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History - of - Underwater - Diving Surah Anbya Ayah 82
History - of - Underwater - Diving Surah Anbya Ayah 82
History - of - Underwater - Diving Surah Anbya Ayah 82
An alternative approach was the development of the "single atmosphere" or armoured suit, which isolates
the diver from the pressure at depth, at the cost of great mechanical complexity and limited dexterity. The
technology first became practicable in the middle 20th century. Isolation of the diver from the environment
was taken further by the development of remotely operated underwater vehicles in the late 20th century,
where the operator controls the ROV from the surface, and autonomous underwater vehicles, which
dispense with an operator altogether. All of these modes are still in use and each has a range of applications
where it has advantages over the others, though diving bells have largely been relegated to a means of
transport for surface supplied divers. In some cases, combinations are particularly effective, such as the
simultaneous use of surface orientated or saturation surface supplied diving equipment and work or
observation class remotely operated vehicles.
Although the pathophysiology of decompression sickness is not yet fully understood, decompression
practice has reached a stage where the risk is fairly low, and most incidences are successfully treated by
therapeutic recompression and hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Mixed breathing gases are routinely used to
reduce the effects of the hyperbaric environment on ambient pressure divers.
Contents
Freediving
Diving bells
Surface supplied diving suits
Open diving dress
Standard diving dress
Early diving work
Development of salvage diving operations
Self-contained air supply equipment
Open-circuit scuba
Closed-circuit scuba
Saturation diving
Atmospheric diving suits
Early designs
Peress' Tritonia
The JIM suit
Later developments
Physiological discoveries
References
Freediving
Underwater diving was practiced in ancient cultures to gather food
and other valuable resources such as pearls and precious coral, and
later to reclaim sunken valuables, and to help aid military
campaigns. Breathhold diving was the only method available,
occasionally using reed snorkels in shallow water, and stone
weights for deeper dives[1]
The Mediterranean Sea had large amounts of sea trade. As a result, there were many shipwrecks, so divers
were often hired to salvage whatever they could from the seabed. Divers would swim down to the wreck
and choose the pieces to salvage.[4]
Divers were also used in warfare. They could be used for underwater reconnaissance when ships were
approaching an enemy harbor, and if underwater defenses were found, the divers would disassemble them
if possible.[5] During the Peloponnesian War, divers were used to get past enemy blockades to relay
messages and provide supplies to allies or troops that were cut off by the blockade.[6] These divers and
swimmers were occasionally used as saboteurs, drilling holes in enemy hulls, cutting ships rigging and
mooring lines.
In Japan, the Ama divers began to collect pearls about 2,000 years ago.[7][8] Free-diving was the primary
source of income for many Persian Gulf nationals such as Qataris, Emiratis, and Bahrainis and Kuwaitis.
As a result, Qatari, Emirati, and Bahraini heritage promoters have popularized recreational and serious
events associated with freediving, underwater equipment, and related activities such as snorkeling.[9]
Diving bells
The diving bell is one of the earliest types of equipment for
underwater work and exploration.[10] Its use was first described by
Aristotle in the 4th century BC: "...they enable the divers to respire
equally well by letting down a cauldron, for this does not fill with
water, but retains the air, for it is forced straight down into the
water."[11] According to Roger Bacon, Alexander the Great
explored the Mediterranean on the authority of Ethicus the
astronomer.
Diving bells were developed in the 16th and 17th century as the
first significant mechanical aid to underwater diving. They were
rigid chambers lowered into the water and ballasted to remain
upright in the water and to sink even when full of air.[12]
Illustration of an occupied diving bell.
The first reliably recorded use of a diving bell was by Guglielmo
de Lorena in 1535 to explore Caligula's barges in Lake Nemi.[13]
In 1616, Franz Kessler built an improved diving bell.[14]: 693 [15]
In 1658, Albrecht von Treileben was contracted by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden to salvage the
warship Vasa, which sank outside Stockholm harbor in about 32 metres (105 ft) of water on its maiden
voyage in 1628. Between 1663 and 1665 von Treileben's divers were successful in raising most of the
cannon, working from a diving bell with an estimated free air capacity of about 530 litres (120 imp gal;
140 US gal) for periods of about 15 minutes at a time in dark water with a temperature of about 4 °C
(39 °F).[16][17] In late 1686, Sir William Phipps convinced investors to fund an expedition to what is now
Haiti and the Dominican Republic to find sunken treasure, despite the location of the shipwreck being
based entirely on rumor and speculation. In January 1687, Phipps found the wreck of the Spanish galleon
Nuestra Señora de la Concepción off the coast of Santo Domingo. Some sources say they used an inverted
container as a diving bell for the salvage operation while others say the crew was assisted by Indian divers
in the shallow waters. The operation lasted from February to April 1687 during which time they salvaged
jewels, some gold, and 30 tons of silver which, at the time, was worth over £200,000.[18]
In 1691, Edmond Halley completed plans for a greatly improved diving bell, capable of remaining
submerged for extended periods of time, and fitted with a window for the purpose of undersea exploration.
The atmosphere was replenished by way of weighted barrels of air sent down from the surface.[19] In a
demonstration, Halley and five companions dived to 60 feet (18 m) in the River Thames, and remained
there for over an hour and a half. Improvements made to it over
time extended his underwater exposure time to over four
hours.[20][21]
In 1689, Denis Papin had suggested that the pressure and fresh air
inside a diving bell could be maintained by a force pump or
bellows. His idea was implemented exactly 100 years later by the
Sir William Phipps used a diving bell engineer John Smeaton, who built the first workable diving air
to salvage tremendous wealth from a
pump in 1789.[14][15]
sunken Spanish treasure ship.
At the same time, Andrew Becker created a leather-covered diving suit with a windowed helmet. The suit
used a system of tubes for inhaling and exhaling, and Becker demonstrated his suit in the River Thames at
London, during which he remained submerged for an hour. These suits were of limited use as there was
still no practical system for replenishing the air supply during the dive.[24]
In 1405, Konrad Kyeser described a diving dress made of a leather jacket and metal helmet with two glass
windows. The jacket and helmet were lined by sponge to "retain the air" and a leather pipe was connected
to a bag of air.[14]: 693 A diving suit design was illustrated in a book by Vegetius in 1511.[14]: 554 Borelli
designed diving equipment that consisted of a metal helmet, a pipe to "regenerate" air, a leather suit, and a
means of controlling the diver's buoyancy.[14]: 556 In 1690, Thames Divers, a short-lived London diving
company, gave public demonstrations of a Vegetius type shallow water diving dress.[14]: 557 Klingert
designed a full diving dress in 1797. This design consisted of a large metal helmet and a similarly large
metal belt connected by a leather jacket and pants.[14]: 560
In 1800, Peter Kreeft presented
his diving apparatus to the
Swedish king, and used it
successfully.[25][26][27]
The first successful diving helmets were produced by the brothers Charles and John Deane in the
1820s.[29] Inspired by a fire accident he witnessed in a stable in England,[30] he designed and patented a
"Smoke Helmet" to be used by firemen in smoke-filled areas in 1823. The apparatus comprised a copper
helmet with an attached flexible collar and garment. A long leather hose attached to the rear of the helmet
was to be used to supply air - the original concept being that it would be pumped using a double bellows. A
short pipe allowed excess air to escape. The garment was constructed from leather or airtight cloth, secured
by straps.[31]
The brothers had insufficient funds to build the equipment themselves so they sold the patent to their
employer Edward Barnard. It was not until 1827 that the first smoke helmets were built by German-born
British engineer Augustus Siebe. In 1828 they decided to find another application for their device and
converted it into a diving helmet. They marketed the helmet with a loosely attached "diving suit" so that a
diver could perform salvage work but only in a full vertical position, otherwise water entered the suit.[31]
In 1829, the Deane brothers sailed from Whitstable for trials of their new
underwater apparatus, establishing the diving industry in the town. In
1834, Charles used his diving helmet and suit in a successful attempt on
the wreck of HMS Royal George at Spithead, during which he recovered
28 of the ship's cannon.[32] In 1836, John Deane recovered from the
Mary Rose shipwreck timbers, guns, longbows, and other items.[33] By
1836, the Deane brothers had produced the world's first diving manual
Method of Using Deane's Patent Diving Apparatus which explained in
detail the workings of the apparatus and pump, as well as safety
precautions.[34]
In the early years of the diving suit, divers were often employed for cleaning and maintenance of seagoing
vessels which could require the efforts of multiple divers. Ships that did not have diving suits available
would commission diving companies to do underwater maintenance of ships' hulls, as a clean hull would
increase the speed of the vessel. The average time spent diving for these purposes was between four and
seven hours.[37]
The Office of the Admiralty and Marine Affairs adopted the diving suit in the 1860s. Divers duties
included underwater repair of vessels, maintenance, and cleaning of propellers, retrieval of lost anchors and
chains, and removing seaweed and other fouling from the hull that could hinder movement.[37]
Pasley's diving salvage operation set many diving milestones, including the first recorded use of the buddy
system in diving, when he gave instructions to his divers to operate in pairs.[38][40] In addition, the first
emergency swimming ascent was made by a diver after his air line became tangled and he had to cut it free.
A less fortunate milestone was the first medical account of a diving barotrauma. The early diving helmets
had no non-return valves, so if a hose was severed near the surface, the ambient pressure air around the
diver's head rapidly drained from the helmet to the lower pressure at the break, leaving a pressure difference
between the inside and outside of the helmet that could cause injurious and sometimes life-threatening
effects. At the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting in 1842, Sir John Richardson
described the diving apparatus and treatment of diver Roderick Cameron following an injury that occurred
on 14 October 1841 during the salvage operations.[41]
Pasley recovered 12 more guns in 1839, 11 more in 1840, and 6 in 1841. In 1842 he recovered only one
iron 12-pounder because he ordered the divers to concentrate on removing the hull timbers rather than
search for guns. Other items recovered, in 1840, included the surgeon's brass instruments, silk garments of
satin weave "of which the silk was perfect", and pieces of leather; but no woolen clothing.[42] By 1843 the
whole of the keel and the bottom timbers had been raised and the site was declared clear.[43]
Self-contained air supply equipment
A drawback to the equipment pioneered by Deane and Siebe was the requirement for a constant supply of
air pumped from the surface. This restricted the movements and range of the diver and was also potentially
hazardous as the supply could get cut off for a number of reasons. Early attempts at creating systems that
would allow divers to carry a portable breathing gas source did not succeed, as the compression and storage
technology was not advanced enough to allow compressed air to be stored in containers at sufficiently high
pressures. By the end of the nineteenth century, two basic templates for scuba, (self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus), had emerged; open-circuit scuba where the diver's exhaust is vented directly into the
water, and closed-circuit scuba where the diver's unused oxygen is filtered from the carbon dioxide and
recirculated.[44] A scuba set is characterized by full independence from the surface during use, by providing
breathing gas carried by the diver. Early attempts to reach this autonomy from the surface were made in the
18th century by the Englishman John Lethbridge, who invented and successfully built his own underwater
diving machine in 1715. The air inside the suit allowed a short period of diving before it had to be surfaced
for replenishment.
Open-circuit scuba
None of those inventions solved the problem of high pressure when compressed air must be supplied to the
diver (as in modern regulators); they were mostly based on a constant-flow supply of the air. The
compression and storage technology was not advanced enough to allow compressed air to be stored in
containers at sufficiently high pressures to allow useful dive times.
An early diving dress using a compressed air reservoir was designed and built in 1771 by Sieur Fréminet of
Paris who conceived an autonomous breathing machine equipped with a reservoir, dragged behind the
diver or mounted on his back.[45][46] Fréminet called his invention machine hydrostatergatique and used it
successfully for more than ten years in the harbors of Le Havre and Brest, as stated in the explanatory text
of a 1784 painting.[47][48]
The Frenchman Paul Lemaire d'Augerville built and used autonomous diving equipment in 1824,[49] as did
the British William H. James in 1825. James' helmet was made of "thin copper or sole of leather" with a
plate window, and the air was supplied from an iron reservoir.[50] A similar system was used in 1831 by the
American Charles Condert, who died in 1832 while testing his invention in the East River at only 20 feet
(6 m) deep. After having traveled to England and discovering William James' invention, the French
physician Manuel Théodore Guillaumet, from Argentan (in Normandy), patented the oldest known
regulator mechanism in 1838. Guillaumet's invention was air-supplied from the surface and was never
mass-produced due to problems with safety.
An important step in the development of open-circuit scuba technology was the invention of the demand
regulator in 1864 by the French engineers Auguste Denayrouze and Benoît Rouquayrol. Their suit was the
first to supply air to the user by adjusting the flow according to the diver's requirements. The system still
had to use surface supply, as the storage cylinders of the 1860s were not able to withstand the high
pressures necessary for a practical self-contained unit.[51]
The first open-circuit scuba system was devised in 1925 by Yves Le Prieur in France. Inspired by the
simple apparatus of Maurice Fernez and the freedom it allowed the diver, he conceived an idea to make it
free of the tube to the surface pump by using Michelin cylinders as the air supply, containing three litres
(0.66 imp gal; 0.79 US gal) of air compressed to 150 kilograms per square centimetre (2,100 psi; 150 bar).
The "Fernez-Le Prieur" diving apparatus was demonstrated at the swimming pool of Tourelles in Paris in
1926. The unit consisted of a cylinder of compressed air carried on the back of the diver, connected to a
pressure regulator designed by Le Prieur adjusted manually by the diver, with two gauges, one for tank
pressure and one for output
(supply) pressure. Air was
supplied continuously to the
mouthpiece and ejected
through a short exhaust pipe
fitted with a valve as in the
Fernez design,[52] however,
the lack of a demand
regulator and the consequent
low endurance of the
apparatus limited the practical
use of Le Prieur's
Divers dressed in the Apparatus device.[53]: 1–9
Invented by MM Rouquayrol and
Denayrouze Le Prieur's design was the
first autonomous breathing
device used by the first scuba The Rouquayrol-Denayrouze
apparatus was the first regulator
diving clubs in history - Racleurs de fond founded by Glenn Orr in
to be mass-produced (from 1865
California in 1933, and Club des sous-l'eau founded by Le Prieur
to 1965). In this picture the air
himself in Paris in 1935.[54] Fernez had previously invented the reservoir presents its surface-
noseclip, a mouthpiece (equipped with a one-way valve for supplied configuration.
exhalation) and diving goggles, and Yves le Prieur just joined to those
three Fernez elements a hand-controlled regulator and a compressed-
air cylinder. Fernez's goggles didn't allow a dive deeper than ten metres (33 ft) due to "mask squeeze", so,
in 1933, Le Prieur replaced all the Fernez equipment (goggles, nose clip, and valve) by a full face mask,
directly supplied with constant flow air from the cylinder.
In 1942, during the German occupation of France, Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Émile Gagnan designed the
first successful and safe open-circuit scuba, known as the Aqua-Lung. Their system combined an improved
demand regulator with high-pressure air tanks. Émile Gagnan, an engineer employed by the Air Liquide
company, miniaturized and adapted the regulator to use with gas generators, in response to constant fuel
shortage that was a consequence of German requisitioning. Gagnan's boss, Henri Melchior, knew that his
son-in-law Jacques-Yves Cousteau was looking for an automatic demand regulator to increase the useful
period of the underwater breathing apparatus invented by Commander le Prieur,[55] so he introduced
Cousteau to Gagnan in December 1942. On Cousteau's initiative, the Gagnan's regulator was adapted to
diving, and the new Cousteau-Gagnan patent was registered some weeks later in 1943.[56]
Air Liquide started selling the Cousteau-Gagnan regulator commercially as of 1946 under the name of
scaphandre Cousteau-Gagnan or CG45 ("C" for Cousteau, "G" for Gagnan and 45 for the 1945 patent).
The same year Air Liquide created a division called La Spirotechnique, to develop and sell regulators and
other diving equipment. To sell his regulator in English-speaking countries Cousteau registered the Aqua-
Lung trademark, which was first licensed to the U.S. Divers company (the American division of Air
Liquide) and later sold with La Spirotechnique and U.S. Divers to finally become the name of the
company, Aqua-Lung/La Spirotechnique, currently located in Carros, near Nice.[57]
In 1948 the Cousteau-Gagnan patent was also licensed to Siebe Gorman of England,[58] when Siebe
Gorman was directed by Robert Henry Davis.[59] Siebe Gorman was allowed to sell in Commonwealth
countries but had difficulty in meeting the demand and the U.S. patent prevented others from making the
product. This demand was eventually met by Ted Eldred of Melbourne, Australia, who had been
developing a rebreather called the Porpoise. When a demonstration resulted in a diver passing out, he began
to develop the single-hose open-circuit scuba system, which separates the first and second stages by a low-
pressure hose, and releases exhaled gas at the second stage. This avoided the Cousteau-Gagnan patent,
which protected the twin-hose scuba regulator. In the process, Eldred also
improved the performance of the regulator. Eldred sold the first Porpoise
Model CA single hose scuba early in 1952.
Early scuba sets were usually provided with a plain harness of shoulder
straps and waist belt. The waist belt buckles were usually quick-release,
and shoulder straps sometimes had adjustable or quick-release buckles.
Many harnesses did not have a backplate, and the cylinders rested directly
against the diver's back. The harnesses of many diving rebreathers made
by Siebe Gorman included a large back-sheet of reinforced rubber.
The rig comprised a rubber breathing/buoyancy bag containing a canister of barium hydroxide to scrub
exhaled CO2 and, in a pocket at the lower end of the bag, a steel pressure cylinder holding approximately
56 litres (2.0 cu ft) of oxygen at a pressure of 120 bars (1,700 psi). The cylinder was equipped with a
control valve and was connected to the breathing bag. Opening the cylinder's valve admitted oxygen to the
bag at ambient pressure. The rig also included an emergency buoyancy bag on the front to help keep the
wearer afloat. The DSEA was adopted by the Royal Navy after further development by Davis in 1927.[69]
In 1912, the German firm Drägerwerk of Lübeck introduced their own version of standard diving dress
using a gas supply from an injector-circulated oxygen rebreather and no surface supply.[70]
In the 1930s, Italian sport spearfishers began to use the Davis rebreather. Italian manufacturers received a
license from the English patent holders to produce it. This practice soon came to the attention of the Italian
Navy, The Italians developed similar rebreathers for the combat swimmers of the Decima Flottiglia MAS,
especially the Pirelli ARO which was used effectively in World War II.[66][71] During the 1930s and all
through World War II, the British, Italians and Germans developed and extensively used oxygen
rebreathers to equip the first frogmen. The British used the Davis apparatus for submarine escape, but they
soon adapted it for their frogmen during World War II. Germans used the Dräger rebreathers,[72] which
were also originally designed as submarine escape sets and only adapted for use by frogmen during World
War II. During the Second World War, captured Italian frogmen's rebreathers influenced improved designs
for British rebreathers.[66] Some British armed forces divers used bulky thick diving suits called Sladen
suits, one version of which had a flip-up faceplate to let the diver use binoculars when on the surface.[73]
In 1939, Christian Lambertsen developed an oxygen rebreather he called the
Lambertsen Amphibious Respirator Unit (LARU) and patented it in
1940.[74][75] He later renamed it the Self Contained Underwater Breathing
Apparatus, which, contracted to SCUBA, eventually became the generic term
for both open circuit and rebreather autonomous underwater breathing
equipment. Lambertson demonstrated the apparatus to the Office of Strategic
Services (OSS)[76] who hired him to lead the program to build up the dive
element of their maritime unit.[76] After World War II, military frogmen
continued to use rebreathers since they do not make bubbles which would
give away the presence of the divers.
Saturation diving
Once saturation is achieved, the amount of time needed for decompression depends on the depth and gases
breathed and is not affected by longer exposure.[77] The first intentional saturation dive was done on 22
December 1938, by Edgar End and Max Nohl who spent 27 hours breathing air at 101 feet (30.8 m) in the
County Emergency Hospital recompression facility in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Their decompression lasted
five hours leaving Nohl with a mild case of decompression sickness that resolved with recompression.[78]
Albert R. Behnke proposed exposing divers to raised ambient pressures long enough for the tissues to
saturate with inert gases in 1942.[79][80] In 1957, George F. Bond began the Genesis project at the Naval
Submarine Medical Research Laboratory proving that humans could withstand prolonged exposure to
different breathing gases and increased environmental pressures.[79][81] This was the beginning of
saturation diving and the United States Navy's Man-in-the-Sea Program.[77]
The first commercial saturation dives were performed in 1965 by Westinghouse to replace faulty trash racks
at 200 feet (61 m) on the Smith Mountain Dam.[78]
Peter B. Bennett is credited with the invention of trimix breathing gas as a method to eliminate high
pressure nervous syndrome. In 1981, at the Duke University Medical Center, Bennett conducted an
experiment called Atlantis III, which involved taking divers to a depth of 2,250 feet (690 m), and slowly
decompressing them to the surface over a period of 31-plus days, setting an early world record for depth in
the process.[82]
After a pioneering period of offshore commercial saturation diving in the oil and gas production industry, in
which a number of fatal accidents occurred, the technology and procedures of saturation diving have
matured to the point where accidents are rare, and fatal accidents very rare. This has been the result of
systematic investigation of accidents, analysis of the causes, and applying the results to improving the risks,
often at considerable expense, by improving both procedures and equipment to remove single points of
failure and opportunities for user error. The improvements in safety have been driven in part by national
health and safety legislation, but also to a large extent have been industry driven through membership of
organisations like IMCA.
Early designs
Lodner D. Phillips designed the first wholly enclosed ADS in 1856. His design comprised a barrel-shaped
upper torso with domed ends and included ball and socket joints in the articulated arms and legs. The arms
had joints at shoulder and elbow, and the legs at knee and hip. The suit included a ballast tank, a viewing
port, an entrance through a manhole cover on top, a hand-cranked propeller, and rudimentary manipulators
at the ends of the arms. Air was to be supplied from the surface via a hose. There is no indication, however,
Phillips' suit was ever constructed.[86]
The first properly anthropomorphic design of ADS, built by the Carmagnolle brothers of Marseilles, France
in 1882, featured rolling convolute joints consisting of partial sections of concentric spheres formed to
create a close fit and kept watertight with a waterproof cloth. The suit had 22 of these joints: four in each
leg, six per arm, and two in the body of the suit. The helmet possessed 25 individual 2-inch (50 mm) glass
viewing ports spaced at the average distance of the human eyes.[83] Weighing 830 pounds (380 kg), the
Carmagnole ADS never worked properly and its joints never were entirely waterproof. It is now on display
at the French National Navy Museum in Paris.[84]
Another design was patented in 1894 by inventors John Buchanan and Alexander Gordon from
Melbourne], Australia. The construction was based on a frame of spiral wires covered with waterproof
material. The design was improved by Alexander Gordon by attaching the suit to the helmet and other parts
and incorporating jointed radius rods in the limbs. This resulted in a flexible suit that could withstand high
pressure. The suit was manufactured by British firm Siebe Gorman and trialed in Scotland in 1898.
American designer MacDuffy constructed the first suit to use ball bearings
to provide joint movement in 1914; it was tested in New York to a depth of
214 feet (65 m), but was not very successful. A year later, Harry L.
Bowdoin of Bayonne, New Jersey, made an improved ADS with oil-filled
rotary joints. The joints use a small duct to the interior of the joint to allow
equalization of pressure. The suit was designed to have four joints in each
arm and leg, and one joint in each thumb, for a total of eighteen. Four
viewing ports and a chest-mounted lamp were intended to assist
underwater vision. Unfortunately, there is no evidence that Bowdoin's suit
was ever built or that it would have worked if it had been.[86]
Atmospheric diving suits built by German firm Neufeldt and Kuhnke were
used during the salvage of gold and silver bullion from the wreck of the
British ship SS Egypt, an 8,000-ton P&O liner that sank in May 1922. The
ADS, built by Carmagnolle suit was relegated to duties as an observation chamber at the wreck's
brothers in 1882, was the depth, and was successfully used to direct mechanical grabs which opened
first anthropomorphic up the bullion storage. In 1917, Benjamin F. Leavitt of Traverse City,
design. Michigan, dived on SS Pewabic which sank to a depth of 182 feet (55 m)
in Lake Huron in 1865, salvaging 350 tons of copper ore. In 1923, he
went on to salvage the wreck of the British schooner Cape Horn which
lay in 220 feet (67 m) of water off Pichidangui, Chile, salvaging $600,000 worth of copper. Leavitt's suit
was of his own design and construction. The most innovative aspect of Leavitt's suit was the fact that it was
completely self-contained and needed no umbilical, the breathing mixture being supplied from a tank
mounted on the back of the suit. The breathing apparatus incorporated a scrubber and an oxygen regulator
and could last for up to a full hour.[87]
In 1924, the Reichsmarine tested the second generation of the Neufeldt and Kuhnke suit to 530 feet
(160 m), but limb movement was very difficult and the joints were judged not to be fail-safe, in that if they
were to fail, there was a possibility that the suit's integrity would be violated. However, these suits were
used by the Germans as armored divers during World War II and were later taken by the Western Allies
after the war.
In 1952, Alfred A. Mikalow constructed an ADS employing ball and socket joints, specifically for the
purpose of locating and salvaging sunken treasure. The suit was reportedly capable of diving to depths of
1,000 feet (300 m) and was used successfully to dive on the sunken vessel SS City of Rio de Janeiro in 328
feet (100 m) of water near Fort Point, San Francisco. Mikalow's suit had various interchangeable
instruments which could be mounted on the end of the arms in place of the usual manipulators. It carried
seven 90-cubic foot high-pressure cylinders to provide breathing gas and control buoyancy. The ballast
compartment covered the gas cylinders. For communication, the suit used hydrophones.[88]
Peress' Tritonia
Although various atmospheric suits had been developed during the Victorian era, none of these suits had
been able to overcome the basic design problem of constructing a joint that would remain flexible and
watertight at depth without seizing up under pressure.
Pioneering British diving engineer, Joseph Salim Peress, invented the first truly usable atmospheric diving
suit, the Tritonia, in 1932 and was later involved in the construction of the famous JIM suit. Having a
natural talent for engineering design, he challenged himself to construct an ADS that would keep divers dry
and at atmospheric pressure, even at great depth. In 1918, Peress began working for WG Tarrant at Byfleet,
United Kingdom, where he was given the space and tools to develop his ideas about constructing an ADS.
His first attempt was an immensely complex prototype machined from solid stainless steel.
In 1923, Peress was asked to design a suit for salvage work on the
wreck of SS Egypt which had sunk in the English Channel. He
declined, on the grounds that his prototype suit was too heavy for a
diver to handle easily, but was encouraged by the request to begin
work on a new suit using lighter materials. By 1929 he believed he
had solved the weight problem, by using cast magnesium instead
of steel, and had also managed to improve the design of the suit's
joints by using a trapped cushion of oil to keep the surfaces
Two divers, one wearing the moving smoothly. The oil, which was virtually non-compressible
"Tritonia" ADS and the other and readily displaceable, would allow the limb joints to move
standard diving dress, preparing to freely at depths of 200 fathoms (1,200 ft; 370 m), where the
explore the wreck of RMS Lusitania, pressure was 520 psi (35 atm). Peress claimed that the Tritonia suit
1935. could function at 1,200 ft (370 m) although this was never
proven.[89]
In 1930, Peress revealed the Tritonia suit.[90] By May it had completed trials and was publicly
demonstrated in a tank at Byfleet. In September Peress' assistant Jim Jarret dived in the suit to a depth of
123 m (404 ft) in Loch Ness. The suit performed perfectly, the joints proving resistant to pressure and
moving freely even at depth. The suit was offered to the Royal Navy which turned it down, stating that
Navy divers never needed to descend below 90 m (300 ft). In October 1935, Jarret made a successful deep
dive to more than 90 m (300 ft) on the wreck of RMS Lusitania off south Ireland, followed by a shallower
dive to 60 metres (200 ft) in the English Channel in 1937 after which, due to lack of interest, the Tritonia
suit was retired.
The development in atmospheric pressure suits stagnated in the 1940s through 1960s, as efforts were
concentrated on solving the problems of deep diving by dealing with the physiological problems of ambient
pressure diving instead of avoiding them by isolating the diver from the pressure. Although the advances in
ambient pressure diving (in particular, with scuba gear) were significant, the limitations brought renewed
interest to the development of the ADS in the late 1960s.[89]
The Tritonia suit spent about 30 years in an engineering company's warehouse in Glasgow, where it was
discovered, with Peress' help, by two partners in the British firm Underwater Marine Equipment, Mike
Humphrey and Mike Borrow, in the mid-1960s.[89][91][92] UMEL would later classify Peress' suit as the
"A.D.S Type I", a designation system that would be continued by the company for later models. In 1969,
Peress was asked to become a consultant to the new company created to develop the JIM suit, named in
honour of the diver Jim Jarret.[93]
The Tritonia suit was upgraded into the first JIM suit, completed in November 1971. This suit underwent
trials aboard HMS Reclaim in early 1972, and in 1976, the JIM suit set a record for the longest working
dive below 490 feet (150 m), lasting five hours and 59 minutes at a depth of 905 feet (276 m).[94][85] The
first JIM suits were constructed from cast magnesium for its high strength-to-weight ratio and weighed
approximately 1,100 pounds (500 kg) in air including the diver. They were 6 feet 6 inches (2.0 m) in height
and had a maximum operating depth of 1,500 feet (460 m). The suit had a positive buoyancy of 15 to 50
pounds (6.8 to 22.7 kg). Ballast was attached to the suit's front and could be jettisoned from within,
allowing the operator to ascend to the surface at approximately 100 feet (30 m) per minute.[95] The suit also
incorporated a communication link and a jettisonable umbilical connection. The original JIM suit had eight
annular oil-supported universal joints, one in each shoulder and lower arm, and one at each hip and knee.
The JIM operator received air through an oral/nasal mask that attached to a lung-powered scrubber that had
a life-support duration of approximately 72 hours.[96] Operations in arctic conditions with water
temperatures of -1.7°C for over five hours were successfully
carried out using woolen thermal protection and neoprene boots. In
30°C water, the suit was reported to be uncomfortably hot during
heavy work.[97]
Later developments
In addition to upgrades to the JIM design, other variations of the original suit were constructed. The first,
named the SAM Suit (Designated A.D.S III), was a completely aluminium model. A smaller and lighter
suit, it was more anthropomorphic than the original JIMs and was depth-rated to 1,000 feet (300 m).
Attempts were made to limit corrosion by the use of a chromic anodizing coating applied to the arm and leg
joints, which gave them an unusual green color. The SAM suit stood at 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) in height,
and had a life-support duration of 20 hours. Only three SAM suits would be produced by UMEL before
the design was shelved. The second, named the JAM suit (Designated A.D.S IV), was constructed of GRP
and was depth-rated for around 2,000 feet (610 m).[98]
The ADS 2000 was developed jointly with OceanWorks International and
the US Navy in 1997,[101] as an evolution of the Newtsuit to meet US
Navy requirements. The ADS2000 provides increased depth capability for US Navy ADS 2000 on
the US Navy's Submarine Rescue Program. Manufactured from forged launch and recovery
T6061 aluminum alloy it uses an advanced articulating joint design based platform after a certification
on the Newtsuit joints. Capable of operating in up to 2,000 feet (610 m) of dive in August 2006.
seawater for a normal mission of up to six hours it has a self-contained,
automatic life support system.[102] Additionally, the integrated dual
thruster system allows the pilot to navigate easily underwater. It became fully operational and certified by
the US Navy off southern California on 1 August 2006, when a diver submerged to 2,000 feet
(610 m).[103]
Physiological discoveries
A change in pressure may have an immediate effect on
the ears and sinuses, causing pain and leading to
congestion, edema, hemorrhaging, and temporary to
permanent hearing impairment. These effects have been
familiar to breath-hold divers since antiquity and are
avoided by equalisation techniques. Reduction of
ambient pressure during ascent can cause overpressure
injury to internal gas spaces if not allowed to freely
equalise. Health effects in divers include damage to the
joints and bones similar to symptoms attributed to
caisson disease in compressed air workers, which was
found to be caused by too rapid a decompression to
This painting, An Experiment on a Bird in the Air
atmospheric pressure after long exposure to a
Pump by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1768, depicts
pressurised environment[104]
an experiment performed by Robert Boyle in
1660.
When a diver descends in the water column, the
ambient pressure rises. Breathing gas is supplied at the
same pressure as the surrounding water, and some of
this gas dissolves into the diver's blood and other tissues. Inert gas continues to be taken up until the gas
dissolved in the diver is in a state of equilibrium with the breathing gas in the diver's lungs, (see: "saturation
diving"), or the diver moves up in the water column and reduces the ambient pressure of the breathing gas
until the inert gases dissolved in the tissues are at a higher concentration than the equilibrium state, and start
diffusing out again. Dissolved inert gases such as nitrogen or helium can form bubbles in the blood and
tissues of the diver if the partial pressures of the dissolved gases in the diver gets too high when compared
to the ambient pressure. These bubbles, and products of injury caused by the bubbles, can cause damage to
tissues known as decompression sickness or the bends. The immediate goal of controlled decompression is
to avoid development of symptoms of bubble formation in the tissues of the diver, and the long-term goal is
to also avoid complications due to sub-clinical decompression injury.
The symptoms of decompression sickness are known to be caused by damage resulting from the formation
and growth of bubbles of inert gas within the tissues and by blockage of arterial blood supply to tissues by
gas bubbles and other emboli consequential to bubble formation and tissue damage. The precise
mechanisms of bubble formation and the damage they cause have been the subject of medical research for a
considerable time and several hypotheses have been advanced and tested. Tables and algorithms for
predicting the outcome of decompression schedules for specified hyperbaric exposures have been
proposed, tested, and used, and usually found to be of some use but not entirely reliable. Decompression
remains a procedure with some risk, but this has been reduced and is generally considered to be acceptable
for dives within the well-tested range of commercial, military and recreational diving.
The first recorded experimental work related to decompression was conducted by Robert Boyle, who
subjected experimental animals to reduced ambient pressure by use of a primitive vacuum pump. In the
earliest experiments, the subjects died from asphyxiation, but in later experiments, signs of what was later to
become known as decompression sickness were observed. Later, when technological advances allowed the
use of pressurisation of mines and caissons to exclude water ingress, miners were observed to present
symptoms of what would become known as caisson disease, the bends, and decompression sickness. Once
it was recognized that the symptoms were caused by gas bubbles and that recompression could relieve the
symptoms, further work showed that it was possible to avoid symptoms by slow decompression, and
subsequently, various theoretical models have been derived to predict low-risk decompression profiles and
treatment of decompression sickness.
By the late 19th century, as salvage operations became deeper and longer, an unexplained malady began
afflicting the divers; they would suffer breathing difficulties, dizziness, joint pain, and paralysis, sometimes
leading to death. The problem was already well known among workers building tunnels and bridge
footings operating under pressure in caissons and was initially called "caisson disease" but later the "bends"
because the joint pain typically caused the sufferer to stoop. Early reports of the disease had been made at
the time of Pasley's salvage operation, but scientists were still ignorant of its causes.[105] Early treatment
methods involved returning the diver to pressurised conditions by re-immersion in the water.[104]
Research on decompression was continued by the US Navy. The C&R tables were published in 1915, and
a large number of experimental dives done in the 1930s, which led to the 1937 tables. Surface
decompression and oxygen use were also researched in the 1930s, and the US Navy 1957 tables developed
to deal with problems found in the 1937 tables.[110]
In 1965, Hugh LeMessurier and Brian Hills published their paper, A thermodynamic approach arising from
a study on Torres Strait diving techniques, which suggested that decompression by conventional models
results in bubble formation which is then eliminated by re-dissolving at the decompression stops which is
slower than off-gassing while still in solution. This indicates the importance of minimizing bubble phase for
efficient gas elimination.[111][112]
M.P. Spencer showed that doppler ultrasonic methods can detect venous bubbles in asymptomatic
divers,[113] and Andrew Pilmanis showed that safety stops reduced bubble formation.[110] In 1981 D.E.
Yount described the Varying Permeability Model, proposing a mechanism of bubble formation.[114] Several
other bubble models followed.[110][115][116]
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