UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

FABRICATION OF PLA/COW DUNG-BASED BIOCOMPOSITE

MOSTAFA YUSEFI

FK 2015 33
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FABRICATION OF PLA/COW DUNG-BASED BIOCOMPOSITE

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MOSTAFA YUSEFI
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Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in

Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science

December 2015

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 All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons,
photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia
unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis
for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material
may only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra
Malaysia.

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Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia

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Dedicated to My Beloved Parents
And
Nature
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 Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of
the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science

FABRICATION OF PLA/COW DUNG-BASED BIOCOMPOSITE

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By

MOSTAFA YUSEFI

December 2015

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Chairman : Faizah Md. Yasin. PhD
Faculty : Engineering

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Various environmental drawbacks such as reduction in land fill space and non-
biodegradability lead to systematically investigate the replacing of synthetic
composites by using biocomposites. Biocomposites possess suitable characterizations

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such as light weight, combustible, nontoxic, and biodegradability behavior. However,
the final product of the biocomposites carries certain drawbacks in terms of
mechanical, physical and thermal properties. In order to determine their characteristic,
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this research aided to figure out the possibility of applying cow dung (CD) as filler to
prepare polylactic acid (PLA) biocomposite. The main objective of this research is to
obtain a suitable composition ratio based on the filler and the hosting polymer.

The CD of two different sizes, namely 4.00 mm and 0.5 mm were blended with PLA.
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PLA/CD biocomposites with different CD ratios (0-60 wt.%) were fabricated using an
internal Brabender mixer (W50EHT-3zones) followed by a 40 tones hydraulic
compression moulding. The results showed that the addition of CD led to improve
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flexural properties compared to tensile and impact strength. Biocomposites with 4.00
mm CD (bigger filler) mainly showed higher mechanical properties than those of 0.5
mm CD (smaller filler). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of tensile and impact
fractured surfaces indicated that the bigger fillers had stronger adhesion and bonding
with the matrix. Moreover, the cavities and rough surface of biocomposites increased
with the filler content addition. This led to lower mechanical and physical properties of
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the biocomposites and increased water uptake during water absorption test accordingly.
Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) technique was also followed to determine both
storage and loss modulus of the samples. Neat PLA indicted the lowest storage
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modulus, while the filler content addition generally improved the storage modulus.
Results of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated that the addition of the filler
content prolonged the major degradation temperature. This was due to the higher
resistance of the CD filler to the degradation temperature, which induced higher
thermal stability of CD compared to the neat PLA.
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 Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk Ijazah Master Sains.

FABRIKASI BIOKOMPOSIT BERASASKAN PLA/TAHI LEMBU

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Oleh

MOSTAFA YUSEFI

Disember 2015

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Pengerusi : Faizah Md. Yasin, PhD
Fakulti : Kejuruteraan

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Pelbagai kelemahan alam sekitar seperti pengurangan dalam ruang mengisi tanah dan
kemerosotan selain daripada segi bio telah menggantikan komposit sintetik dengan
menggunakan biokomposit. Biokomposit mempunyai pencirian yang sesuai seperti

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ringan, mudah terbakar, tanpa toksik, dan kemerosoton dari segi bio. Walau
bagaimanapun, produk akhir daripada biokomposit membawa kelemahan tertentu dari
segi sifat-sifat mekanikal, fizikal dan terma. Dalam usaha untuk menentukan ciri-
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cirinya, penyelidikan ini telah dijalankan untuk mengkaji kemungkinan penggunaan
tahi lembu (CD) sebagai pengisi untuk menyediakan asid polylactic (PLA)
biokomposit. Objektif utama kajian ini adalah untuk mendapatkan nisbah komposisi
sesuai berdasarkan pengisi dan polimer hosting.
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Terdapat dua saiz CD yang berbeza, iaitu 4.00 mm dan 0.5 mm yang telah dicampur
dengan PLA. Biokomposit PLA / CD dengan nisbah CD yang berbeza (0-60 wt.%)
telah direka dengan menggunakan pembancuh Brabender dalaman (W50EHT-3zones)
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diikuti dengan 40 nada pengacuan mampatan hidraulik. Hasil kajian menunjukkan

bahawa penambahan CD membawa kepada peningkatan dari segi kelenturan
berbanding dengan ketegangan dan kekuatan. Biokomposit bersaiz 4 mm CD (pengisi
lebih besar) menunjukkan sifat-sifat mekanik lebih tinggi daripada 0.5 mm CD
(pengisi lebih kecil). Mikroskop imbasan elektron (SEM) tegangan dan kesan
permukaan patah menunjukkan bahawa pengisi lebih besar mempunyai lekatan yang
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kuat dan ikatan dengan matriks. Selain itu, rongga dan permukaan kasar biokomposit
juga meningkat dengan kandungan pengisi. Ini telah menyebabkan penurunan sifat-
sifat mekanikal, fizikal biokomposit dan juga peningkatan pengambilan air semasa
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ujian penyerapan air. Analisis mekanikal teknik dinamik (DMA) juga digunakan untuk
menentukan simpanan dan kehilangan modulus sampel. PLA yang tulen menunjukkan
simpanan modulus yang paling rendah, manakala peningkatan kandungan pengisi
secara amnya menambah baik modulus simpanan. Keputusan analisis Termogravimetri
(TGA) menunjukkan bahawa penambahan kandungan pengisi telah memanjangkan
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suhu kemerosotan. Ini disebabkan oleh rintangan pengisi CD yang lebih tinggi kepada
suhu degradasi, dan menunjukkan kestabilan haba CD yang lebih tinggi berbanding
dengan ketulenan PLA.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

An investigation is an arduous job, which requires obligation to achieve the specified

objectives. This work has successfully accomplished by patronage of many identities. I
am really grateful to all persons who kindly help to finish this research. First and

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foremost, I would like to express a great appreciation to my advisor Dr. Faizah Md.
Yasin for her advices, honest encouragements and supports. I have been absolutely
lucky that the wheel of fortune made a perfect opportunity for me to know Prof. Dr.
Luqman Chuah Abdullah, Dr. Mohammad Khalid Siddiqui and Dr. Chantara Thevy
Ratnam, my supervisory committee. I am very thankful to them that they always
respond my questions throughout the research and without their wholehearted support
this research was not feasible. I also appreciate the Head of the Department Dr.

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Mohamad Amran Mohd Salleh for his cooperation and excellent knowledge.

I am very thankful to Mohammad Reza Ketabchi who has cooperated and helped for
accomplishing different processes and tests of this research at University of

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Nottingham Malaysia Campus (UNiM). I must say my sincere gratitude to Mrs. Eli
Rashidah Ashari and Mr. Mohd Lufti Mohd Tawi, Mrs Ana Salleza and Mohd Hafizie
Manap (INTROP Staff) for their assistance. Also, I would like to say lovely thanks to

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Kim Tan Hoi Hoi for her supports and helps.

Lastly, I really like to express my honest impression and appreciation to my parents

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who always have heartily behind me to do my best.
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 This thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted
as fulfilment of requirement for the degree of Masters of Science. The members of
supervisory Committee are as follows:

Faizah Md. Yasin, PhD

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Lecturer
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)

Luqman Chuah Abdullah, PhD

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Associate Professor
Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)

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Mohammad Khalid Siddiqui, PhD
Lecturer
Faculty of Engineering
University of Nottingham Malaysia CampusH
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(Member)

Chantara Thevy Ratnam, PhD

Senior Research Officer
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Malaysian Nuclear Agency

(Member)
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BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Dean
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School of Graduate Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date:
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 Declaration by graduate student

I hereby confirm that:

 this thesis is my original work;
 quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;

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 this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other degree
at any other institutions;
 intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by
Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Research) Rules 2012;
 written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy
Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis is published (in the form

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of written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journals, modules,
proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports,
lecture notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the Universiti
Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;

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 there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly
integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies)
Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)

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Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software.
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Signature: ________________________ Date: __________________
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Name and Matric No.: Mostafa Yusefi GS34236

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 Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee

This is to confirm that:

 the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;
 supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate

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Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered to.

Signature:

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Name of
Chairman of
Supervisory
Committee: Dr. Faizah Md. Yasin

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Signature:
Name of
Member of H
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Supervisory
Committee: Prof. Dr. Luqman Chuah Abdullah
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Signature:
Name of
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Member of
Supervisory
Committee: Dr. Mohammad Khalid Siddiqui
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Signature:
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Name of
Member of
Supervisory
Committee: Dr. Chantara Thevy Ratnam
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT i

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ABSTRAK ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
APPROVAL iv
DECLARATION vi
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF NOTATIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS xiii

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CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1

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1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Objective 2
1.4 Scope
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Chapter Outline H 2
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2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 Introduction 4
2.2 Natural Fiber in Biocomposites 5
2.2.1 Chemical Composition of Natural Fiber 5
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2.2.2 Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibers 7

2.2.3 Water Absorption Properties of Natural Filler Biocomposites 8
2.2.4 Fiber Dispersion 8
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2.3 Fiber Aspect Ratio 9

2.4 Adhesion of Fiber-Matrix 10
2.5 CD Filler 10
2.6 Fiber Content in CD 11
2.6.1 Size Distribution of CD 11
2.6.2 Morphological Study of CD 12
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2.6.2 Researches of CD 13
2.7 Bio-Based Polymers 13
2.8 Manufacturing Method 14
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2.9 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 15

2.9.1 Biocomposite with PLA 16
2.9.2 Mechanical Properties of PLA Biocomposites 17
2.9.3 Thermal Properties 19
2.9.4 Physical Properties of PLA Biocomposite 19
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2.9.5 Morphological Study of PLA Biocomposite 20

2.9.6 Biocomposite of Animal Waste 21
2.10 Summary 23

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 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 24
3.1 CD Preparation 25
3.2 PLA Characterizations 26
3.3 Biocomposite Fabrication 26
3.4 Biocomposite Samples Fabrication 27
3.4.1 Cutting Process 28

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3.5 Characterization and Testing 29
3.5.1 Tensile Test 30
3.5.2 Flexural Test 30
3.5.3 Impact Test 30
3.5.4 Toughness Pattern 31
3.5.5 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) 31
3.5.6 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 32

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3.5.7 Water Absorption 32
3.5.8 Morphological Analysis (SEM) 33

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 34

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4.1 Tensile Strength 34
4.2 Flexural Modulus 35
4.3 Notched Impact Strength 36
4.4 Biocomposite Toughness

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4.5 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)
4.6 Thermal Analysis by TGA
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4.7 Water Absorption 44
4.8 SEM Morphological Study 45

5 CONCLUSION 59
5.1 Conclusion 59
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5.2 Recommendation and Biodegradability Studies for Future 59

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………... 59
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BIODATA OF STUDENT………………………………………………………… 66
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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1: Chemical structure of some chosen natural fillers. Source: (Rowell,

1996),(A. Mohanty et al., 2001) ....................................................................... 6

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2.2: Mechanical characterizations of natural fibers in comparison to
synthetic fibers. Source: (Summerscales et al., 2010) ...................................... 7
2.3: Basic elements and fiber content of CD. Source: (Chen et al., 2003)............. 11
2.4: Total Solids (TS) of different portions after solid/liquid separation.
Source: (Chen et al., 2003) ............................................................................. 12
2.5: Nutrient content distribution of CD. Source: (Chen et al., 2003) ................... 12
2.6: Current producers of PLA. Source: (Gupta & Kumar, 2007) ......................... 15

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2.7: Varieties of fillers of fibers in PLA composite ............................................... 17
2.8: Comparison of the highest mechanical properties of PLA composites
with different reinforcement fibers ................................................................. 22
2.9: Comparison of mechanical properties of PLA composites with different ...... 22

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3.1: Size distribution of CD in the fillers ............................................................... 26
3.2: Weight of PLA and CD per each mixing time in Brabender mixer ................ 27
3.3: Biocomposite compositions ............................................................................ 28
4.1:

4.2: H
Variation of modulus retention with CD loading for PLA/CD fibre
composites ...................................................................................................... 41
Summary of DTGmax degradation temperature of PLA/CD
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biocomposite ................................................................................................... 43
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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1: Natural composites classification. Source: (A. K. Mohanty et al., 2005) ......... 4
2.2: Category of natural fibers. Source: (Akil et al., 2011)...................................... 5

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2.3: (A) the cell wall of wood. Source: (Adler, 1977). (B) Plant cell wall. ............. 6
2.4: Structure of cellulose. Source: (Gao et al., 2005) ............................................. 7
2.5: (a) Stress–position profiles when fiber length l (a) is equal to the
critical length lc, (b) is greater than the critical length, and (c) is less
than the critical length for a fiber-reinforced composite that is subjected
to a tensile stress equal to the fiber tensile strength σf. Source:
(Gatenholm, 1997). (b) Difference between fiber tensile stress and

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shear stress beside the fiber or filler length fixed in a continuous matrix
and contained to a tensile strength of the trend of fiber or filler
orientation. Source: (Gatenholm, 1997). .................................................... 10,11
2.6: Scanning electron microscope of CD (400x) A: Pure CD, B: Pretreated

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CD (after washing). Source: (Chen et al., 2003)............................................. 13
2.7: Processes of biodegradability of natural based polymer ................................. 14
2.8: Fabrication processes of PLA. Source: www.futerro.com .............................. 16
3.1:
3.2:
3.3: H
Flow chart description of the research methodology in this investigation ...... 24
(a) Solar drying of CD, (b) Drying CD by using oven .................................... 25
(a) Brabender internal mixer, (b) 40 tonnes Hydraulic compression
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moulding ......................................................................................................... 28
3.4: Geometry of tensile specimen ......................................................................... 29
3.5: Instron universal testing machine (Model 5567) for tensile and flexural ....... 30
3.6: Impact tester (left) and motorised notchvis machine (right) ........................... 31
3.7: PerkinElmer Instruments Q800 DMA ............................................................ 32
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3.8: PerkinElmer TGA machine for thermogravimetric analyses. ......................... 32

3.9: Water absorption test for biocomposites ......................................................... 33
4.1: Content effect on tensile strength of PLA/CD biocomposites ........................ 34
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4.2: Filler content effects on flexural modulus of PLA/CD biocomposites ........... 35

4.3: Filler contents effect on notched impact strength of PLA/CD
biocomposites ................................................................................................. 37
4.4: Toughness evaluation of PLA/CD biocomposites .......................................... 38
4.5: Dynamic storage modulus for Neat PLA, 0.5CD10, and 4CD10
biocomposites, plotted against temperature .................................................... 39
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4.6: Effect of filler loading on Tan δ of PLA, 0.5CD10, and 4CD10

biocomposites ................................................................................................. 40
4.7: Normalized storage modulus of PLA/CD biocomposites with CD
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loading ............................................................................................................ 41
4.8: Derivative thermogravimetric curves of neat PLA and CD ............................ 43
4.9: Derivative thermogravimetric curves of PLA/CD biocomposites .................. 43
4.10: The water absorption of neat PLA and PLA/CD biocomposites .................... 45
4.11: SEM micrographs of CD filler ........................................................................ 46
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4.12: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of neat PLA ........................... 46

4.13: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 4CD10 (a) and
0.5CD10 (b) .................................................................................................... 47
4.14: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 4CD20 ............................... 47
4.15: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 0.5CD20 ............................ 48
4.16: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 4CD30 ............................... 48

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 4.17: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 0.5CD30 ............................ 49
4.18: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 4CD40 ............................... 50
4.19: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 0.5CD40 ............................ 50
4.20: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 4CD50 ............................... 51
4.21: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 0.5CD50 ............................ 52
4.22: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 4CD60 ............................... 52

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4.23: SEM micrographs of tensile fractured surface of 0.5CD60 ............................ 53
4.24: SEM micrographs of impact fractured surface of neat PLA ........................... 54
4.25: SEM micrographs of impact fractured surface of 4CD10 (a) and
0.5CD10 (b) .................................................................................................... 54
4.26: SEM micrographs of impact fractured surface of 4CD20 (a) and
0.5CD20 (b) .................................................................................................... 55
4.27: SEM micrographs of impact fractured surface of 4CD30 (a) and

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0.5CD30 (b) .................................................................................................... 55
4.28: SEM micrographs of impact fractured surface of 4CD40 (a) and
0.5CD40 (b) .................................................................................................... 56
4.29: SEM micrographs of impact fractured surface of 4CD50 (a), 0.5CD50

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(b), 4CD60 (c) and 0.5CD60 (d) ..................................................................... 57
4.30: SEM micrographs of neat PLA (a), pure CD (b) and PLA/CD
biocomposite in 10 % content (c) ................................................................... 58

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 LIST OF NOTATIONS AND ABBRIVATIONS

E* Storage Modulus
E’ Loss Modulus (E")
l fiber length
lc Critical length

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tan δ Mechanical Damping
σ*f Fiber tensile strength
σfu Fiber ultimate strength in tension
τy Interfacial shear stress
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
CD Cow Dung
DMA Dynamic Mechanical Analysis

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INTROP Institut Perhutanan Tropika & Produk Hutan
PLA Polylactic Acid
PLLA Poly-l-lactic acid
PP Polypropylene

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RGP Refiner Ground Pulp
RH Relative Humidity
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
TG
TGA
DTG
Thermogravimetric

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Thermogravimetic Analysis
Derivative Thermal Gravimetric
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FEG field emission guns
Xc crystallinity
Tc temperature of crystallization
∆Hf heat of fusion
CL cotton linear
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WF wood fiber
CFs chicken feathers
C cellulose
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SGC silane-grafted cellulose

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

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1.1 Background of the Study

Overusing of synthetic plastic causes several environmental drawbacks such as reduction

in landfill space, natural resources depletion and non-biodegradability. This leads to
replacing of the synthetic plastic or composites by using biocomposites. Biocomposites
possess suitable characterizations such as lightness in weight, combustible, nontoxic, low
cost and low density. However, their final production lacks assemblage of mechanical,

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thermal and physical properties. In addition, biocomposites have some disadvantages
such as low thermal stability during processing, high moisture absorption, ultraviolet
light resistance and a relatively high price at the current low volume production.
Numerous researchers attempt to develop a natural composite for various applications in

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the automotive, construction, agriculture, building industries and etc (Auras et al., 2004;
Joshi et al., 2004). Recently, researchers have applied new materials and modern
manufacturing techniques to improve strength of biocomposites.

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Since the 1990s, polylactic acid (PLA) has been known as one of the most compostable
and renewable polymers. PLA can be derived from renewable resources like corn,
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scratch, sugarcane, potato and renewable feedstock by bacterial fermentation. It has
excellent properties such as stiffness, low energy consumption, low production
temperature and biodegradability (Sawyer & Grubb, 1996). It is a linear aliphatic
thermoplastic polyester, which is fabricated either by condensation of lactic acid or the
ring-opening polymerization of lactic (Garlotta, 2001). However, PLA has its own
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disadvantages such as inherent brittleness, weak thermal resistance and limited gas
barrier. To use PLA in different applications including biomedical, mulching film,
packaging and tissue, its undesirable properties such as inherent brittleness, weak thermal
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resistance and limited gas barrier have been improved by mixing different kinds of fillers
and fibers; flax (Bax & Müssig, 2008), kenaf (Han et al., 2012) and nanoparticles
(nanaoclays) (Paul et al., 2005).

After chicken, cattle are the second populous livestock in the world with the approximate
number of 1.4 billion. As a 450 kg cow produces around 3 kg dung per day, the daily
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production of dung is virtually 4.2 million tonnes. In addition, it possesses a wide range
of protein, lignocellulose, light weight, low cost, a capability as a good filler and it is an
animal based fiber with biodegradability behavior (Reddy et al., 2014). It should be noted
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that to decrease the problems of unusable cow dung (CD) like environmental damages
and pollution to ground water, the CD needs improvement of its physical and chemical
structure for usage in various applications.

In this study, biocomposite of PLA/CD is systematically described as a composite

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derived from 100% renewable resources. The additional effects of the two different sizes
of CD filler were studied on the mechanical, physical, morphological and thermal
properties of PLA/CD biocomposite.

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 1.2 Problem Statement

Different ratios of fillers and polylactic acid (PLA) are molded to produce biocomposite
materials. Biocomposite materials are broadly utilized in many structural applications
such as in panels, parts, boards and sheets. For this aim, the sample’s properties play a
key role with respect to their applications including compost bags, tea bags, food

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packaging and also mulch film. Therefore, it is necessary to study the mechanical,
thermal and physical properties of the biocomposite materials. PLA has a brittle
microstructure and it also has a high cost. Besides that, high amount of un-usable cow
dung (CD) results in environmental pollution to ground water. Therefore, to decrease the
drawbacks of both PLA and CD, the effect of CD to PLA biocomposite properties is
systematically studied in this first hand study.

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1.3 Objective

The aim of this study is attempted to prepare suitable biocomposite samples and
investigate their mechanical, thermal, and physical properties. The influence of this study

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will aid to figure out the possibility of applying cow dung (CD) as filler to produce
polylactic acid (PLA) biocomposite. The ability of manufacturing development of the
biocomposite will be understood from this study as using of CD filler can decrease final
price of the PLA biocomposite.

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To completely obtain the final objective of this study, the following contributions will be
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investigated.
1) The fabrication of the biocomposite films at different CD ratios and sizes.

2) The assessment of the mechanical, physical, thermal, and dynamic properties of

the fabricated biocomposites.
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3) The study of the interfacial interaction using morphological analysis.

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This research will evaluate suitable methods to obtain main contributions of the relation
between the samples preparation and their characterizations.

1.4 Scope

Using biodegradable substances has become more popular in the modern societies due
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to increasing of plastic waste and environmental problems. However, a major

disadvantage of the biocomposite is poor adhesion between matrix and filler that it leads
to weak physical, thermal and mechanical properties. Sorts of natural polymers with
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different natural fillers have been examined to fabricate strong biocomposite samples.
Advantages of natural filler (low cost, light weight and low density) may improve the
mechanical, thermal, morphological and dynamic properties of polymer composites with
lower cost. The high temperature of biocomposite fabrication influences the mechanical
stress that it leads to their thermal and mechanical degradation (Klemm, 1998). This
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effects the strength of the final biocomposite samples (Gassan & Bledzki, 2001).
Polylactic acid (PLA) is comprised of different natural fillers to improve its strength.
Cow dung with its sufficient cellulose content can be used as a new natural filler to
improve mechanical, thermal, dynamic and morphological properties of PLA
composites. In addition, CD with its low cost and biodegradability behavior can decrease
the final cost of PLA production.

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 1.5 Significance of the Study

This research has taken the full advantages of polylactic acid (PLA) matrix and cow dung
(CD) filler for PLA/CD biocomposite samples preparation. Low cost of CD and suitable
properties of the PLA lead to the obtainment of the low final cost and improvement of
the mechanical and dynamic properties of the biocomposite, respectively. Besides, PLA

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samples comprise of various sizes of CD filler in different content ratios which leads to
the improved formulation of PLA/CD biosomposite. Therefore, different biocomposite
formulations can be used for all sorts of applications such as mulch film, disposable
tableware as well as food container. The consequence of this study will lead to
understanding the ability of replacing synthetic composite using PLA/CD biocomposite
which is 100 % biodegradable to decline the environmental problems. Therefore, the
mechanical, physical, thermal and morphological properties of PLA/CD biocomposite

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are evaluated, systematically.

1.6 Chapter Outline

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Chapter 1 briefly describes introduction, problem statement and objectives of this
research.

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Chapter 2 is “Literature Review”, which explains a review of the previous works on types
of composites, natural fiber or filler and polymers. It presents the challenges and suitable
properties of different composites and ends with the summary.
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Chapter 3 is “Research Methodology”, which presents the methodology of this research.
It outlines the materials, method of PLA/CD biocomposites preparation and the
apparatuses employed for all sorts of mechanical, thermal, physical and morphological
analysis and tests.
R

Chapter 4 is “Results and Discussion”, which explains and discusses the results and
findings of mechanical, physical, thermal and morphological analysis and tests of
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PLA/CD biocomposites.

Chapter 5 is “Conclusion”, which gives an outline of all the conclusions that have been
obtained from this study and also presents the direction for future research.
O
C
©

3
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