Lesson 2 Methods of Philosophizing

Let's Ponder
Which of the following statements are TRUE?

1. The sun is the center of the solar system.

2. Asia is the largest continent in the world.
3. God made the world in seven days.
4. Man has the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
5. China's continued presence in the Spratlys is a violation of international law.
6. A person must always consider the interests of his or her family before his or her own happiness.
7. Citizens have the right to take up arms and overthrow an oppressive government.
8. The President has done very little to uphold democracy and look after the interests of the Filipino people.

1. Were you able to easily

judge the truthfulness of the
statements? Why?
2. Which of the statements
are obviously true? Which
ones required more thought
to determine their
truthfulness?
3. Which of these
statements may be true for
others but not true in your
judgment?
4. Which of these
statements do you
personally believe to be true
but may be disputed by
other people?

Let's Embark

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

1. define the role of philosophy in determining truth and knowledge;

2. distinguish opinion from truth;

3. analyze situations that show the difference between opinion and truth;

4. realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth; and

5. evaluate opinions.

Inquire and Discover LESSON 2:

In today's society, we encounter a lot of information from various sources such as the media and our
interactions with friends, family, and members of the community. Most of the information we receive is helpful, but
some may mislead us or may even be utterly false. These kinds of information often have a negative impact on our lives.
For instance, many people have been misled by claims of "miracle drugs" which were eventually proven to have no
significant effects on health or may have harmful effects for some people. In addition, "news" on the Internet and social
media sites often relies on sensational headlines which often twist and distort the truth. These often result in heated
online debates and feuds. In some cases, innocent individuals become targets of harassment because of false claims and
testimonials issued online. Every day we are confronted with news, claims and announcements from our peers, family
members, figures of authority, the government, and media. How do we know if they are telling the truth?

Philosophers often grapple with the concept of truth. Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry. Knowledge must be
truthful to gain validity and acceptance. However, the concept of truth remains a highly debated and much-discussed
topic among philosophers. Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or value. For example, when we answer a
"True or False" test, we judge if the statements we read are true or false. This means that statements may have truth or
may not have truth. Statements about the world or reality are called propositions and these propositions may or may
not carry truth. Propositions are usually stated as short statements or sentences.

Introducti on to the Philosophy of the Human Person

What is truth and why is it important?

 Before we discuss truth, it is important to clarify knowledge, since it is through knowing that we
are able to determine what is true. Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something.
It is the product of questi ons that allow for clear answers provided by facts. Our knowledge is
comprised of ideas and beliefs that we know to be true.

Let's explore your knowledge by completi ng the following statements:

I know that...

I know why...

I know how...

These statements correspond to one important aspect of knowledge - that it is based on reality.
This simply means that what we know is what is observable or evident in the real world. For example,
we say that "I know that fi sh live in water" because fi sh do live in water. Propositi ons or statements
which are observed to be real or truthful are considered facts.

There are statements, however, that are not evidently or immediately known to be true. For
example, we can say that "I know that my school is the best school in the city." This statement,
however, cannot be taken as true since it is simply not immediately evident. This statement is a claim,
and further examinati on is required to establish whether it is true or false. You may know why reading
is a bett er acti vity than playing basketball, but the truth of your statement will be contested by other
people.

Truthful statements, therefore, can be considered as based on facts. Science considers truth as
something observable and empirical. This means that any claim can be proven by verifi cati on and
experimentati on. Philosophy has various views which can help tackle the concepts of knowing the
truth, and arrive at a reasonable assessment if a statement, idea, or event is believable.

How do we know if something is true?

There are several views regarding truth. Philosophers emphasize the importance of belief as a
basis for determining truth. But what kind of belief is truthful? How do we know that what we believe
is true?

Ancient Greek philosophers approached the problem of truth by looking at the nature of
knowledge and how we know what we know. We assume that everything we know about this world is
true. But philosophers who pondered upon the origins of knowledge doubted everything that there is
to know about themselves and the world. In doing so, they were able to bett er understand the means
by which humans gain knowledge and determine the truth about everything. It is said that there are
instances when we have to unlearn something so that we may learn anew. Philosophers questi oned
what they knew and even analyzed their methods of knowing in order to understand themselves and
the world much bett er.

Let's embark on our own investi gati on on the nature of knowledge. Let's start by stati ng the very
obvious things we know about ourselves.

I am alive.

I have a body.

I can breathe.

Do you believe that these statements apply to you? "But of course!" you will say. But remember,
as philosophers, we do not assume that every statement is true. Doubt has a very important purpose in
philosophy as it drives our desire to discover truth. In philosophy, systemati c doubt is employed to help
determine truth. This means that every statement, claim, evidence, and experience is scruti nized and
analyzed. Nothing is taken as true unless there is suffi cient reason and evidence to prove that it is
indeed true. Let's assume, therefore, that the truthfulness of these statements have yet to be
determined.

Using doubt as our starti ng point, let's revise the statements to make them easier to scruti nize
and analyze. Let's rewrite the statements as questi ons so we can review and examine them further.

Am I alive?

Do I have a body?

Can I breathe?

Now, how will you fi gure out the answers to these questi ons?

The obvious answer would be to examine yourself to determine if indeed you are alive, that you
have a body, and you can breathe. Do you have a pulse? Can you feel your heartbeat? Do you have
hands, arms, legs, feet, and a head? Try to take a deep breath, then exhale. Were you able to do it? If
you answered "yes" to all these questi ons, then you can conclude with certainty that the previous
statements about yourself are true. You can now say:

I am alive!

I have a body!

I can breathe!

This is one perspecti ve on truth-that a belief is true if it can be justi fi ed or proven through the
use of one's senses.
 Now, let's tackle another statement and see how philosophy can help us determine if it is true.

I am a Filipino.

Now let's apply systemati c doubt and revise the statement for further examinati on.

Am I a Filipino?

Are our senses suffi cient means to determine the truth of the statement? If not, what other
means can we use to determine its truth?

We can use facts to guide us in our search for truth.

If you look up the word "Filipino" in a dicti onary, you will come across the following defi niti ons:

Filipino (noun)

1. a nati ve of the Philippine Islands

2. a citi zen of the Republic of the Philippines

3. the Tagalog-based offi cial language of the Republic of the Philippines Which of these defi niti ons
applies to you?

Which of these defi niti ons applies to you?

Defi niti ons 1 and 2 are the ones that best apply to you, since they refer to Filipinos as persons. Based
on the defi niti ons outlined, you can say that you and everyone in your community are Filipinos because
1) you, your classmates, your teachers, your family members, and other people in your community
were born in the Philippines and are thus nati ves; and 2) you are all citi zens of the Republic of the
Philippines, which means you were born of Filipino parents and are recognized as citi zens by the
government. Defi niti on 3 cannot be used in this case since it refers to the Filipino language and not to
Filipinos as persons.

This is another basis for determining truth: a belief or statement is true if it is based on facts. We
applied this perspecti ve when we looked up the meaning of the word "Filipino" in a dicti onary. We
assumed that what is stated in the defi niti on is the actual meaning of the word.

Are you now convinced that you can call yourself a Filipino? If not, what additi onal proof should you
look for to prove, without a doubt, that you are a Filipino? You can try doing the following:

1. Ask your parents and other relati ves.

2. Look for offi cial documents that prove you are a Filipino.

When you survey your family regarding your question, all of them may answer with a resounding "Yes!" Getting a
consensus or having people agree on a common belief another way of determining what is true. But this approach has
certain limitations. Getting everyone to agree on something may not make that belief true. For example, if you can get
your classmates to agree that you do not need to study to become successful in life, it does not make that belief true.
Also, if one of your family members says "No" to your inquiries, it would frustrate your efforts to find the truth.
Therefore, you have to use other means to really answer the question.

Looking at official documents, particularly a birth certificate, is one recommended way of proving that you are a Filipino.
Your birth certificate shows factual information regarding your birth. Since it is issued by an institution that has authority
such as the government, you are sure that the document and the facts it bears are truthful. Reliance on evidence and
facts, however, also has a limitation. Evidence, especially documents, can be forged or falsified. Even the content of a
genuine document may be doubtful if there are mistakes in the information. A person may be issued an official birth
certificate but it may contain wrong information or typographical errors. If your name is misspelled in your birth
certificate, does your identity change?

Let us imagine, however, that in your search to figure out if you are a Filipino, you find out the following:

1. All your parents and relatives agree that you are Filipino.

2. Your birth certificate proves that you were born in the Philippines.

With these facts in mind, you can now be confident in calling yourself a true Filipino.

You can now proudly say:

I am a Filipino!

Finally, let us explore the following statements about what you can do:

I can play basketball.

I can fry an egg.

I understand the lesson.

Let's revise the statements so we can analyze them further.

Can I play basketball?

Can I fry an egg?

Do I understand the lesson?

Looking back at the approaches we applied in the previous statements, you realize that using your
senses and experiences, acquiring supporti ng facts, or getti ng other people's views are insuffi cient to
fully determine the truth of these three statements. You will have to combine various approaches in
order to arrive at a correct judgment.

It is true that in your mind you may have fi gured out the answers to these questi ons. For this exercise,
however, let us exhaust all means to determine the truth. For instance, how will you really prove that
you can play basketball? The obvious answer would be to actually play it. Imagine if one of your friends
brags that he or she can successfully shoot the ball from the half-court line. You will not your friend's
word for it and you will be sati sfi ed only when he or she actually shoots the ball from the half-court
line. The same is true with cooking. To prove that you know how to fry an egg, you will have to go to
the kitchen and fry an egg. Some would argue that the proof is not only in the act but also in the
product. This means that you should not only show that you can fry an egg but that you can make
delicious fried eggs. Determining truth in this case requires a person to prove a statement through an
acti on. The statements, therefore, are only true if they can be applied in real life.

The fi nal statement also requires proof through acti on. The best means to determine whether you have
understood the lesson is to take a test and get a good score. Philosophers also believe that claims and
beliefs should also be subjected to tests to determine truth. Any claim, therefore, should be subjected
to tests to prove their validity.

All these approaches can help you determine whether the statements are true or applicable in your
case. The inquiry would result in any of the following realizati ons:

I can play basketball.

I cannot play basketball.

I can fry an egg.

I cannot fry an egg.

I understand the lesson.

I do not understand the lesson.

Discovering truths about oneself is merely the fi rst step toward exploring knowledge and truth. As we
encounter varied ideas and knowledge in our everyday interacti ons, philosophy can help us determine
which informati on we encounter is believable and acceptable, and which needs to be examined more
closely to determine its truth.

Apply systemati c doubt in analyzing the following statements. Describe how you will determine their
truthfulness.

1. Our classroom is ti dy.

2. Our school is big.

3. I am a good student.

4. We live in a safe community.

How can philosophy guide us in disti nguishing truth from opinion?

Now that you have an idea of how philosophizing recognizes truth, let us try and apply it in various
situati ons in your life. The ideas that we encounter in everyday life can be considered as truth or
opinion. But what disti nguishes one from the other? Let us take a look at the following statements and
determine which one states fact or opinion.

1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from my home to school.

2. Living near the school is bett er because we don't have to spend much for transportati on.

3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza pie.

4. My sister is a selfi sh person because she ate the last piece of pizza pie and did not share it with me.
5. The policeman fi rmly pushed the suspect to his knees and placed him in handcuff s.

6. The aggressive manner by which the policeman arrested the suspect is an example of the brutality
that characterizes our police force.

Analyzing these statements, you will be able to identi fy statements that are similar. Let's rearrange
them again.
 1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from my home to
school.
3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza pie.
5. The policeman firmly pushed the suspect to his knees
and placed him in handcuffs.
2. Living near the school is better because we don't have
to spend much for transportation.
4. My sister is a selfish person because she ate the last
piece of pizza pie and did not share it with me.
6. The aggressive manner by which the policeman
arrested the suspect is an example of the brutality that
characterizes our police force.

Which column has statements that are more factual?

If you answered the fi rst column, then you are correct. Analyzing closely the statements in that column
using the philosophical tools we learned, we can confi dently say that they fi t into the category of facts
since they contain ideas or informati on that are easily verifi able.

For example, verifying the number of minutes it takes for one to walk from home to school is possible.
The second and third statements speak of acti ons that can be verifi ed by recalling an experience or
providing evidences such as eyewitness accounts.

The second column, on the other hand, has statements that could be considered opinions. These
statements go beyond providing facts. They also provide conclusions or perspecti ves regarding certain
situati ons. Some of the statements even advance a belief about a certain thing or person. Opinions are
also the bases for making arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is a fact.

A conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts. The facts that form the bases of a conclusion may
not be disputed but the conclusion itself could sti ll be contested or questi oned. Meanwhile, beliefs are
statements that express convicti ons that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. If a person states
"I believe that God put me on this earth to spread His message of love", we will fi nd it diffi cult to prove
his or her statement as truthful if we rely merely on facts. To judge the truthfulness of belief, we must
also consider things such as a person's experiences and views.

We should also be aware when statements go beyond the facts and provide additi onal ideas and
informati on. For instance, statement 4 provides details or explanati on in order to support the idea "my
sister is selfi sh".

Explanati ons are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the statement is
true. Statement 4 asks the readers to simply accept the fact that "the sister is selfi sh."

Arguments, meanwhile, are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or
listener that a claim or opinion is truthful. Arguments are made with the assumpti on that the truth of
the claim or opinion is sti ll to be determined. You oft en encounter arguments in a formal debate,
where parti cipants explain two sides of a propositi on, and judgment regarding the truthfulness of the
propositi on is made aft er hearing the arguments of both sides.

Logic is the branch of Philosophy that focuses on the analysis of arguments. Arguments are given great
importance since these are used to convey ideas that infl uence the thinking, acti ons, and behavior of
people. It can lead people to either right or wrong decision and acti on. Thus we need to be very careful
when we listen to arguments since not all arguments are truthful. In additi on, not all arguments have
the same merit because some are bett er presented and substanti ated than others. It is also possible
that claims and arguments are given by persons who have ill intenti ons and wish to twist or manipulate
facts to suit their own purposes. As we analyze what is presented to us, we must always keep in mind
the standards of criti cal thinking.
What should we consider when looking at arguments or opinions?

Arguments oft en take the form of statements that are either claims of facts and are phrased in such a
way that they seem reasonable. However, a number of arguments may be based on faulty reasoning.
These kinds of arguments are called fallacies. Some of these fallacies may be intenti onal, as the person
making the claim is desperate to convince you to accept his or her argument. The following are
examples of fallacies.

Fallacy Characteristi cs Example

ad hominem
appeal to force
appeal to emoti on
appeal to the popular
appeal to traditi on
begging the questi on
Cause-andeff ect
fallacy of compositi on
Fallacy of division
att acking the person presenti ng
the argument instead of the
argument itself
using the threat of force or an
undesirable event to advance an
argument
using emoti ons such as pity or "
sympathy
the idea is presented as
acceptable because a lot of
people accept it
the idea is acceptable because it
has been true for a long ti me
assuming the thing or idea to be
proven is true; also known as
"circular argument"
assuming a "cause-and- eff ect"
relati onship between unrelated
events
assuming that what is true of a
part is true for the whole
assuming that what is true for
the whole is true for its parts
"Of course he believes that the
government is fl awed, he is a
rebel and a Communist!"
"If this peace agreement will
not be signed by the
government, then we will have
no recourse but to go to war."
"All these charges are baseless;
this is just plain harassment -
can't you see how this is
aff ecti ng my family?"
"Every boy your age already has
a girlfriend, you should go fi nd
one!”
"Marriage should be between a
man and a woman. It has been
so for a long ti me in this
country; it should remain so
today and in the future.
"I have a right to free speech,
therefore you cannot stop me
from talking.
"Ever since you bought that
sweater, everything has been
going wrong in your life. You
should get rid of it."
"These cases of robbery in this
district have convinced me that
the city has become a den of
thieves and criminals.'
"You come from a family of
doctors and S intellectuals!
Surely you can do bett er in this
course!"

When looking at an opinion, be aware of bias or the personal views of the person presenting it.
Biases are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or influences which affect
the views of people. Bias cannot be avoided in any discussion or debate. What is important is
that the people engaging in the discussion are aware of their personal biases and have an open
but critical attitude toward other views which conflict with their own.
The most common biases are enumerated below.
Bias
correspondence bias or
att ributi on eff ect
confi rmati on bias
framing
hindsight
confl ict of interest
Characteristics
tendency to judge a person's
personality by his or her
acti ons, without regard for
external factors or infl uences
tendency to look for and readily
accept informati on which fi ts
one's own beliefs or views and
to reject ideas or views that go
against it
focusing on a certain aspect of a
problem while ignoring other
aspects
the tendency to see past events
as predictable, or to ascribe a
patt ern to historical events
a person or group is connected
to or has a vested interest in
the issue being discussed
analyzing an event or issue
based on one's cultural
standards
Example
"These soldiers who fought in
the war are all bloodthirsty
murderers!"
"How can I accept his view that
there is no God? I am a
Christi an!"
"Preliminary evidence has sti ll
not pointed out the actual cause
of the plane crash, but
investi gators are currently
focusing on the possibility of
pilot error.'
"Magellan's assault on Mactan
Island was a foolhardy venture,
made by an overconfi dent,
careless man who
underesti mated the valor of the
nati ve Filipinos."
"As the daughter of the
accused, I believe I have the
right to express my opinion on
the issue of his alleged corrupt
practi ces."
"I do not agree with this
Western practi ce of placing
aged parents reti rement homes.
We Filipinos take care of our
family members."

How can an understanding of the diff erence between truth and opinion lead us to wisdom?

An understanding of opinions and facts and the means to disti nguish one from the other can further
improve our understanding and appreciati on of varied views and ideas. The ability to determine truth
goes hand in hand with the holisti c perspecti ve and enables us to make wiser decisions, especially in
choosing the ideas and views which we fi nd acceptable.

An individual cannot live his or her life just agreeing with everybody he or she meets. A criti cal mind
aided by philosophy can help us form our own personal point of view that can guide us in making
decisions and acti ons when faced with a problem. Each individual's point of view is unique but it should
be based on sound and reasonable ideas and views. Philosophy can help us determine ideas that are
truthful and acceptable, which we can then use to form our own views regarding certain matt ers.
 Let us imagine several individuals reacti ng to news on the television and radio about the recent killings
of drug pushers and addicts throughout the country. Let's analyze the opinions of these individuals.

Mang Antonio: The drug addicts had it coming. It is good that these pieces of trash are dealt with. In
our barangay, the addicts have been committi ng crime for years! Now that this is happening and
addicts are being killed left and right, they have been surrendering to the police or have disappeared. I
say that we should keep killing them unti l none are left .

Att orney Macaraig: As a lawyer and a citi zen, I am deeply disturbed by these events. Yes, drug addicts
are a danger to society. But these killings are done outside of the due process that is guaranteed by our
justi ce system and laws. Anybody can just point a fi nger at anyone and say that he or she is an addict.
Are the people committi ng these murders exercising due process in determining if the people they are
killing are indeed addicts? The killings are also a violati on of human rights which are guaranteed for all
citi zens, whether they are law- abiding or accused of a crime. What I am saying is that these drug
addicts have rights too. Aside from that, these acts are nothing but vigilanti sm, which has no place in a
law-abiding society. These killings may lead to more crime which may aff ect not only those who are
said to be guilty, but also innocent citi zens.

Mrs. Lopez: I really do not care about this issue. These killings make me nervous, but at least I am not
aff ected by this. My family are decent people and we live in a peaceful community that has no drug
addicts. As long as these criminals are dealt with and peace and order are maintained in our
community, I couldn't care less about what is happening to these addicts.

Father Gomez: It is the Catholic Church's stand that life is sacred. We have long opposed capital
punishment since it violates the sacredness of life. The killing of suspected addicts is a violati on of
God's law and goes against human rights and the rule of law. We call on the government to put a stop
to these senseless murders. It is every Christi an's duty to take a stand against murder and the
prevailing culture of death and join our call to respect life and the rule of law.

Mr. Tolenti no: Anybody who says that these criminals deserve human rights is an idiot! What about the
victi ms of these addicts who never stood a chance against them? My daughter was raped and murdered
by addicts and they deserve to die in the worst way possible! It's about ti me that these pieces of fi lth
get what they deserve. If I had my way, I would kill them all myself!

Mrs. Alonzo: I am very distressed by this news! These drug addicts are people too. My son is a drug
addict and we have been exerti ng every eff ort to help him clean up and reform himself. But it is a very
hard process. I am afraid that one day I will hear news that one of the drug addicts killed is my son.

Looking carefully at these opinions, we can see various claims, views, biases, and possible fallacies
embedded in them. Let us carefully examine these statements to make sense of the various ideas they
wish to convey.

In fi guring out bias, we have to look at the background of the persons who made the statements. Many
of the individuals do not explicitly state their background, but we can gather clues from their words
and the given context.

Mang Antonio - a citi zen who lives in a barangay where the presence of drug addicts is a problem

Att y. Macaraig - a lawyer and a citi zen

Mrs. Lopez - a housewife whose family lives in a peaceful community

Father Gomez - a priest

Mr. Tolenti no - a father whose daughter was raped and murdered by drug addicts

Mrs. Alonzo - a mother whose son is a drug addict

Figuring out the backgrounds of the people who made the statements allows us to understand the
context by which they formed these views and opinions on the issue. For instance, we can understand
Mr. Tolenti no's very emoti onal response to the issue because his daughter was raped and killed by an
addict. On the other hand, Mrs. Lopez's indiff erent atti tude is infl uenced by the fact that she and her
family have not experienced the problems brought about by drug addicti on. Mrs. Alonzo also has an
emoti onal response to the issue because her son is a drug addict. Going back to the statements, do
they make sense given the backgrounds of the people who utt ered them? What biases can you see in
the statements now that you have fi gured out the backgrounds of these individuals? Now, let us take a
look at their views regarding drug addicts:

Mang Antonio - drug addicts are criminals and "pieces of trash"

Att y. Macaraig - "...drug addicts have rights too."

Mrs. Lopez - drug addicts are criminals and she "couldn't care less about what is happening" to them.

Father Gomez - drug addicts have human rights and their lives are sacred

Mr. Tolenti no - drug addicts are "pieces of fi lth"

Mrs. Alonzo - "These drug addicts are people too. My son is a drug addict."

On their views on the killing of drug addicts:

Mang Antonio - the killings have led to the surrender of addicts or their disapperance.

"We should keep killing them unti l none are left ."

Att y. Macaraig - "These killings are a violati on of human rights...these acts are nothing but vigilanti sm,
which has no place in a law-abiding society. These killings may lead to more crime..."

Mrs. Lopez - "I really do not care about this issue....As long as these criminals are dealt with and peace
and order are maintained in our community, I couldn't care less about what is happening to these
addicts."

Father Gomez - "The killing of suspected addicts is a violati on of God's law and goes against human
rights and the rule of law."

Mr. Tolenti no - "It's about ti me that these pieces of fi lth get what they deserve. If I had my way, I
would kill them all myself!"

Mrs. Alonzo - "I am very distressed by this news...I am afraid that one day I will hear news that one of
these drug addicts killed is my son."

Go over the various views on this issue and decide which opinion has the most number of verifi able
claims and arguments. If an opinion is more truthful, does it immediately mean that it is most
acceptable to you? Understand that you have your own bias and perspecti ve which play a huge
infl uence in your decisions. Which among the opinions is most similar to your own personal bias
regarding the issue of drug addicts? To determine this, ask yourself the following questi ons:

Do you consider drug addicts as human persons or as criminals?

Do you know a drug addict or a drug user?

Do you consider that person a criminal or a person?

Have you ever been aff ected by problems related to drug addicti on?

How did it make you feel?

Do you believe that killing drug addicts is an eff ecti ve way of solving the problem of drug addicti on?

Do you believe that drug addicts deserve to die for being drug addicts?

Let us philosophize further and come up with philosophical questi ons about the issue. Let's start with
these:

If drug addicti on is a crime and drug addicts are criminals, does this mean that any other form of
addicti on is also a crime? Can people addicted to coff ee be considered criminals?

If we get rid of the drug addicts but not the drug manufacturers and pushers, do we solve the problem
of drug addicti on? Are we just getti ng rid of the symptoms but not the causes of the problem?

What other philosophical questi ons can you come up with regarding this issue? Share them in class.

Your own refl ecti on on your thoughts and ideas regarding the issue, together with an objecti ve
evaluati on of opinions on the matt er will enable you to make a wise decision regarding the most
acceptable view. This is important since your views will defi ne your acti ons regarding this issue. If you
believe that killing drug addicts is not the best means of solving the problem of drug addicti on, what
will you do? If, on the other hand, you the killing of drug addicts, how will this view aff ect your
acti ons?

Conti nue philosophizing on other issues that you encounter every day as this will help you defi ne your
thoughts, acti ons, and behavior. This will hopefully enable you to be more discerning and lead you to
acti vely involve yourself in discussing and clarifying issues and taking appropriate acti on to address
them.

DISCUSS
1. How can philosophy help identify things that are truthful?
2. What traits and values can help us in determining truth?
3. How will knowing truth help us become more wise and discerning individuals?
Review
 Philosophy is concerned with determining truth since it lies at the heart of any inquiry.
 The discussion on truth is part of philosophical studies on knowledge where philosophers
explore the nature of knowledge and the ways of knowing.
 7 Facts are statements that are observed to be real of truthful. Claims are statements that
require further examination to determine their truthfulness.
 There are various philosophical views regarding truth. Philosophers consider something as
truthful if it corresponds with an observable fact or reality. Something is also true if it can
be justified through experience and the use of one's senses. Another view believes that
truth is a product of agreement or consensus. Another perspective considers a claim as
truthful if it can be tested and verified.
 Opinions are comprised of statements which not only give facts but also provide
conclusions or perspectives regarding certain situations. Opinions may advance a belief
about certain things or provide explanations
 Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or
listener that a claim or opinion is truthful.
 Some arguments may contain fallacies. This means that they are products of faulty
reasoning. We must be aware of the various kinds of fallacies as these affect the validity
of arguments.
 Opinions are often influenced by bias. This means that a person having the opinion may
have views and tendencies that affect the way he or she sees reality. We must be aware of
bias so that we can objectively and critically examine points of view.
 Philosophy can help us examine various views on relevant issues in our lives. An objective
evaluation of opinions and an awareness of our own personal biases can help us make wise
choices regarding the most acceptable views to adopt and the right actions to undertake.