SIENA COLLEGE OF TIGAON

SED DPEARTMENT
Tigaon, Camarines Sur
School Year 2021-2022/ First Semester

THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
 The Learner is the center of instruction.
 The world of instruction revolves around the learner

These principles are the main reasons why every teacher needs to understand the pattern,
characteristics and other complex processes involved in human development. It is a must that
teachers knows the principles underlying the development of learners;

Learner-Centered Principles

Cognitive and Motivational and

metacognitive affective factors
Factors(6 principles)
(3 Principles)

14 Learner-Centered
principles

(LCP)
Developmental and Individual
Social Factors(2 Difference Factors
Principles) (3 principles)

The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning process*.
They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner
rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to
acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors. The
principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world learning situations.
Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in
isolation.
The 14 principles are divided into those referring to cognitive and metacognitive, motivational
and affective, developmental and social, and individual difference factors influencing learners and
learning. Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners -- from children, to teachers, to
administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational system.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective
when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience. There are
different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor learning; and learning that
involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning strategies. Learning in schools
emphasizes the use of intentional processes that students can use to construct meaning from
information, experiences, and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active, goal-
directed, self-regulating, and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning. The
principles set forth in this document focus on this type of learning.
2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. The strategic
nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To construct useful representations of
knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for continued learning success
across the life span, students must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students'
short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be
refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject
matter so that they can reach longer-term goals. Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful
learning goals that are consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways. Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links
between new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links
can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills.
How these links are made or develop may vary in different subject areas, and among students with
varying talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the
learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used
most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations. Educators can assist
learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have been shown to be
effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organization or
categorizing.
4. Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Successful learners use strategic thinking in their
approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a
variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in
novel situations. They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the
methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by
observing or interacting with appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators
assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.
5. Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking. Successful learners can reflect on how they think and
learn, set reasonable learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or
methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals. In addition, successful learners know what to
do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can
generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the
goal). Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order (metacognitive)
strategies can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,
technology, and instructional practices. Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers a major
interactive role with both the learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on
students can impact many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward
learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for
learners' level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies. The
classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also have significant
impacts on student learning.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
. What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is
influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. The
rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure can enhance or
interfere the learner's quality of thinking and information processing. Students' beliefs about themselves
as learners and the nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and
emotional factors also influence both the quality of thinking and information processing as well as an
individual's motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and
facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by
focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety,
panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about
failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere
with learning, and contribute to low performance.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity
all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control. Curiosity, flexible
and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the learners' intrinsic motivation to learn,
which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal
control. Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally
relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on which
they believe they can succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to
real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control. Educators can encourage and support
learners' natural curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners'
perceptions of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended
learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this
effort is unlikely without coercion. Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The
acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators need to be concerned with facilitating
motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high
standards of comprehension and understanding. Effective strategies include purposeful learning
activities, guided by practices that enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and
methods that increase learners' perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities
and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account. Individuals learn best when
material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting
way. Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains,
achievement in different instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one type of
developmental readiness--such as reading readiness, for example--may preclude learners from
demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional, and
social development of individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior
schooling, home, culture, and community factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in
schooling, and the quality of language interactions and two-way communications between adults and
children can influence these developmental areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental
differences among children with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can
facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.
11. Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others. Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an
opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow
for social interactions, and that respect This historical document is derived from a 1990 APA presidential
task force (revised in 1997). diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social competence. In interactive
and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and
reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as
self-esteem. Quality personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase learners'
sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning. Family
influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset factors
that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about competence in a particular subject,
high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and undue pressure to perform well. Positive
learning climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and
behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning
process, and create a learning community.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities
for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. Individuals are born with and develop
their own capabilities and talents. In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have
acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However,
these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals. Educators need to
help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary. The
interaction between learner differences and curricular and environmental conditions is another key
factor affecting learning outcomes. Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general.
They also need to attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accepted
and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.
3. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account. The same basic principles of learning,
motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs,
and socioeconomic status all can influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the
instructional setting enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning
environments. When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds,
cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts,
levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.
14. Standards and assessment.
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning
progress -- including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment -- are integral parts of the learning
process. Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards
appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as
well as current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of instructional materials of an
optimal degree of difficulty. Ongoing assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular
material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the
learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes assessment provides one
type of information about achievement levels both within and across individuals that can inform various
types of programmatic decisions. Performance assessments
MODULE 1.2 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT; MEANING, CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES
 Human Development- is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues
through the lifespan. Development includes growth and decline.

Some major principles of Human Development:

1. Development is relatively orderly. You will learn how to sit and crawl before you can run. The
muscular control of the trunks and arms comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers. This is the
PROXIMODISTAL pattern. During infancy, the greatest growth always occurs at the top- the head- with
physical growth in size, weight and future differentiation gradually working on its way down from top to
bottom. This is CEPHALOCAUDAL pattern.
2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of developmental
processes and the rate of development are likely to be vary among individuals.
3. Development takes place gradually.
4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and
socio-emotional process. Biological process involves changes in the individual’s physical nature.
Cognitive process involves changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence and language. Socio-
emotional process includes changes individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions
and changes in personality.
Two approaches to human development:
1. Traditional- If you believe that extensive change will show from birth to adolescence, little or
no change in adulthood and decline in late old age.
2. Life span development- In contrast, if you believe that even in adulthood developmental
change takes place as it does during childhood.
Characteristics of Life-span development by PAUL BALTES
1. Development is lifelong.
2. Development is multi-dimensional.
3. Development is plastic.
4. Development is contextual.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation.
 MODULE 2
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Stages of Human Development

 Prenatal Development
 Infancy (from birth to 3 yrs )
 Early Childhood (3 – 5 years)
 Middle and late Childhood (6-12 years)
 Adolescence (13 to 18 years)
 Early Adulthood (19-29 years)
 Middle Adulthood (30-60 years)
 Late Adulthood 61 years and above)
Developmental Tasks
. A developmental task is a task that arises at or about a certain period in life,
unsuccessfulachievement of which leads to inability to perform tasks associated with the next period
or stage in life. any of the fundamental physical, social, intellectual, and emotional achievements and
abilities that must be acquired at each stage of life for normal and healthy development. Because
development is largely cumulative, the inability to master developmental tasks at one stage is likely
to inhibit development in later stages
Robert J. Havighurst was a psychologist in the 20th century who developed a theory on how
people develop through life. Let's look closer at Havighurst's theory of development: the stages of
life and the sources of developmental tasks.
 DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES
Theories of Child Development
 Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory.
 Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory.
 Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory
 Bandura's Social Learning Theory.

Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory.

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories
of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's
theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development.
Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory described the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships
played a role in the development and growth of human beings.
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following
periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a
turning point in development
If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological
strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives, If they fail to deal effectively with these
conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self.

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year of
age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is
based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything
they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide
adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in
their life.
Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world.2 Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children
under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.

During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers
provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.No child is going to develop a
sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking
a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson
described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.
Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated the
importance of trust in forming healthy attachments during childhood and adulthood.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood
and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
The Role of Independence
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By
allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense
of autonomy.
Potty Training
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children
develop this sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's
reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily
functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include
gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.
Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of
personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy;
failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Finding Balance
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are
left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between
autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with
intention, within reason and limits.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point in
psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through
directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin
asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego
quality known as purpose emerges. This Is How Children Develop a Sense of Initiative.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to
11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of
competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known
as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an
essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and
development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity.
Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense
of self.
 During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.2 Those who
receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this
stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of
their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

What Is Identity?
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that
help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which
Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a
particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that
we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion
stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information
we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on
challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.
Why Identity Is Important
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures through
our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and
it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong
relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early
adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure.
Building On Earlier Stages
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong
sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have
demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are
more likely to struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to
form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a
positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment,
while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are
successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their
home and community.2 Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the
world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your
life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.2 At this
point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with
the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.
Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the
entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment.
Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back on
a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of
peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without
accomplishing the things they feel they should have.
Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may
experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing
this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals
will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory.

Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for treating
mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior.
Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during five psychosexual
stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. During each stage sexual energy
(libido) is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body.
These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of libido (roughly
translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. As a person grows physically
certain areas of their body become important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous zones),
pleasure or both.
Freud (1905) believed that life was built round tension and pleasure. Freud also believed that all
tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its discharge.
In describing human personality development as psychosexual Freud meant to convey that what
develops is the way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and is discharged as we mature
biologically. (NB Freud used the term 'sexual' in a very general way to mean all pleasurable actions and
thoughts).
Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult personality. The id
must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between frustrated wishes
and social norms.
The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control and direct the need for gratification
into socially acceptable channels. Gratification centers in different areas of the body at different stages
of growth, making the conflict at each stage psychosexual.

The Role of Conflict

Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved before
the individual can successfully advance to the next stage.The resolution of each of these conflicts
requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more energy that is expended at a particular stage,
the more the important characteristics of that stage remain with the individual as he/she matures
psychologically.
To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As the troops advance,
they are met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in winning the battle (resolving the
conflict), then most of the troops (libido) will be able to move on to the next battle (stage).
But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater the need for troops to
remain behind to fight and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to the next confrontation.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

You can remember the order of these stages by using the mnemonic: “old (oral) age (anal) pensioners
(phallic) love (latent) grapes (genital).

1. Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of psychosexual development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. During the
oral stages, the baby gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the
libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking,
biting, and breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all
around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in
such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.

2. Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

During the anal stage of psychosexual development the libido becomes focused on the anus, and the
child derives great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their
own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e.,
their ego has developed).
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults
impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with
authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.
 Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates
mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted
with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum's
then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training
regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like giving
things away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is also messy,
disorganized and rebellious.

3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

The phallic stage is the third stage of psychosexual development, spanning the ages of three to six
years, wherein the infant's libido (desire) centers upon their genitalia as the erogenous zone.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic
attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and
the Electra complex (in girls).
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.

Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud's most
controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his
father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This
Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops
sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his
father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away
what he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy
develops castration anxiety.
The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine
dad-type behaviors. This is called identification, and is how the three-to-five year old boy resolves his
Oedipus complex.
Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviors of another person. The
consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values
that become the superego.

Electra Complex
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father,
but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to
be a boy.
The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with
the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates great tension.
The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on
the female gender role.

4. Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

The latency stage is the forth stage of psychosexual development, spanning the period of six years to
puberty. During this stage the libido is dormant and no further psychosexual development takes place
(latent means hidden).
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can
be sublimated towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and
play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

5. Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

The genital stage is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development, and
begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is
settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic
stage.
 For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse.
Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop.
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from
kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation
Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason for this
may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have been
adequately met in which case there is frustration. Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well
satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is
overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what
psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.
Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently
'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory

The Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget is one of the most influential figures in the study of child
development. He developed his cognitive-developmental theory based on the idea that children actively
construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the world around them. Piaget was interested in
the development of “thinking” and how it relates to development throughout childhood. His theory of
four stages of cognitive development, first presented in the mid-20th century, is one of the most famous
and widely-accepted theories in child cognitive development to this day.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages
of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge,
but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.
Piaget's stages are:
1. Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
2. Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
3. Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 4. Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little
scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact
with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and
adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.
Piaget believed that as children grow and their brains develop, they move through four distinct
stages that are characterized by differences in thought processing. In his research, he carefully observed
children and presented them with problems to solve that were related to object permanence,
reversibility, deductive reasoning, transitivity, and assimilation (described below). Each stage builds
upon knowledge learned in the previous stage. Piaget’s four stages correspond with the age of the
children and are the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.
Sensorimotor Stage
The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2. It is characterized by the idea that infants “think”
by manipulating the world around them. This is done by using all five senses: seeing, hearing, touching,
tasting, and smelling. Children figure out ways to elicit responses by “doing”, such as pulling a lever on a
music box to hear a sound, placing a block in a bucket and pulling it back out, or throwing an object to
see what happens. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object permanence, which is the
understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000).
For example, a child learns that even though his mother leaves the room, she has not ceased to exist;
similarly, a ball does not disappear because a bucket is placed over it.
By the end of this stage, children are able to engage in what Piaget termed deferred imitation. This
involves the ability to reproduce or repeat a previously-witnessed action later on; rather than copying it
right away, the child is able to produce a mental representation of it and repeat the behavior later on.
By 24 months, infants are able to imitate behaviors after a delay of up to three months.

Preoperational Stage
The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to age 7. During this stage, children can use symbols to
represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child’s
arms might become airplane wings as she zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become
a brave knight with a sword. Language development and make-believe play begin during this stage.
Logical thinking is still not present, so children cannot rationalize or understand more complex ideas.
Children at this stage are very egocentric, meaning they focus on themselves and how actions will
impact them, rather than others. They are not able to take on the perspective of others, and they think
that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just like they do.

Concrete Operational Stage

The concrete operational stage occurs from age 7 to age 11. It is characterized by the idea that
children’s reasoning becomes focused and logical. Children demonstrate a logical understanding of
conservation principles, the ability to recognize that key properties of a substance do not change even
as their physical appearance may be altered. For example, a child who understands the principles of
conservation will recognize that identical quantities of liquid will remain the same despite the size of the
container in which they are poured. Children who do not yet grasp conservation and logical thinking will
believe that the taller or larger glass must contain more liquid.
Formal Operational
The formal operational stage occurs from age 11 to adulthood. It is characterized by the idea that
children develop the ability to think in abstract ways. This enables children to engage in the problem-
solving method of developing a hypothesis and reasoning their way to plausible solutions. Children can
think of abstract concepts and have the ability to combine various ideas to create new ones. By the end
of this stage, children have developed logical and systematic thinking, are capable of deductive
reasoning, and can create hypothetical ideas to explain various concepts.

Piaget's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

Piaget's (1936, 1950) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental
model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive
development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the
environment.
Children’s ability to understand, think about and solve problems in the world develops in a stop-
start, discontinuous manner (rather than gradual changes over time).
The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the
child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.
 To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a
result of biological maturation and environmental experience.
Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies
between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schemas
Piaget claimed that knowledge cannot simply emerge from sensory experience; some initial
structure is necessary to make sense of the world.According to Piaget, children are born with a very
basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and
knowledge are based.

Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a mental
representation of the world.Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as: "a cohesive, repeatable action
sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core
meaning."In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent
behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of
knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e.,
theoretical) concepts.

Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as 'index cards'
filed inthe brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information.
When Piaget talked about the development of a person's mental processes, he was referring to
increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned.
When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to
be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e., mental) balance.

The Process of Adaptation

Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation
(adjustment) to the world. This happens through assimilation, accommodation, and
equilibration.

Assimilation
Piaget defined assimilation as the cognitive process of fitting new information into existing
cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding. Overall beliefs and understanding of the world do
not change as a result of the new information.
This means that when you are faced with new information, you make sense of this information by
referring to information you already have (information processed and learned previously) and try to fit
the new information into the information you already have.
For example, a 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair
on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” (Siegler et al., 2003).

Accommodation
Psychologist Jean Piaget defined accommodation as the cognitive process of revising existing
cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding so that new information can be incorporated. This
happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with
a new object or situation.
In order to make sense of some new information, you actual adjust information you already
have (schemas you already have, etc.) to make room for this new information.
For example, a child may have a schema for birds (feathers, flying, etc.) and then they see a
plane, which also flies, but would not fit into their bird schema.
In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that
even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly
things to make people laugh.
With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit
better to a standard concept of “clown”.

Equilibration
Piaget believed that all human thought seeks order and is uncomfortable with contradictions and
inconsistencies in knowledge structures. In other words, we seek 'equilibrium' in our cognitive
structures.
 Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through
assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be
fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps
and bounds. Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be
frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).
Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will
continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.

Educational Implications
Piaget (1952) did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later researchers have
explained how features of Piaget's theory can be applied to teaching and learning.
Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching practice. For
example, a review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on Piaget’s
theory. The result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden report (1967).
Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring - was
seen as central to the transformation of the primary school curriculum.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory.

The Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert
Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a
dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The unique feature of
SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social reinforcement.
SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain behavior, while also
considering the social environment in which individuals perform the behavior. The theory takes into
account a person's past experiences, which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. These past
experiences influences reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a
person will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior.

Many theories of behavior used in health promotion do not consider maintenance of behavior, but
rather focus on initiating behavior. This is unfortunate as maintenance of behavior, and not just
initiation of behavior, is the true goal in public health. The goal of SCT is to explain how people
regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can
be maintained over time. The first five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of
self-efficacy was added when the theory evolved into SCT.

Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the dynamic and
reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences), environment (external
social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve goals).
Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior through
essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a person must know what
to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior, which also affects the
environment in which they live.
Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior conducted by
others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through "modeling" of behaviors. If
individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they can also complete the behavior
successfully.
Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's behavior that affect
the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. Reinforcements can be self-initiated or in
the environment, and reinforcements can be positive or negative. This is the construct of SCT that
most closely ties to the reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment.
Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior. Outcome
expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the consequences of their
actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated consequences can influence successful
completion of the behavior. Expectations derive largely from previous experience. While expectancies
also derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the outcome
and are subjective to the individual.
Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to successfully
perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have added this construct at
later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's specific
capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop morality
and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development occurs in a series of six
stages. The theory also suggests that moral logic is primarily focused on seeking and maintaining
justice.
What Is Moral Development?
How do people develop morality? This question has fascinated parents, religious leaders, and
philosophers for ages, but moral development has also become a hot-button issue in psychology and
education. Do parental or societal influences play a greater role in moral development? Do all kids
develop morality in similar ways?
American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg developed one of the best-known theories exploring
some of these basic questions.His work modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous work but
was more centered on explaining how children develop moral reasoning.
How did the two theories differ? Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development.
Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that
occurs throughout the lifespan. His theory outlines six stages of moral development within three
different levels.

Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of moral development,
there are two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed that not all people reach the highest levels of
cognitive development, Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral
development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the age
of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the
consequences for breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment): The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and
punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this
type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute.7
Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.
Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange): At the individualism and exchange stage of moral
development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they
serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the
choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but
only if it serves one's own interests.
Level 2. Conventional Morality
The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding what is
good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they have
learned from their role models and from society.
This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group.
There are two stages at this level of morality:

Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships): Often referred to as the "good boy-good
girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living
up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and
consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order): This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is
maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when
making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty,
and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of
morality. The two stages at this level are:

Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights): The ideas of a social contract and individual rights
cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of
other people.7 Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should
agree upon these standards.
Stage 6 (Universal Principles): Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical
principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice,
even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Vgostsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive
development over the past several decades, particularly of what has become known as sociocultural
theory.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in which
children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative
dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. Vygotsky's theory is comprised of concepts
such as culture-specific tools, private speech, and the Zone of Proximal Development.
Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of
cognition as he believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of "making
meaning." Unlike Piaget's notion that childrens' development must necessarily precede their learning,
Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally
organized, specifically human psychological function" . In other words, social learning tends to
precede (i.e., come before) development.
Bronfenbrenner’ Ecological theory

Bronfenbrenner believed that a person's development was affected by everything in their

surrounding environment. He divided the person's environment into five different levels: the
microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem.
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child's
environment. He states that as a child develops, the interaction within these environments becomes
more complex. This complexity can arise as the child's physical and cognitive structures grow and
mature.
Bronfenbrenner divided the person's environment into five different systems:
1. Microsystem
The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the things that have
direct contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents, siblings, teachers and
school peers.Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning the child can be influenced by
other people in their environment and is also capable of changing the beliefs and actions of other
people too.
Furthermore, the reactions of the child to individuals in their microsystem can influence how they
treat them in return.
The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and are crucial for fostering and
supporting the child’s development.
If a child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said to have a positive effect
on the child. Whereas, distant and unaffectionate parents will have a negative effect on the child.

2. The Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems, such as the
interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or between school peers and siblings.
The mesosystem is where a person's individual microsystems do not function independently, but
are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.
For instance, if a child’s parents communicate with the child’s teachers, this interaction may
influence the child’s development. Essentially, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems.
According to the ecological systems theory, if the child’s parents and teachers get along and have
a good relationship, this should have positive effects on the child’s development, compared to
negative effects on development if the teachers and parents do not get along.

3. The Exosystem
The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner
in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which do not themselves
contain the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of the microsystems.
Examples of exosystems include the neighborhood, parent’s workplaces, parent’s friends and the
mass media. These are environments in which the child is not involved, and are external to their
experience, but nonetheless affects them anyway.
An instance of exosystems affecting the child’s development could be if one of the parents had a
dispute with their boss at work.
 The parent may come home and have a short temper with the child as a result of something which
happened in the workplace, resulting in a negative effect on development.

4. The Macrosystem
The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory that focuses on
how cultural elements affect a child's development, such as socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty,
and ethnicity.Thus, culture that individuals are immersed within may influence their beliefs and
perceptions about events that transpire in life.
The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as is does not refer to the specific
environments of one developing child, but the already established society and culture which the child
is developing in.
This can also include the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic location and ideologies of
the culture.
For example, a child living in a third world country would experience a different development
than a child living in a wealthier country.

5. The Chronosystem
The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is known as the
chronosystem.This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the lifetime
which influence development, including major life transitions, and historical events.
These can include normal life transitions such as starting school but can also include non-
normative life transitions such as parents getting a divorce or having to move to a new house.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT VARIOUS STAGES

1. Pre-natal Period
The prenatal period is also considered an important part of the developmental process. Prenatal
development is a time of remarkable change that helps set the stage for future psychological
development. The brain develops over the course of the prenatal period, but it will continue to go
through more changes during the early years of childhood
The process of prenatal development occurs in three main stages. The first two weeks after
conception are known as the germinal stage, the third through the eighth week is known as the
embryonic period, and the time from the ninth week until birth is known as the fetal period.
Germinal Stage
The germinal stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell unite in one of the two
fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote. Just a few hours after conception, the single-celled
zygote begins making a journey down the fallopian tube to the uterus.Cell division begins
approximately 24 to 36 hours after conception. Through the process of mitosis, the zygote first divides
into two cells, then into four, eight, sixteen, and so on. A significant number of zygotes never progress
past this early part of cell division, with as many as half of all zygotes surviving less than two weeks.
Once the eight-cell point has been reached, the cells begin to differentiate and take on certain
characteristics that will determine the type of cells they will eventually become. As the cells multiply,
 they will also separate into two distinctive masses: the outer cells will eventually become the placenta,
while the inner cells form the embryo.
Cell division continues at a rapid rate during the approximately week-long journey from fallopian
tube to uterus wall. The cells develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of
three layers, each of which develops into different structures in the body.
Ectoderm: Skin and nervous system
Endoderm: Digestive and respiratory systems
Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal systems
Finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known as
implantation. Implantation occurs when the cells nestle into the uterine lining and rupture tiny blood
vessels. The connective web of blood vessels and membranes that form between them will provide
nourishment for the developing being for the next nine months. Implantation is not always an
automatic and sure-fire process.

Embryonic Stage
At this point, the mass of cells is now known as an embryo. The beginning of the third week after
conception marks the start of the embryonic period, a time when the mass of cells becomes distinct as
a human. The embryonic stage plays an important role in the development of the brain.
Approximately four weeks after conception, the neural tube forms. This tube will later develop into
the central nervous system including the spinal cord and brain. The neural tube begins to form along
with an area known as the neural plate. The earliest signs of development of the neural tube are the
emergence of two ridges that form along each side of the neural plate.
Over the next few days, more ridges form and fold inward until a hollow tube is formed. Once this
tube is fully formed, cells begin to form near the center.3 The tube begins to close and brain vesicles
form. These vesicles will eventually develop into parts of the brain, including the structures of the
forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
Around the fourth week, the head begins to form, quickly followed by the eyes, nose, ears, and
mouth. The blood vessel that will become the heart start to pulse. During the fifth week, buds that will
form the arms and legs appear.
By the eighth week of development, the embryo has all of the basic organs and parts except those
of the sex organs. At this point, the embryo weighs just one gram and is about one inch in length.
By the end of the embryonic period, the basic structures of the brain and central nervous system
have been established. At this point, the basic structure of the peripheral nervous system is also
defined.
The production of neurons, or brain cells, begins around day 42 after conception and is mostly
complete sometime around the middle of pregnancy.As neurons form, they migrate to different areas
of the brain. Once they have reached the correct location, they begin to form connections with other
neural cells, establishing rudimentary neural networks.

Fetal Stage
Once cell differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters the next stage and becomes known
as a fetus. The fetal period of prenatal develop marks more important changes in the brain. This period
of development begins during the ninth week and lasts until birth. This stage is marked by amazing
change and growth.
The early body systems and structures established in the embryonic stage continue to develop. The
neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord and neurons continue to form. Once these neurons
have formed, they begin to migrate to their correct locations. Synapses, or the connections between
neurons, also begin to develop.Between the ninth and twelfth week of gestation (at the earliest),
reflexes begin to emerge. The fetus begins to make reflexive motions with its arms and legs.4
During the third month of gestation, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the end of the month, all
parts of the body will be formed. At this point, the fetus weighs around three ounces. The fetus
continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs in
the later stages of pregnancy.
The end of the third month also marks the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. During the
second trimester, or months four through six, the heartbeat grows stronger and other body systems
become further developed. Fingernails, hair, eyelashes, and toenails form.5 Perhaps most noticeably,
the fetus increases about six times in size.
INFANCY TO TODDLERHOOD

As children grow from infants to toddlers, they undergo several major rapid developmental
changes that support their increasing independence. First, during this period a child moves from
crawling to walking and running. This newfound mobility allows children to explore with increasing
curiosity. The child now “gets into everything” and child-proofing the environment becomes a must. It
can be challenging to both support their growing curiosity and also monitor their safety, with discipline
 struggles emerging as well. Second, children’s sense of self is also developing, along with their likes and
dislikes. Perhaps one of the most significant milestones is children’s ability to use words to
communicate their wants and needs. These budding language skills impact the parent-child
relationship in new and important ways because children can now communicate their wants and
needs using simple words like yes, no, and want. While children are experiencing major developmental
milestones, those attending an early care and education setting may also be moving from an infant to a
toddler classroom. It is important to maintain continuity to the extent possible during this transition.
When the same caregiver isn’t able to follow children from an infant room to a toddler room, ensuring
alignment between caregivers in each setting is important. Planning for this change in advance and
communicating what will happen with families and children helps to ease fears. Helpful transition
activities include inviting children to visit their new classroom with parents or maintaining some similar
routines in the new classroom.

As children grow from infants to toddlers, they undergo several major rapid developmental
changes that support their increasing independence. First, during this period a child moves from
crawling to walking and running. This newfound mobility allows children to explore with increasing
curiosity. Some parents may find their child now “gets into everything” and child-proofing the
environment becomes a must. It can be challenging to both support their growing curiosity and also
monitor their safety, with discipline struggles emerging as well. Second, children’s sense of self is also
developing, along with their likes and dislikes. Perhaps one of the most significant milestones is
children’s ability to use words to communicate their wants and needs. These budding language skills
impact the parent-child relationship in new and important ways because children can now
communicate their wants and needs using simple words like yes, no, and want. While children are
experiencing major developmental milestones, those attending an early care and education setting
may also be moving from an infant to a toddler classroom. It is important to maintain continuity to the
extent possible during this transition. When the same caregiver isn’t able to follow children from an
infant room to a toddler room, ensuring alignment between caregivers in each setting is important.
Planning for this change in advance and communicating what will happen with families and children
helps to ease fears. Helpful transition activities include inviting children to visit their new classroom
with parents or maintaining some similar routines in the new classroom.

Infant & Toddler Cognitive Developmental Milestones

2 months
 Pays attention to faces
 Begins to follow things with eyes and recognize people at a distance
 Begins to act bored (cries, fussy) if activity doesn't change
6 months
 Looks around at things nearby
 Brings things to mouth
 Shows curiosity about things and tries to get things that are out of reach
 Begins to pass things from one hand to another
12 months
 Explores things in different ways like shaking, banging, throwing
 Finds hidden things easily
 Looks at the right picture or thing when it's named
 Copies gestures
 Starts to use things correctly (like drinks from a cup, brushes hair)
 Bangs two things together
 Puts things in a container, takes things out of a container
 Lets things go without help
 Pokes with index (pointer) finger
 Follows simple directions like "pick up the toy"
18 months
 Knows what ordinary things are; for example telephone, brush, spoon
 Points to get the attention of others
 Shows interest in a doll or stuffed animal by pretending to feed
 Points to one body part
 Scribbles on own
 Can follow one-step verbal commands without any gestures; for example, sits when you say
"sit down"
24 months
 Finds things even when hidden under two or three covers
  Begins to sort shapes and colors
 Completes sentences and rhymes in familiar books
 Plays simple make-believe games
 Builds towers of four or more blocks
 Might use one hand more than the other
 Follows two-step directions like, "Pick up your shoes and put them in the closet."
36 months
 Can work toys with buttons, levers, and moving parts
 Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people
 Does puzzles with three or four pieces
 Understands what "two" means
 Copies a circle with a pencil or crayon
 Turns book pages one at a time
 Builds towers of more than six blocks
 Screws and unscrews jar lids or turns door handles

Early Childhood

As a child grows into early childhood, his world will begin to open up. He will become more
independent and will pay extra attention to adults and children outside of the family. He will want to
explore his surroundings and will have lots of questions to ask. His interactions with family and those
around him will help to shape his personality and individual ways of thinking and moving.*

DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES
Children develop at their own paces. These developmental milestones are meant to give you a
general idea of the changes that can be expected in the areas listed below when the child is between
three and five years. Remember - there is a range of development that is considered “typical” for
children

Social and Emotional Development

 Shares toys
 Follows a series of simple directions
 Shows some understanding of right and wrong
 Compares themselves to others
 Develops friendships and interacts with other children
 Engages in pretend play

Physical Development
Three to Four Years
 Runs around obstacles
 Balances on one foot
 Pushes, pulls, and steers toys
 Throws and catches a ball
 Builds a tower of blocks
 Manipulates clay
 Can dress and undress self
Four to Five Years

 Draws crosses and circles

 Walks backwards
 Jumps forwards many times
 Walks up and down stairs
 Somersaults
 Uses safety scissors
 Cuts on line continuously
 Copies squares and crosses
 Prints a few capital letters
 Draws a person
Cognitive Development

 Groups and matches objects

 Organizes materials
 Asks “why” and “how” questions
  Tells their own name and age
 Attends to activities for longer periods of time
 Learns by observing and listening
 Shows awareness of past and present
 Follows a series of two to four directions
 Plays with words
 Points to and names colors
 Understands order and process
 Counts to five
 Is able to tell someone street and town

Speech & Language Development

Three to Four Years
 Talks about activities at school or friends' homes
 Speaks clearly enough that unfamiliar listeners can understand most oftheir speech
 Uses many sentences that have more than four words
 Understands simple questions

Four to Five Years

 Speech is 90-100% intelligible to everyone
 Uses sentences that give lots of detail
 Tells stories that stick to a topic
 Might have some articulation errors
 Can answer simple questions about a story

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (The primary Schoolers) Middle Childhood (6-8 years of age)

Developmental Milestones
Middle childhood brings many changes in a child’s life. By this time, children can dress themselves,
catch a ball more easily using only their hands, and tie their shoes. Having independence from family
becomes more important now. Events such as starting school bring children this age into regular
contact with the larger world. Friendships become more and more important. Physical, social, and
mental skills develop quickly at this time. This is a critical time for children to develop confidence in all
areas of life, such as through friends, schoolwork, and sports.

Here is some information on how children develop during middle childhood:

Emotional/Social Changes
 Show more independence from parents and family.
 Start to think about the future.
 Understand more about his or her place in the world.
 Pay more attention to friendships and teamwork.
 Want to be liked and accepted by friends.
Thinking and Learning
 Show rapid development of mental skills.
 Learn better ways to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings.
 Have less focus on one’s self and more concern for others.

LATE CHILDHOOD (THE Intermediate Learners)

Late childhood is generally defined as ages 9 through 12. Up until this point, most children have
been growing at fairly predictable rates. Now, all bets are off due the often wild fluctuations in physical
development. One preteen can be in a completely different growth phase than another child who is
the exact same age. The disparity in physical development may continue well into adolescence, when
growth patterns even out.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Most young people ages nine to 12 will:
Experience a growth spurt with significant weight gain, muscle growth, and genital maturation (Growth
spurt begins earlier for girls; lasts longer for boys, who end up taller).
Enter puberty, a time when hormones produced in the pituitary gland trigger production of
testosterone in males, estrogen/progesterone in females [This usually begins earlier in girls (nine to
12) than in boys (11 to 14).] During puberty—
— Skin becomes oilier and may develop pimples.
— Sweating increases and youth may have body odor.

— Hair grows under arms and on pubis and, in males, on face and chest.

— Body proportions change [hips widen in females, shoulders broaden in males].

— Joints may ache due to rapid growth.

— In males, genitals mature, scrotum darkens, voice deepens, sperm is produced, and erections,
ejaculation, and wet dreams are more frequent. — In females, genitals mature, breasts develop,
vaginal lubrication increases, and ovulation and menstrual cycle begin.

Masturbate and have fantasies about others and about sexual intimacy.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Most young people ages nine to 12 will:

Move toward independence as they progress to middle/junior high school

Continue developing skills in making decisions as they become more independent
Begin to consider future careers and occupations
Shift their school focus from play-centered activities to academics
Begin to look to peers and media for information and advice (friends greatly influence them.)
Develop increasing capability for social conscience and for abstract thought, including understanding
complex issues such as poverty and war
Take on increased responsibility, such as family jobs and babysitting
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Most young people ages nine to 12 will:

Want to blend in and not stand out from their peers in any way, particularly as to gender roles and
sexuality
Feel concern about outward appearance
Become self-conscious and self-centered
Have ambivalent, conflicting feelings about puberty and sexual desire
Care greatly about relationships with peers, friendships, dating and crushes, and give peers more
importance than family
Relate to both same-gender and different-gender peers; may develop sexual feelings for others as a
new dimension within relationships
Develop the capacity to understand the components of a caring, loving relationship
Experience feelings of insecurity and begin to doubt self-concept and previous self-confidence. Often
experience a significant drop in self-esteem.
Struggle with family relationships and desire privacy and separation from family (They test limits and
push for independence.)
Experience mood swings, especially evident in family relationships
Develop romantic feelings and may begin dating
SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Most young people ages nine to 12 will:

Have an emerging sense of self as a young adult

Feel conscious of their sexuality and how they express it
Understand jokes with sexual content
Feel concerns about being normal, such as whether it is normal to masturbate, have wet dreams, etc.
Feel anxious about puberty, when it will happen, how it will occur, how to be prepared, etc.
Feel shy about asking questions of caregivers, especially regarding sexuality, and may act like they
already know all the answers
Value privacy highly

Adolescence: Second Growth Spurt

A second and final brain growth spurt occurs during adolescence, making this another optimal
period for learning. It is a crucial time when young people are especially sensitive to their experiences.
To successfully transition into adulthood, young people need more insight into what they are
experiencing; they also need relevant educational opportunities, meaningful work, and caring adult
interaction and guidance.
 During adolescence, the brain is more plastic and so more easily shaped by experiences than at
other times in our lives. Also, brain circuits that are no longer used are eliminated, so it appears to be
the best chance in life to learn new skills and develop lifelong habits. Of course, learning new skills and
developing old ones is possible throughout our lives, but this becomes more difficult in adulthood.

During adolescence the prefrontal cortex, responsible for self-control, judgment, organization,
planning and emotional control undergoes the most change. Unsurprisingly, as it gradually matures,
young people tend to find these skills difficult to manage.

During adolescence, young people experience many changes as they transition from childhood into
young adulthood. These changes include physical, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional-social
development. Public health professionals who work with adolescents need substantive information
about the trajectory of young people's lives during all phases of adolescent development. Researchers
suggest adolescence undergo three primary developmental stages of adolescence and young
adulthood --early adolescence, middle adolescence, and late adolescence/young adulthood.

Stages of Adolescent Development

Early Adolescence (Ages 10-14)

Early Adolescence occurs between ages 10-14. During this developmental period, adolescents
experience the beginning stages of puberty. Both sexes experience significant physical growth and
increased sexual interest. Cognitively, adolescents in this stage have a limited capacity for abstract
thought but intellectual interests expand and become more important. Although adolescents in this
stage have limited interest in the future, they develop deeper moral thinking during the early
adolescence stage.

Middle Adolescence (Ages 15-17)

During the middle adolescence stage, puberty is completed for males and females. Physical growth
slows for females but continues for males. Adolescents in this stage continue to experience a growing
capacity for abstract thought. During this stage, adolescents begin to set long-term goals and become
interested in the meaning of life and moral reasoning. Adolescents in this stage of development
experience numerous social and emotional changes including increased self-involvement and an
increased drive for independece.

Late Adolescence/Young Adulthood (Ages 18-24)

Adolescents in the late adolescence/young adulthood phase typically experience fewer physical
developments and more cognitive developments. Adolescents gain the ability to think about ideas
rationally, delay gratification, plan for the future, and gain a firm sense of identity. During this last
phase of adolescent development, young people also experience increased emotional stability and
independence.