CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Researchers conducted an exhaustive literature and study search, the

results of which are presented in this chapter. This will also provide a summary of
the state-of-the-art, theoretical, and conceptual foundations upon which the
planned investigation rests.

Local Studies

Corn cob or corn cobs are plants developed explicitly for their large size
and high starch content. The term "corn" refers not to the plants but to their
grains that grow on the cob. In Europe, where the crop originated, corn cobs are
used in many ways, from baking pieces of bread to smoking meats and
vegetables. Locally, corn cobs have been widely accepted and utilized in the
making of Marmalade because of the unique taste it imparts to the Marmalade,
their high fiber content, and its availability.

Marmalade is a jam made from citrus fruits. The most popular

marmalades are made from oranges. Other fruits, such as apples, lemons, and
grapefruits, can also be used to make Marmalade (Nijhuis et al., 1998). Adding
corn cobs to these ingredients makes the Marmalade more nutritious while
imparting a unique taste. In addition, corn cob provides dietary fiber and is an
essential source of carbohydrates in the diet (Mpofu et al., 2014). Marmalade
made from corn cob can be used as a daily diet. Besides, studies have found
that Marmalade made from corn cob has deficient toxicity levels and can be
safely consumed by humans.

Various studies have acknowledged the increased use and acceptability of

corn cobs as an ingredient in making Marmalade in the United States. According
to Lago et al. (2014), corn cobs have been commonly used in making
Marmalade, even though they have been found to have an abysmal utilization
rate as an ingredient in Marmalade because of their lesser availability and low
demand. Ngadze et al. (2017) concur that corn ingredients are increasingly used
in traditionally processing fruit syrups to improve their nutritional content.

Sweet corn cob, an extract of sweet corn processing, is rich in fiber

content and ferulic acid. According to Lau et al. (2021), these ingredients improve
Marmalade's acid content, texture, color, and other physical characteristics.
Besides, Bulent (2006) noted that Marmalade made from sweet corn cob has a
low pH value and is said to give a sulfury flavor and a sour taste. In addition, the
nutritional content of corn cob-added Marmalade is widely reported in different
studies to be low in fat but high in dietary fiber.

In the Philippines, corn is one of the most common crops. It is planted in

almost all provinces and is a staple food in many Filipino households. Corn can
be cooked in many ways and is used in various dishes. One popular way of
cooking corn is by making corn soup. Corn soup is a soup made with corn as the
main ingredient. It is a popular dish in the Philippines and is often served during
the rainy season. Corn soup is usually made with chicken or beef broth, but it can
also be made with vegetable broth. Corn soup can be served with rice or
noodles. Corn soup is a healthy and delicious soup that is easy to make. It is a
great way to use up leftover corn and is a perfect dish for a rainy day.

Marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits
boiled with sugar and water. It can be produced from lemons, limes, oranges,
grapefruits, and sometimes other citrus fruits. Marmalade can be made from
sweet, bitter, or sour oranges. The peel gives the marmalade its characteristic
bitter flavor. The word "marmalade" is derived from the Portuguese word
marmelada, meaning a quince preserve. Quince is a type of citrus fruit, and
marmalade can also be made from quince. Marmalade is typically made by
boiling the fruit peel and juice with sugar and water. The mixture is then boiled
until it thickens and can be preserved in jars. Marmalade can be used as a
spread on toast or bread or as a filling for cakes or pastries. In the Philippines,
marmalade is commonly made from calamansi, a citrus fruit. It is also made from
mango, pineapple, and other fruits. Marmalade can be made at home or bought
in stores. It is also available in supermarkets and online.

Corn

The grain commonly known as "sweet corn" is a grass. Like peas, corn
kernels are the seeds of plants. The white or yellow kernels are found on an
inedible, woody cob. There are thin leaves, or husks, that envelop the cob and
strands of hair-like fibers, or silks, that surround the cob. Only corn is consumed
both as a grain and as a fresh vegetable. Its history as a staple grain in Central
America predates its role as a vegetable by several thousand years. For
example, corn is a major staple crop in the Philippines, as mentioned by
Exconde, R. (2000). Regarding how efficiently it uses farmland, it is second only
to rice. It is an essential crop for the growth of the livestock and manufacturing
industries because it is utilized for human consumption and animal feeds.

Threshing by hand was laborious, there were not enough human

resources, and the process took too long, so farmers began using mechanical
threshers (Bautista, 2003). These tools were once standard fare in rice and
maize fields alike. In 1964, the University of the Philippines, College of
Agriculture at Los Banos, refocused its corn breeding effort on developing high-
yielding varieties, synthetics, and composites. As a result of difficulties with seed
production and marketing, the Philippines' inbred hybrid effort was ultimately
unsuccessful (Cara. figal et al. 1970a). Since then, population improvement of S1
progeny selection and mass selection has been used to generate resistant
varieties or synthetics against Sclerospora philippinensis.

The diversity and nutritional value of this native corn in terms of

phytochemical content and antioxidant activity in the crop have not been studied.
However, native corn is an essential staple for the human diet and animal feed in
the Philippines. Analysis of native corn's diversity based on these antioxidant
characteristics found striking differences. As soil degradation accelerates from
persistent corn mono-cropping, concerns have been raised about the long-term
viability of maize farming methods in the Philippines. In theory, crop rotation with
grain legumes in corn areas should enhance soil quality, reduce the prevalence
of pests and diseases, and boost farmers' revenue.

Corn Cob

Biochars from corn cobs and husks enhanced the fertilizer's effects on
plant growth by improving soil pH, organic matter, phosphorus and potassium
concentrations, and cation exchange capacity. Biochar is a technology that
improves crop growth, development, and production by supplying essential
nutrients. The mixture of biochar from maize cobs and chemical fertilizer yielded
the highest dry matter yield, followed by the mixture from water hyacinths and
biochar from both. The biochar-fertilizer mixture made from rice straw
outperformed the other biochar-fertilizer combinations. These results may
originate from the chemical and physisorption features of biochars and the
significant heterogeneity of their micro- and nanostructures.

For corn, the story of its other uses took shape through the investigation
into corn cobs as a source of potassium, as stated by Daryl Lou A. Battad, Anne
Camille B. Brion, Rita T. Dela Cruz, Diana Rose A. de Leon, Ephraim John J.
Gestupa, Victoriano B. Guam, Patrick Raymund A. Lesaca, and Mara Shyn M.
Vadeabella (2016). There is currently no known application for corn cob other
than domestic cooking fuel. Hence it is typically discarded as waste. Even though
some farmers utilize corn cobs as fertilizer, no studies have demonstrated its
efficacy as a potassium-rich fertilizer (K). As an alternative to conventional
grains, agricultural wastes like corn cobs were used as carriers of mycelia in
spawn production since they were inexpensive and efficient.
Marmalade

According to Mongcal E., Ballesteros D., Dorado R., Patricio, R., Reyes,
E., & Quinto, P. (2020) Marmalade is a jelly-like product obtained by adequately
preparing the juice and peel of citrus fruits with sugar. Its gel structure is
achieved through concentration, making it very similar to jelly in all but the use of
sliced peel. In other words, marmalade is not only jam or butter but a jelly in
which bits of fruit are suspended. Therefore, the principles of manufacturing jelly
are equally applicable when making marmalade. Mainly, white granulated sugar
is used in the Philippines while making marmalades. To alleviate Mary, Queen of
Scots' seasickness, her physician combined orange juice with sugar to create the
first marmalade in the 16th century. This is how marmalade rose to the status of
a royal favorite. The first book on jam-making emerged in the United States, and
its authors were not among the immigrants who brought their recipes with them.
Foreign Studies

Marmalade

One of the most popular orange products is orange marmalade. A sugar

preserve is described as a "semisolid or gel-like product prepared from citrus
orange juice, puree and pulp together with one or more sweetening ingredients,
fine shreds of peel, and may contain suitable food grade pectin and acids," stated
by Rashid, F., Kausar, T., Mahmood Qureshi, T., Hussain, S., Nadeem, M., Aine,
A (2014). The primary purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the
physicochemical and flavor characteristics of orange marmalade fortified with
Aloe vera powder. The present study found that varying the amount of Aloe vera
powder added to orange marmalade dramatically altered the marmalade's
physicochemical and sensory qualities. Titratable acidity, moisture, protein, and
fiber contents were all shown to increase with increased Aloe vera powder
concentration in orange marmalade. In contrast, pH, Brix, and fat levels were
observed to drop.

To make marmalade, defrosted peels were blended with water in a high-

speed blender, as stated by Estaji, M., Mohammadi-Moghaddam, T., Gholizade-
Eshan, L., Firoozzare, A., & Hooshmand-Dalir, M.-A.-R. (2020). The black plum
peel puree was then separated from the rest of the mixture using filtration. The
sugar syrup used to make the marmalade was made by dissolving 75% sugar in
water until the solution reached a concentration of 70°Brix. After that, it was
cooked with a pureed mixture. Pectin was added with 25% sugar and citric acid
when the mixture reached 60°Brix, and the cooking procedure was prolonged
until 65-70°Brix and pH = 2.8-3.5. After the marmalade had been cooled, it was
placed in glass containers and left at room temperature (25°C 2) for at least 24
hours to allow gelation. Plum puree (at 40, 50, and 40 percent) and pectin (at 0.3,
0.4, 0.5, and 0.6 percent) made up the other black plum peel marmalade
ingredients.

Marmalade is a type of fruit spread made from the juice and peel of citrus
fruits. It is usually made with oranges but can also be made with lemons,
grapefruits, or limes. Marmalade is typically made with sugar and water and is
often flavored with spices such as cinnamon, cloves, or ginger. Marmalade is a
popular spread for toast and biscuits and can also be used in baking or as a
topping for ice cream. It is also a popular ingredient in cocktails and can be used
to make marmalade vodka or gin. Marmalade is a versatile fruit spread that can
be used in many different ways. It is a perfect way to add a small amount of
sweetness to breakfast or snack time.

The juice and peel of citrus fruits are combined with sugar and water, then
cooked to create the fruit preserve known as marmalade. Citrus fruits such as
lemons, limes, oranges, grapefruits, and possibly even other citrus fruits can be
used to make them. Oranges—sweet, bitter, or sour—can be used to make
marmalade. The peel contributes to the characteristically bitter taste of the
marmalade.

The Portuguese word marmelada, which translates to "quince preserve,"

is whence we get our English word "marmalade." In addition to being used to
make marmalade, quince is a type of citrus fruit. Quince can also be used to
make jam. The fruit peel, juice, sugar, and water are generally brought to a boil to
make marmalade. After that, the mixture is brought to a boil and allowed to
simmer until it becomes thick enough to be stored in jars. It may spread
marmalade on bread or toast, which also serves as a filling for baked goods like
cakes and pastries.

Calamansi is a variety of citrus fruit frequently used in the production of

marmalade in the Philippines. Additionally, mango, pineapple, and a few other
fruits are utilized in its production. Anyone can make marmalade at home or buy
it already produced in supermarkets. One can also get it online and at local
grocery stores.

Corn Cob
 The country of Brazil, which boasts the world's highest rate of biodiversity,
relies heavily on corn as an agricultural commodity and has a problem with
where to properly dispose of the forty percent or more of garbage that comes
from corn cobs. Since the cob is typically obtained as a byproduct of the corn
business and has no precise application, it is typically discarded as waste after
harvest. Brazil produces over 180 kilograms of corn cob for every metric ton of
processed maize, with only about 25 percent of this residue's mass being put to
good use. Compared to other supports and materials used for enzyme
immobilization, the CC support displays slightly different physicochemical
features. Corn cob, like all lignocellulosic materials, varies in the amounts of
cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and other components it contains based on
environmental and agronomic factors such as soil type, growing conditions,
harvest time, and processing methods. The corn cob is compact because it must
hold the maize grains, yet it is not the primary structural component of the plant.
Because of this, the lignin content of this residual biomass is lower than that of
woody vegetables or other biomasses like sugarcane. Like coconut fiber, where
laccase was immobilized via the work of Coelho et al., 2012 [54], the surface of
this biomass is smooth, and there is no evidence of pore size. Since our group's
goal was to establish a straightforward protocol that required no complicated
functionalizations or pre-treatments, we decided to investigate the corn cob as a
potential immobilization medium for laccases because this enzyme is also
relatively more minor than other enzymes of industrial appreciation, such as
lipases.
Foreign Literature

Corn cob or corn cobs are plants developed explicitly for their large size
and high starch content. The term "corn" refers not to the plants but to their
grains that grow on the cob. In Europe, where the crop originated, corn cobs are
used in many different ways, from baking pieces of bread to smoking meats and
vegetables. Locally, corn cobs have been widely accepted and utilized in the
making of Marmalade because of the unique taste it imparts to the Marmalade,
their high fiber content, and their availability.

Marmalade is a jam made from citrus fruits. The most popular

marmalades are made from oranges. Other fruits, such as apples, lemons, and
grapefruits, can also be used to make Marmalade (Nijhuis et al., n.a.). Adding
corn cobs to these ingredients makes the Marmalade more nutritious while
imparting a unique taste. In addition, corn cob provides dietary fiber and is an
essential source of carbohydrates in the diet (Mpofu et al., 2014). Marmalade
made from corn cob can be used as a daily diet. Besides, studies have found
that Marmalade made from corn cob has deficient toxicity levels and can be
safely consumed by humans.

Various studies have acknowledged the increased use and acceptability of

corn cobs as an ingredient in making Marmalade in the United States. According
to Lago et al. (2014), corn cobs have been commonly used in making
Marmalade, even though they have been found to have an abysmal utilization
rate as an ingredient in Marmalade because of their lesser availability and low
demand. Ngadze et al. (2017) concur that corn ingredients are increasingly used
in traditionally processing fruit syrups to improve their nutritional content.

Sweet corn cob, an extract of sweet corn processing, is rich in fiber

content and ferulic acid. According to Lau et al. (2021), these ingredients improve
Marmalade's acid content, texture, color, and other physical characteristics.
Besides, Bulent (2006) noted that Marmalade made from sweet corn cob has a
low pH value and is said to give a sulfury flavor and a sour taste. In addition, the
nutritional content of corn cob-added Marmalade is widely reported in different
studies to be low in fat but high in dietary fiber.

According to Z. H. Sikorski, marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the

juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. It can be made from
lemons, limes, grapefruits, and oranges. The term marmalade is not precise, and
regional variations are common. Generally, the fruit is peeled and then cut into
small pieces before being boiled with sugar and water. Adding pectin or other
ingredients, such as gelatin or corn syrup, may be used to thicken the mixture.
The mixture is then placed into sterilized jars and sealed.

According to Linda Ziedrich, the word marmalade comes from the

Portuguese word marmelada. Marmalade was initially referred to as a quince
preserve and later meant any fruit preserve. The word marmalade was first used
in English in the fifteenth century. Marmalade is also a type of candy made of
sugar and various fruits. In the United States, marmalade is often made with
Florida oranges.

According to Z. H. Sikorski, The marmalade is a fruit preserve made from

the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. It can be made from
lemons, limes, grapefruits, and oranges. The term marmalade is not precise, and
regional variations are common. Generally, the fruit is peeled and then cut into
small pieces before being boiled with sugar and water. Adding pectin or other
ingredients, such as gelatin or corn syrup, may be used to thicken the mixture.
The mixture is then placed into sterilized jars and sealed.

According to Linda Ziedrich, the word marmalade comes from the

Portuguese word marmelada. Marmalade was initially referred to as a quince
preserve and later came to mean any fruit preserve. The word marmalade was
first used in English in the fifteenth century. Marmalade is also a type of candy
made of sugar and various fruits. In the United States, marmalade is often made
with Florida oranges.
Local Literature

According to Panlasang Pinoy (2015), marmalade is a fruit preserve made

from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. It can be made
from lemons, limes, grapefruits, and oranges. The term marmalade is not
precise, and regional variations are common. In the Philippines, marmalade is
often made with calamansi or kalamansi. According to Philippine Food
Composition Tables (2008), corn cob is a good source of dietary fiber. It is also a
good source of vitamins and minerals such as vitamin B6, niacin, thiamin,
phosphorus, and manganese.

Corn Cob is the core of corn cob and the end of an ear of corn. It
comprises a rigid, fibrous substance called "cob bran" and the pith. Corn cobs
are used in food preparation and as fuel. Corn cobs are used in food preparation
and as fuel. Corn cobs are used as fuel in some places. This is because corn
cobs are high in cellulose, making them a good energy source. Corn cob is solid
biomass made from maize (Ahsan, M., Asif, R., Wasi, N., Tariq, S., Fawad, S.,
Ejaz, T., and Raza, R., 2022).

The corn cob marmalade is a food product from corn cobs and other
ingredients. The main ingredient in corn cob marmalade is corn cob. Other
ingredients include sugar, corn syrup, pectin, and acid. The marmalade is made
by cooking the corn cobs in water with sugar and other ingredients. The cooked
corn cobs are then mashed and strained. The marmalade is then canned and
stored (Ahsan, M., Asif, R., Wasi, N., Tariq, S., Fawad, S., Ejaz, T., and Raza,
R., 2022).

Corn cobs are a particular plant for their size and high starch content. Not
the plants themselves, but the grains that develop on the cob are called "corn."
Corn cobs are utilized in various ways in Europe, where the crop is native,
including baking bread and smoking meat and vegetables. Due to the distinctive
flavor, it gives the Marmalade, the high fiber content, and its accessibility locally,
corn cobs are generally accepted and used in the production of Marmalade.
 Jam prepared from citrus fruits is called Marmalade. Oranges are used to
make the most widely consumed marmalades. Marmalade can also be made
with other fruits, such as apples, lemons, and grapefruits (Nijhuis et al., 1998).
Corn cobs are added to these components to increase the Marmalade's
nutritional value while also giving it a distinctive flavor. Additionally, maize cobs
provide a significant source of carbs and nutritional fiber (Mpofu et al., 2014).
Anyone can incorporate corn cob marmalade into their everyday diet. In addition,
research has shown that Marmalade prepared from corn cobs has deficient
toxicity levels and is safe for human consumption.

Studies have shown that corn cobs are being used and accepted more
frequently in the United States as a component of Marmalade. According to Lago
et al. (2014), even though it was discovered that corn cobs had a meager
utilization rate as an ingredient in Marmalade due to their limited availability and
low demand, they have been widely used in the production of Marmalade.
According to Ngadze et al. (2017), corn components are added more frequently
to enhance the nutritional value of fruit syrups throughout their conventional
processing.

It has been discovered that the sweet corn cob, an extract from sweet
corn processing, contains a high amount of ferulic acid and fiber. According to
Lau et al. (2021), these components enhance the Marmalade's acid content,
texture, color, and other physical properties. Additionally, Marmalade prepared
from sweet corn cob has a low pH value and is considered to have a sulfury
flavor and a sour taste, according to Bulent (2006). Additionally, numerous
studies have widely reported that the nutritional value of Marmalade with corn
cobs added is low in fat but high in dietary fiber.

Foreign studies

1. You may make marmalade using corn cobs as an ingredient.

2. Corn cobs may provide marmalade sweetness, structure, and bulk.

3. Corn cobs may also be used to help the marmalade thicken and solidify.

4. The taste and texture of marmalade may be enhanced by adding corn cobs.

5. Corn cobs may also give marmalade more nutrients.

6. You may add corn cobs to make marmalade appealing to kids.

7. Corn cobs may assist in lowering the price of marmalade.

8. Marmalade may be made more shelf-stable by using corn cobs.

9. Adding corn cobs to the marmalade may enhance the color.

10. Corn cobs may aid in extending the shelf life of marmalade.

Regional Studies

1. You may make marmalade using corn cobs as an ingredient.

2. Corn cobs may provide marmalade sweetness, structure, and bulk.

3. Corn cobs may also be used to help the marmalade thicken and solidify.

4. The taste and texture of marmalade may be enhanced by adding corn cobs.

5. Corn cobs may also give marmalade more nutrients.

6. You may add corn cobs to make marmalade appealing to kids.

7. Corn cobs may assist in lowering the price of marmalade.

8. Marmalade may be made more shelf-stable by using corn cobs.

9. Adding corn cobs to the marmalade may enhance the color.

10. Corn cobs may aid in extending the shelf life of marmalade.