed. Polypeptide chain consists of
specific sequence of amino acids and forms the primary structure of the proteins.
WHY ARE PRIMARY PROTEINS SYNTHESIZED.
▪ Primary proteins are transformed into different protein types of different structures.
▪ The different proteins form specific enzymes, hormones and structures.
▪
REQUIREMENTS FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.
▪ Information which will determine specific sequence of amino acids in a protein
molecule.
▪ Amino acids.
▪ Energy inform of ATP.

Once all that is required all that is required is available then protein synthesis proceeds
in the following stages,

▪ Transcription.
▪ Activation.
▪ Translation.

DNA TRANSCRIPTION.
Is the process by which a copy of a complementary messenger RNA is made from a single
coding template strand of a DNA in a specific region of a DNA molecule called cistron
DNA which codes for a polypeptide.

The process occurs in the nucleus but the mRNA formed moves into the cytoplasm.

MECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION.
The steps involved in the process which leads to formation of messenger RNA include,

▪ Protein molecules called transcription factors recognize start signals on a single strand
of the DNA called coding strand (anti-sense template strand) which is the strand which
runs in 3’ to 5’ direction.

▪ Transcription factor bind on the promoter region to form initiation complex.

▪ Initiation complex attracts RNA polymerase to attach onto the initiation complex.

▪ RNA polymerase causes the specific segment or portion of the DNA called
cistron DNA to unzip/unwinds.

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▪ Transcription bubble is formed. This consists of two strands,
- Sense coding strand.
- Anti-sense template strand.

▪ RNA polymerase begins to move along the base sequence of the anti-sense template
single strand in a 3’ to 5’ direction, attracting in position behind it free RNA nucleotides
with bases complementary those of the bases on the template single strand, where
Adenine pair with uracil while Guanine pairs with cytosine.

▪ The RNA polymerase unite the RNA nucleotides by condensation to form long
polynucleotide strand in 5’ to 3’ direction.

▪ The RNA polymerase continues to move along the nucleotide base sequence of the
template single strand in 3’ to 5’ direction synthesizing long polynucleotide strand in 5’
to 3’ direction until a stop or terminating base sequence on the template DNA is
reached, the process then stops.

▪ The long polynucleotide formed is a messenger RNA molecule.

▪ Before the messenger RNA leaves the nucleus it is first processed.

PROCESSING THE MESSENGER RNA MOLECULE.

This involves,
▪ Splicing.
▪ Addition of caps.

Splicing.
Is separating exons from introns and removing all the introns from the primary segment
of the RNA molecules. This means that the mRNA carries only use full information to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

Exons are sections of DNA that code for a protein and will be useful in translation. While
introns do not code for proteins and are not useful for translation.

After splicing, specific nucleotide base sequences are added into the 3’ end of the
messenger RNA called the 3’cap and 5’ end of mRNA called the 5’ cap for example poly A
cap at 3’ end. The caps added prevent messenger RNA from being unnecessarily degraded
by the exonuclease enzymes.

The processed messenger RNA then move through the nuclear pore into the cytoplasm
where it associates with Ribosomes. Ribosomes are the site for protein synthesis.

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DIAGRAMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF MECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION.

1. Transcription factor binds onto promoter region on the template strand of the
double helix DNA molecule.

2. Initiation complex formed which attracts and includes the RNA polymerase,
hydrogen bonds caused to break and DNA begin to unwind at the cistron DNA.

3. The DNA unwinds at certain segment of DNA called Cistron DNA. Transcription
bubble is formed, nucleotide bases on DNA are exposed, RNA polymerase move
along the coding strand , attracting in position free RNA nucleotides with
complementary bases and catalyzing their condensation to form mRNA.

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AMINOACID ACTIVATION.
Is the process by which aminoacid bind onto the amino acid binding site (active site) on
one end of specific transfer RNA(CCA). This process utilises energy from the hydrolysis
of ATP and it is catalysed by aminoacyl-transfer RNA synthatase to form aminoacid –
transfer RNA (aminoacyl-tRNA complex).

PROCESS OF AMINOACID ACTIVATION.

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TRANSLATION.
Is a process by which specific base sequence of messenger RNA called codons are
converted into a specific sequence of aminoacids in a long polypeptide chain. This occurs
within the Ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

MECHANISM OF TRANSLATION.

► Messenger RNA become attached onto the surface of small Ribosomes. The nucleotide
bases of mRNA become exposed.

► The first two codons on the messenger RNA are enclosed by large Ribosome.

► The first amino-acyl-tRNA complex carrying the first amino-acid which is usually
Methionine is attracted and brought into position at the first codon of the messenger RNA
with bases complementary to those of the anti-codon of the complex molecule.

► The second codon also attracts another aminoacyl-tRNA complex carrying another
aminoacid with its anti-codon having bases complementary to those of the codons of the
messenger RNA.

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►A peptide bond is formed between the first and the next aminoacid (peptide bond form
between two adjacent aminoacids) to form a dipeptide. This is a condensation reaction.

►The large Ribosome then moves a step forward to enclose the third codon. The previous
tRNA carrying the first aminoacid is left free into cytoplasm to go and carry its another
specific aminoacid.

► A transfer RNA carrying the next aminoacid is brought in position at the third codon
on the messenger RNA. A peptide bond is formed between the dipeptide and next
aminocid.

► The large ribosome continues to move along the length of the codons of the
messenger RNA, as transfer RNA carrying aminoacids with bases of the anticodon
complementary to those of the codons of the messenger RNA brought and held in
position, peptide bonds are formed between the aminocids.
10. The process continues along the length of the messenger RNA until the ribosomes
reach one of the nonsense codons, UAA, UAG, UGA which signals stop.

11. A long polypeptide chain is formed and translation is complete.

Quite oftenly, many identical polypeptides are produced quickly and simultaneously in
the cell, whenever need for certain enzymes or hormones arise.

In this case, the formation of the long polypeptide chain proceeds in the following ways,

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 - Messenger RNA become attached onto the surface of small Ribosomes. The
nucleotide bases of mRNA become exposed.

- The first two codons on the messenger RNA are enclosed by large Ribosome.

- The first amino-acyl-tRNA complex carrying the first amino-acid which is usually
Methionine is attracted and brought into position at the first codon of the
messenger RNA with bases complementary to those of the anti-codon of the
complex molecule.

- The second codon also attract another aminoacyl-tRNA complex carrying another
aminoacid with its anti-codon having bases complementary to those of the codons
of the messenger RNA.

- A peptide bond is formed between the first and the next aminoacid (peptide bond
form between two adjacent aminoacids)to form a dipeptide. This is a condensation
reaction.

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 - several Ribosomes enclose all the subsequent codons on the messenger RNA at
once after the dipeptide is formed. Apolysome is formed, which a molecule of
messenger RNA carrying several Ribosomes.

- Several transfer RNA carrying different aminoacids with bases complementary to

those of the codons enclosed are brought and are all held in position by the large
Ribosomes along the mRNA.

- Peptide bonds are formed between all the aminoacids at once and in this way,
many identical polypeptides are produced simulateneously.
- The ribosomes and the mRNA are dissolved, the transfer RNA molecules are left
free into the cytoplasm.
- A long polypeptide chain is formed and translation is complete.

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The polypeptide formed is transformed into secondary structure, which can be folded
further to give tertiary structure and its combination with other polypeptides or prosthetic
group gives a quaternary structure.
If the Ribosomes are attached to Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER), the polypeptide chain
passes through the receptors and into the rough Endoplasmic reticulum. Once the
polypeptide chain is inside the rough ER, the protein folds upto the final shapes like
secondary, tertiary or quaternary structures.